Dr. Tove Skutnabb-Kangas University of Roskilde, Denmark Åbo Akademi University, Vasa, Finland

""Linguistic human rights and linguistic democracy Linguistic human rights and linguistic democracy in the Nordic countries (and the rest of the world) - in the Nordic countries (and the rest of the world) -

fleeting entities?”fleeting entities?”

Dr. Tove Skutnabb-KangasUniversity of Roskilde, Denmark

Åbo Akademi University, Vasa, Finland

http://www.ruc.dk/~tovesk/;

[email protected]

Guidelines for USA foreign policy from 1948 Bret-ton Woods, to Guidelines for USA foreign policy from 1948 Bret-ton Woods, to World Bank & IMF to WTO. George Kennan, main USA BW World Bank & IMF to WTO. George Kennan, main USA BW negotiator in 1948 negotiator in 1948

’We have 50% of the world’s wealth, but only 6,3% of its population. In this situation, our real job in the coming period is to devise a pattern of relationships which permit us to maintain this position of disparity. To do so, we have to dispense with all sentimentality ... we should cease thinking about human rights, the raising of living standards, and democratisation’

Link 1944 – 2002: Link 1944 – 2002: USA unilateral domination USA unilateral domination

Bretton Woods 1944, UN Monetary and Financial Conference. Goal: to make everybody embrace the Unites States' 'elementary economic axiom ... that prosperity has no fixed limits', as expressed by the president of the conference, the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau, in his opening speech

Hervé Kempf (2002): the fact that the USA ‘has stepped up its military spending while rejecting multilateral agreements is no mere coincidence. There is a structural link between the two. This is because, in the US administration's view, the American way of life, which is based on a very high level of consumption, is not something that should be called into question.’

Global domination of USA corporate, national interests is Global domination of USA corporate, national interests is legitimate… they are legitimate… they are universal!!universal!!

The U.S. Council for Foreign Relations, 1944: ‘a global economy, dominated by U.S. corporate interests’

… the USA ‘would need to dominate economically and militarily’ because ‘the U.S. national interest required free access to the markets and raw materials of this area’ (Korten 1996: 21).

Condoleezza Rice, President G.W. Bush’s foreign affairs advisor, in Campaign 2000. Promoting the national interest:

’The rest of the world is best served by the USA pursuing its own interests because American values are universal’

USA savings: 19 billion/year 1USA savings: 19 billion/year 1

Most European countries teach a lot of foreign languages in schools; Britain and the USA do not.

The savings (as compared to Europe) because of the very limited foreign language teaching in the USA,

with some 38 million pupils in elementary and secondary schools, are minimally around

19 billion dollars per year (Grin & Sfreddo 1997, Grin 2003).

They benefit, we pay.

USA savings: 19 billion/year 2USA savings: 19 billion/year 2

These savings are made possible because "people in the rest of the world are willing to devote time,

money and effort in learning […] English“ (Grin 2003).

And obviously the USA can then invest this saved money (and time) into some other human-capital-

enhancing activity that gives their students an edge.

Pierre Bourdieu: globalisation is Pierre Bourdieu: globalisation is ideological universalisation of particular modelsideological universalisation of particular models

France, glorifying the French society as ‘the presumed incarnation of the Rights of Man’ saw ‘the inheritance of the French Revolution … as the model for all possible revolutions’. Building on this example, Bourdieu (2001: 96-97) describes today's globalisation as ‘a pseudo-concept that is both descriptive and prescriptive, which has replaced “modernisation”, that was long used in the social sciences in the USA as a euphemistic way of imposing a naively ethnocentric evolutionary model by means of which different societies were classified according to their distance from the economically most advanced society, i.e. American society. […]

Bourdieu: globalisation: the USA Bourdieu: globalisation: the USA universalising its own universalising its own particularity covertly as a universal modelparticularity covertly as a universal model

The word [globalisation] (and the model it expresses) incarnates the most accomplished form of the imperialism of the universal, which consists of one society [i.e. the USA] universalising its own particularity covertly as a universal model.’

Bourdieu (2001, 96-97), translation Robert Phillipson

Lykketoft, Kurdistan, Denmark and DANIDALykketoft, Kurdistan, Denmark and DANIDAIn his opening speech at the conference The Kurds: One

People - Four States - What Kind of Future? 26 May 2004 at the Danish Parliament, the former Foreign Minister Mogens Lykketoft, defended cultural communities as "fundamental part[s] of our lives as humans" and our duty to "protect the right to enjoy each our own culture, each history and each our language" (Lykketoft 2004: 5). Who could disagree?

He also claimed that "it is an infringement of the human rights when Kurds are denied the use of their mother tongue […] No matter whether it happens in Turkey, in Iraq, in Iran - or in Syria" (ibid.) and added, after listing some of the other crimes against Kurds, that "there is no excuse for these crimes. Only condemnation" (ibid.).

But when it happens Denmark…?

But when it happens Denmark… 1But when it happens Denmark… 1

Interestingly, Lykketoft did not mention or condemn the fact that Kurdish children are denied the right to use their mother tongue in Danish day care centers and schools. He did not tell the participants that it was his party, the Social Democrats, which, while in power, suggested that the teaching of immigrant and refugee minorities mother tongues should be abolished from schools and the children should have more Danish instead.

But when it happens Denmark… 2But when it happens Denmark… 2 It was one of Lykketoft’s party fellows (Svend Erik

Hermansen, Social Democrat Party, chair of the Board of Education and Culture in Høje Tåstrup) who uttered the following memorable words:

'It is self-evident that refugees who are only going to be in Denmark during a short period should maintain their mother tongue. But when one is born and has grown up in Denmark and will have one's whole existence here, then the mother tongue is Danish - full stop.' (Said to Berlingske Tidende, reported in Information 11 December 1995, p. 7; emphasis added).

Denmark supports ”ethnic communities” – Denmark supports ”ethnic communities” – but not in Denmark…but not in Denmark…

It is also interesting that DANIDA, the Danish development cooperation agency, supports the right of "ethnic communities" to organize on the basis of ethnicity, as something positive, in countries like Bolivia or Ecuador…

… while the same type of organization in Denmark (e.g. by Turks or Pakistanis) is called segregation and ghettoization.

Denmark supports bilingual education in Denmark supports bilingual education in Latin America – but not in Denmark…Latin America – but not in Denmark…

DANIDA also supports bilingual education in several Latin American countries, because it is a human right for children to develop the mother tongue and understand the language of instruction but also because it leads to better results in Spanish…

… while bilingual education for immigrant minorities does not exist in Denmark, not even in its most elementary early-exit transitional form. Children have no right to develop the mother tongue or understand the language of instruction, and better competence in Danish is attempted through methods which have never worked anywhere and are against all solid scientific evidence.

DenmarkDenmark: linguistic diversity is good - in other : linguistic diversity is good - in other countries - but in Denmark ”the hegemonic countries - but in Denmark ”the hegemonic status of the national language” prevails …status of the national language” prevails …

“Multilingual policies seem to contain […] contradictions, often trying to shore up national languages (especially against the threat of English) in the name of linguistic diversity but dampening linguistic diversity at the local level through the hegemonic status of the national language”

(Peter Ives 2004a: 42).

Claim 1Claim 1

We in the Nordic countries often construct glorifying images of ourselves as havens for democracy and human rights, as compared to the rest of the world. Our development cooperation and some of our roles in international politics as conflict mediators and even preventers strengthen the image of us as those who have more or less arrived - we are at the most developed end of several continua.

Question 1Question 1

How does this tally with our historical and present-day realities in terms of linguistic human rights

and linguistic democracy?

Imperialist assimilatory language policiesImperialist assimilatory language policies

We have a pedigree of imperialist assimilatory language policies towards

the Saami, in Finland, Norway, Swedenthe Inuits in Kalaallit Nunaat /Greenland

(Denmark) the Deaf in all Nordic countriesthe Romathe Finnish speakers in Norway and Sweden

CHANGES ?CHANGES ?

There are some big changes, though, mostly for the indigenous languages, Kalaallisut (Greenlandic) and the Saami languages, but to some extent also the Deaf and the Finnish speakers in Sweden and Norway. Very few changes have happened in relation to the Romany languages or languages of later immigrant minorities.

Language policies: Language policies: the Inuits in Kalaallit the Inuits in Kalaallit Nunaat/Greenland 1Nunaat/Greenland 1

Kalaallit is the plural form of kalaaleq, which means 'Greenlander'. The second word, Nunaat, means 'country'. In old sources the name inuit nunaat, country of the inuits was used. Greenland is the Norse name which Erik the Red gave the country around 985.

The Greenlandic flag was introduced in 1985, designedby the Greenlandic artist, Thue Christiansen. The flagshows the symbol of the rising sun over the polar ice,which stands for the return of the light and heat at mid-summer. The colors, red and white like the Danish national flag, are chosen to express Greenland's relations to Denmark and Scandinavia.


Greenland and the Faroe Islands are part of theKingdom of Denmark. All three areas have theDanish Royal Family, the Constitution, foreign policy,defence and the judicial system in common. BothGreenland and the Faroe Islands have two seats inthe Danish parliament. Each of the three areas hasits own language and its own flag. Both Greenlandand Faroe Islands have Home Rule.

Source. http://www.gh.gl/uk/facts/context.htm

Constitution


By Greenlandic law, Greenlandic is the official language.Greenlandic and Danish language may be used in politics and administration. Kalaallisut, Greenlandic,belongs to the East-inuit family of languages and isa polysyndetic language, which means that themeaning-forming sentence elements used in other words are fused into one word which may stand fora whole sentence. Danish is used extensively. English is the third language.Source. http://www.gh.gl/uk/facts/context.htm

Language

Language policies; Faroese (Denmark)

Section 11 of Act 137, 23 March 1948, on

Home Rule of the Faroe Islands:

”Faroese is recognized as the principal language,

but Danish is to be learnt well and carefully,

and Danish may be used as well as Faroese in

public affairs”.

Source: http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/EN/cadreprincipal.htm

Language policies: Language policies: the Saami, in the Saami, in Finland, Norway, SwedenFinland, Norway, SwedenToday there are some 50.000-100.00 Saami in the Nordic countries (plus

very few in Russia). Nobody knows the numbers.Probably around a third or fewer speak one of theten Saami languages. The legal situation is fairlygood in the Saami administrative areas in Norwayand Finland, less so in Sweden. Saami outside theseadministrative areas have very few rights. Thequestion is to what extent the revitalisation effortshave come too late for most of the Saami languages.

Assimilationist language policies: the Deaf 1Assimilationist language policies: the Deaf 1

Users of Sign languages have in all countries fewer language rights than users of all spoken languages.

Invisibilation is one of the big problems for Sign languages; they are often not thought of or counted when languages are listed, or when minority languages are granted some rights (no country has, for instance, signed the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages for any Sign language).

Assimilationist language policies: the Deaf 2Assimilationist language policies: the Deaf 2

Stigmatisation and deficiency-based theorising are other big problems for Sign languages; Signers are mostly treated as handicapped only, and as suffering from a deficiency, rather than being treated as a linguistic minority.

Enforced oralism in schools (being taught orally only, to the exclusion of Sign languages) and enforced “integration” (i.e. submersion) into hearing classrooms prevents Deaf students from learning the only language through which they can fully express themselves, a Sign language.

Positive Language policies: the Deaf 1Positive Language policies: the Deaf 1

Sign languages are mentioned in constitutions or similar documents and have some at least symbolic protection in a dozen countries (the Congo was the first country to mention them in the Constitution, Finland was the second).

From 2005 New Zealand Sign language will most probably be an official language in Aotearoa, on a par with English and Māori.

Positive Language policies: the Deaf 2Positive Language policies: the Deaf 2

There are teacher training programmes for teachers of the Deaf. The best one is in Finland, University of Jyväskylä, initiated and directed by Markku Jokinen (President of the World Federation of the Deaf). Entry requirement: native-like competence in (Finnish) Sign language and written Finnish. The aim of the 5-year programme is that teachers will be able to teach the whole comprehensive school curriculum through the medium of Sign language.

Imperialist assimilatory educational Imperialist assimilatory educational language policies towards Finnish language policies towards Finnish

speakers in Norway and Sweden and speakers in Norway and Sweden and Saami in SwedenSaami in Sweden

The Finnish speakers in Norway and Sweden (and the Saami in Sweden) have extremely few educational linguistic human rights – even when compared to the rights granted to minorities by other European Union member countries

Educational linguistic human Educational linguistic human rights, especially the right to rights, especially the right to

mother tongue medium education, mother tongue medium education, are among the most important are among the most important

rights for any minority.rights for any minority. Without them, a minority whose Without them, a minority whose children attend school, usually children attend school, usually

cannot reproduce itself as a cannot reproduce itself as a minority. It cannot integrate but is minority. It cannot integrate but is

forced to assimilate.forced to assimilate.

Claim 2Claim 2

Both indigenous peoples and most linguistic minorities in the Nordic countries still have to struggle to be granted, even on paper and still more in practice, some of those basic linguistic human rights that linguistic majorities take for granted for themselves.


Do we in the Nordic countries grant educational LHRs for indigenous peoples and linguistic minorities with our ratifications of recent

human rights instruments?

Human rights instruments with LHRs in Human rights instruments with LHRs in education for linguistic minoritieseducation for linguistic minorities

The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, 1998

The Hague Recommendation Regarding the Education Rights of National Minorities from OSCE's High Commissioner on National Minorities, 1996 (for interpretations, see also the UN Human Rights Committee’s General Comment on ICCPR Art. 27, 1984)

UNESCO’ Position Paper Education in a multilingual world, 2003

Who is included and excluded in the Who is included and excluded in the (hard or soft law) human rights (hard or soft law) human rights

instruments mentioned?instruments mentioned?

The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, 1998, explicitly excludes immigrant minority languages. No country has ratified it for any Sign language, even when Sign languages fulfill all the requirements for being included.

Who is included and excluded in the Who is included and excluded in the (hard or soft law) human rights (hard or soft law) human rights

instruments mentioned? instruments mentioned?

The Hague Recommendation Regarding the Education Rights of National Minorities from OSCE's High Commissioner on National Minorities, 1996 (for interpretations, see also the UN Human Rights Committee’s General Comment on ICCPR Art. 27, 1984)

UNESCO’ Position Paper Education in a multilingual world, 2003

BOTH (SHOULD) APPLY ALSO TO IMMIGRANT MINORITIES AND SIGNERS

European Charter, Education Article 8, European Charter, Education Article 8, choices for primary education (b)choices for primary education (b)

i to make available primary education in the relevant regional or minority languages, or

ii to make available a substantial part of primary education in the relevant regional or minority languages; or

iii to provide, within primary education, for the teaching of the relevant regional or minority languages as an integral part of the curriculum; or

iv to apply one of the measures provided for under i to iii above at least to those pupils whose families so request and whose number is considered sufficient.

Choices made in Education Article 8 for preschool (a)Choices made in Education Article 8 for preschool (a)

i ii iii iv

NorwaySaami X

-

SwedenSaami, Finnish

& Meänkieli

X

-

FinlandSaami

Swedish

X

X

-

UKWelsh

Scottish-Gaelic

Irish

X

X

X

-

Choices made in Education Article 8 for primary school (b)Choices made in Education Article 8 for primary school (b)

i ii iii iv

NorwaySaami X


& Meänkieli X

FinlandSaami

Swedish

X

X

UKWelsh

Scottish-Gaelic

Irish

X

X

X

Choices made in Education Article 8 for secondary school (c)Choices made in Education Article 8 for secondary school (c)

i ii iii iv

NorwaySaami X


& Meänkieli X

FinlandSaami

Swedish

X

X

UKWelsh

Scottish-Gaelic

Irish

X

X

X

Choices made in Education Article 8 for technical & vocational Choices made in Education Article 8 for technical & vocational education (d)education (d)

i ii iii iv

NorwaySaami X


& Meänkieli X

FinlandSaami

Swedish X

X

UKWelsh

Scottish-Gaelic

Irish

X

X

X

Choices made in Education Article 8 for university and higher Choices made in Education Article 8 for university and higher education (e)education (e)

i ii iii iv

NorwaySaami X

-


& Meänkieli

X

-

FinlandSaami

Swedish X

X

-

UKWelsh

Scottish-Gaelic

Irish

X

X

X

-

How have these (few) rights How have these (few) rights been formulated in the HRs been formulated in the HRs

instruments? instruments?

Do they grant firm rights?Do they grant firm rights?

Binding educational Binding educational clauses of human rights clauses of human rights instruments have more instruments have more opt-outs, modifications, opt-outs, modifications, alternatives, claw-backs, alternatives, claw-backs, etc. than other Articlesetc. than other Articles

Council of Europe’sCouncil of Europe’s Framework Convention for the Framework Convention for the

Protection of National MinoritiesProtection of National Minorities andand

The The European Charter for Regional European Charter for Regional

or Minority Languagesor Minority Languages,,

both in force since 1998both in force since 1998. .

Council of Europe’sCouncil of Europe’s Framework Convention Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minoritiesfor the Protection of National Minorities

In areas inhabited by persons belonging to national minorities traditionally or in substantial numbers, if there is sufficient demand, the parties shall endeavour to ensure, as far as possible and within the framework of their education systems, that persons belonging to those minorities have adequate opportunities for being taught in the minority language or for receiving instruction in this language (emphases added).

Framework Convention for the Protection of Framework Convention for the Protection of

National MinoritiesNational Minorities The The European Charter for Regional or Minority LanguagesEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages::

‘as far as possible’ ‘within the framework of [the State's] education

systems’, ‘appropriate measures’ ‘adequate opportunities’ ‘if there is sufficient demand’ ‘substantial numbers’ ‘pupils who so wish in a number considered sufficient’ ‘if the number of users of a regional or minority

language justifies it’.

Claim 3Claim 3

In relation to immigrated minorities, there is no linguistic democracy whatsoever.

Linguistic genocide (defined in terms of the United Nations Genocide Convention, Articles 2b) and 2e) continues in schools


Can what happens in Nordic schools in the education of immigrated minorities, be seen as linguistic genocide (defined in terms of the United Nations Genocide Convention, Articles 2b and 2e)?

UN International Convention on the UN International Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (E793, 1948)Crime of Genocide (E793, 1948)

has five definitions of genocidehas five definitions of genocide..

Two of them fit today’s indigenous & Two of them fit today’s indigenous & minority educationminority education

Article II(e): 'forcibly

transferring children of the group to another group'; and

Article II(b): 'causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group'; (emphasis added).

Human Rights disappearing? Denmark & forcible transfer of Human Rights disappearing? Denmark & forcible transfer of children (Genocide Convention)children (Genocide Convention)

Integration Chair of the governing party Venstre, Irene Simonsen suggests in an interview that ethnic minority children growing up in Muslim homes should be forcibly taken away from their homes, to be brought up by Danes. The way their parents bring them up, in isolation from the Danish society, cannot be accepted in a democratic society.

Morning News on Danish Radio, 15th September 2004

My comment: This would violate the UN Genocide Convention; there have been several serious suggestions by politicians in Denmark that HR conventions need to be ”reconsidered and modernised”.

Agents of linguistic genocideAgents of linguistic genocide

Educational systems and mass media are (the most) important direct agents in linguistic and cultural genocide. Behind them are the

world’s economic, techno-military and political systems.

What exactly do What exactly do research results say, research results say,

then?then?

Summing up two large-scale well-Summing up two large-scale well-controlled studiescontrolled studies

If indigenous or minority children who If indigenous or minority children who speak their mother tongue at home, are to speak their mother tongue at home, are to

become bilingual, and learn the become bilingual, and learn the dominant/majority language well, adominant/majority language well, a

common sensecommon sense approach would suggest approach would suggest

thatthat (1)(1) early startearly start, and, and (2)(2) maximum maximum exposureexposure to the dominant language would to the dominant language would

bebe goodgood ideas, like they are for learning ideas, like they are for learning many other things - practice makes many other things - practice makes

perfect.perfect.

In fact, both are In fact, both are falsefalse..

What we have isWhat we have is

an an early start early start fallacyfallacy, and , and a a maximum exposure maximum exposure fallacyfallacy

In fact…In fact…

… the longer indigenous and minority children in a low-status position have their own language as the main

medium of teaching, the better they also become in the dominant language, provided, of course, that they have good teaching in it, preferably given by bilingual teachers.

Ramirez et al. study, 1991, 2,352 studentsRamirez et al. study, 1991, 2,352 students

Group Medium of education Results

English only

English Low levels of English and school achievement; likely not to catch up

Early-exit

transi-tional

Spanish 1-2 years;

then all English

Fairly low levels of English and school achievement; not likely to catch up

Late-exit transi-tional

Spanish 4-6 years; then all English

Best results; likely to catch up with native speakers of English


The common sense approach would suggest that the ones who started early and had most exposure to English, the English-only students, would have the best results in English, and in mathematics and in educational achievement in general, and that the late-exit students who started late with English-medium education and consequently had least exposure to English, would do worst in English etc.


In fact the results were exactly the opposite. The late-exit students got the best results, and they were the only ones who had a chance to achieve native levels of English later on, whereas the other two groups were, after an initial boost, falling more and more behind, and were judged as probably never being able to catch up to native English-speaking peers in English or general school achievement.

Thomas & Collier, 210,000 students 1Thomas & Collier, 210,000 students 1

the largest longitudinal study in the world on the education of minority students,

with altogether over 210,000 students, including in-depth studies in both urban and rural settings in the

USA, included full MTM programmes in a minority language, dual-medium or two-way bilingual programmes, where both a

minority and majority language (mainly Spanish and English) were used as medium of instruction,

transitional bilingual education programmes, ESL (English as a second language) programmes, and so-called mainstream (i.e. English-only submersion) programmes.


Across all the models, those students who reached the highest levels of both bilingualism and school achievement were the ones where the children's mother tongue was the main medium of education for the most extended period of time.

This length of education in the L1 (language 1, first language), was the strongest predictor of both the children's competence and gains in L2, English, and of their school achievement.


Thomas & Collier state (2002: 7):

“the strongest predictor of L2 student achievement is the amount of formal L1 schooling. The more L1 grade-level schooling, the higher L2 achievement.”

Ramirez and Thomas & Collier 1Ramirez and Thomas & Collier 1

The length of mother tongue medium education was in both Ramirez' and Thomas & Collier's studies more important than any other factor in predicting the educational success of bilingual students.

It was also much more important than socio-economic status, something extremely vital in relation to oppressed indigenous students.

Ramirez and Thomas & Collier 2Ramirez and Thomas & Collier 2

The worst results, were with students in regular submersion programmes

where the students' mother tongues (L1s) were either not supported at all or where they only had some mother-tongue-as-a-subject instruction. This is known as a subtractive learning

situation.

There are hundreds of smaller studies There are hundreds of smaller studies showing similar conclusions,showing similar conclusions,

with with many different many different types of groupstypes of groups

and many and many languageslanguages,, and from many and from many countriescountries..

And the knowledge is And the knowledge is not newnot new……

All these studies show bothAll these studies show both the the positivepositive results of results of additive additive

mother tongue medium mother tongue medium maintenance educationmaintenance education, and the , and the

mostly mostly negativenegative results of results of subtractive dominant-language subtractive dominant-language

medium educationmedium education..

Dominant-language-only Dominant-language-only submersion programmes “are submersion programmes “are

widely attested as the least effective widely attested as the least effective educationally for minority language educationally for minority language

students” students” (May & Hill 2003: 14, study commisioned by the Maori (May & Hill 2003: 14, study commisioned by the Maori

Section of the Aotearoa/New Zealand Ministry of Section of the Aotearoa/New Zealand Ministry of Education).Education).

If education If education mainly through the mainly through the medium of their own languages, at medium of their own languages, at

least during the first 6-8 yearsleast during the first 6-8 years, is what , is what research recommends for indigenous research recommends for indigenous

and minority children, is this how and minority children, is this how immigrant minority children are being immigrant minority children are being taught in the Nordic countries today?taught in the Nordic countries today?

NO!NO!

Most immigrant minority children in the Most immigrant minority children in the Nordic countries are in Nordic countries are in submersionsubmersion

programmes, with the programmes, with the wrong medium of wrong medium of teachingteaching. .

They are taught They are taught SUBTRACTIVELYSUBTRACTIVELY..

SubtractiveSubtractive versus versus additiveadditive 1 1

SUBTRACTIVE teaching through the medium of a dominant language replaces the children’s mother tongue. It subtracts from their linguistic repertoir.

SubtractiveSubtractive versus versus additiveadditive 2 2

ADDITIVE teaching through the medium of the mother tongue, with good teaching of the dominant language as a second language, adds to children’s linguistic repertoir and makes them HIGH LEVEL BILINGUAL OR MULTILINGUAL. They learn both their own language and other languages well.

Research results are Research results are NOTNOT being implemented.being implemented.

Nordic states do Nordic states do NOTNOT act in a act in a rational way.rational way.

There are There are very large gapsvery large gaps betweenbetween

theory and practice, research and

implementation, and rhetoric and realities.

To qualify as genocide, an act has to be To qualify as genocide, an act has to be intentional. Have states had an intention tointentional. Have states had an intention to

'forcibly transfer children of the group to another group'; and

'cause serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group' ?

YES, unfortunately THEY HAVEto members of the group'

Have the states known? 1Have the states known? 1

The negative results of subtractive teaching have been known already at the end of the 1800s. States and educational authorities (including churches) have had the knowledge.

”Modern” research results about how indigenous and minority education should be organised have been available for at least 50 years, since the UNESCO expert group book ”The use of vernacular languages in education” (1953).

Board of Indian Commissioners 1880: 77Board of Indian Commissioners 1880: 77

…first teaching the children to read and write in their own language enables them to master English with more ease when they take up that study…

…a child beginning a four years’ course with the study of Dakota would be further advanced in English at the end of the term than one who had not been instructed in Dakota.

Board of Indian Commissioners 1880: 98Board of Indian Commissioners 1880: 98

…it is true that by beginning in the Indian tongue and then putting the students into English studies our missionaries say that after three or four years their English is better than it would have been if they had begun entirely with English.

Have the states known? 2Have the states known? 2

If states, despite this, and despite very positive results from properly conducted additive teaching, have continued and continue to

offer subtractive education, with no alternatives, knowing that the results are likely to be negative and thus to 'forcibly transfer children of the group to another

group'; and 'cause serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group'

this must be seen as intentional.

Final question 4Final question 4

Are there arguments for why the states are in fact working against their own interests by not granting full democratic linguistic human rights to all residents, and supporting these rights globally?

What kind of positive openings might there be?

FOUR REASONS FOR LINGUISTIC HUMAN FOUR REASONS FOR LINGUISTIC HUMAN RIGHTS IN EDUCATION ANDRIGHTS IN EDUCATION AND MAINTENANCE OF MAINTENANCE OF

ALL THE WORLD’S LANGUAGESALL THE WORLD’S LANGUAGESReason 1Reason 1

Prevent linguistic genocide

But are there (other) reasons for But are there (other) reasons for maintaining minorities and minority maintaining minorities and minority languages? Are there reasons for languages? Are there reasons for maintaining the world’s linguistic maintaining the world’s linguistic

diversity?diversity? Would it not be better if all of us spoke Would it not be better if all of us spoke

just a few languages – or just one?just a few languages – or just one?

FOUR REASONS FOR LINGUISTIC HUMAN FOUR REASONS FOR LINGUISTIC HUMAN RIGHTS IN EDUCATION ANDRIGHTS IN EDUCATION AND MAINTENANCE OF MAINTENANCE OF

ALL THE WORLD’S LANGUAGESALL THE WORLD’S LANGUAGESReason 2Reason 2

English is not enough

Supply and demand theories Supply and demand theories predict:predict:

When many people possess what earlier was a scarce commodity (near-native English), the

price goes down. The value of ’perfect’ English skills as a financial incentive

decreases substantially when a high proportion of a country’s or a region’s or the world’s

population know English well

Price

Quantity

Supply

Demand

P*

Q*

Figure 1. The market diagram (Grin 2003: 26)

Price

Quantity

Supply

Demand

P*

Q*

Figure 2. The market for high levels of English; what happens when supply is higher than demand? Consequences for market equilibrium

2004?

2020?

When the supply (number of people with ”good” English) goes up,the price (its usefulness for individuals on the job market) goes down

FOUR REASONS FOR LINGUISTIC HUMAN RIGHTS IN FOUR REASONS FOR LINGUISTIC HUMAN RIGHTS IN EDUCATION ANDEDUCATION AND MAINTENAN-CE OF ALL THE WORLD’S MAINTENAN-CE OF ALL THE WORLD’S

LANGUAGESLANGUAGES

Reason 3Reason 3

Creativity and new ideas are the main assets (cultural capital) in a knowledge society and

a prerequisite for humankind to adapt to change and to find solutions to the catastrophes of our own making.

Multilingualism enhances creativity, monolingualism and homogenisation kill it.

IndustrialIndustrial KnowledgeKnowledgesocietysociety societysociety

Main product: commodities

Those who control access to raw materials and own the other prerequisites and means of production, do well

• Main product: knowledge, ideas

• Those who have access to diverse knowledges, diverse information, diverse ideas: creativity, do well

In knowledge societies uniformity is In knowledge societies uniformity is a handicapa handicap

Some uniformity might have promoted aspects of industrialisation

In post-industrial knowledge societies uniformity will be a definite handicap

Creativity, innovation, investment - results of additive Creativity, innovation, investment - results of additive teaching and multilingualismteaching and multilingualism

• Creativity precedes innovation, also in commodity production.

• Investment follows creativity.

• Multilingualism can enhance creativity.

• High-level multilinguals as a group often do better than corresponding monolinguals on tests measuring several aspects of 'intelligence', creativity, divergent thinking, cognitive flexibility, etc.

• Additive teaching can lead to high-level multilingualism

What are the costs involved in What are the costs involved in people not understanding the people not understanding the

messages (also in education!) and messages (also in education!) and not being able to fully utilise their not being able to fully utilise their

potential and creativity?potential and creativity?

FOUR REASONS FOR LINGUISTIC HUMAN RIGHTS IN FOUR REASONS FOR LINGUISTIC HUMAN RIGHTS IN EDUCATION AND MAINTENAN-CE OF ALL THE WORLD’S EDUCATION AND MAINTENAN-CE OF ALL THE WORLD’S

LANGUAGESLANGUAGES Reason 4Reason 4

• Linguistic diversity and biodiversity are correlationally and causally related.

• Knowledge about how to maintain biodiversity is encoded in small languages.

• Through killing them we kill the prerequisites for maintaining biodiversity.

Ecological diversity essential for long-Ecological diversity essential for long-term planetary survivalterm planetary survival

Uniformity can endanger a species by providing inflexibility and

unadaptability. As languages and cultures die, the testimony of human intellectual achievement is lessened.

(Baker 2001)

Strongest ecosystems are most diverse Strongest ecosystems are most diverse (Baker 2001)(Baker 2001)

In the language of ecology, the strongest ecosystems are those that are the most diverse. Diversity is directly related to stability; variety is important for long-term survival. Our success on this planet has been due to an ability to adapt to different kinds of environment over thousands of years. Such ability is born out of diversity. Thus language and cultural diversity maximises chances of human success and adaptability .’

(Baker 2001)

The role of indigenous peoplesThe role of indigenous peoples

Most of the world’s megabiodiversity is in areas under the management or guardianship of indigenous peoples

Most of the world’s linguistic diversity resides in the small languages of indigenous peoples

Much of the detailed knowledge of how to maintain biodiversity is encoded in the languages of indigenous peoples

Indigenous peoples are/have the key Indigenous peoples are/have the key to our planetary survivalto our planetary survival

Indigenous self-determination is a necessary prerequisite

for the survival

of the planet.

Biocultural diversityBiocultural diversity (= biodiversity + linguistic diversity + (= biodiversity + linguistic diversity +

cultural diversity)cultural diversity) is essential for long-term planetary is essential for long-term planetary

survivalsurvival because it enhances creativity and because it enhances creativity and

adaptability and thus stability.adaptability and thus stability.

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY DISAPPEARS MUCH FASTER THAN LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY DISAPPEARS MUCH FASTER THAN BIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITY

Estimates for extinct / seriously endangered Estimates for extinct / seriously endangered speciesspecies and and languageslanguages

around the year 2100around the year 2100

ESTIMATES Biological species Languages

‘Optimistic realistic‘ 2% 50%

‘Pessimistic realistic‘ 20% 90%

Today we are killing biocultural Today we are killing biocultural diversity diversity

faster than ever before faster than ever before in human historyin human history






Mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians = Mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians = higher vertebrates higher vertebrates

All these animals are higher vertebrates

Endemic languages & vertebrates, top 25 countries (Harmon)Endemic languages & vertebrates, top 25 countries (Harmon)

Endemic languages Number Endemic higher vertebrates

Number

1. PAPUA NEW GUINEA 847 1. AUSTRALIA 1.346

2. INDONESIA 655 2. MEXICO 761

3. Nigeria 376 3. BRAZIL 725

4. INDIA 309 4. INDONESIA 673

5. AUSTRALIA 261 5. Madagascar 537

6. MEXICO 230 6. PHILIPPINES 437

7. CAMEROON 201 7. INDIA 373

8. BRAZIL 185 8. PERU 332

9. ZAIRE 158 9. COLOMBIA 330

10. PHILIPPINES 153 10. Ecuador 294

11. USA 143 11. USA 284

12. Vanuatu 105 12. CHINA 256

13. TANZANIA 101 13. PAPUA NEW GUINEA 203

14. Sudan 97 14. Venezuela 186

15. Malaysia 92 15. Argentina 168

16. ETHIOPIA 90 16. Cuba 152

17. CHINA 77 17. South Africa 146

18. PERU 75 18. ZAIRE 134

19. Chad 74 19. Sri Lanka 126

20. Russia 71 20. New Zealand 120

21. SOLOMON ISLANDS 69 21. TANZANIA 113

22. Nepal 68 22. Japan 112

23. COLOMBIA 55 23. CAMEROON 105

24. Côte d'Ivoire 51 24. SOLOMON ISLANDS 101

25. Canada 47 25. ETHIOPIA 26. Somalia

88 88

Languages and flowering plantsLanguages and flowering plants

There is also a high correla-tion between languages and flower-ing plants; a region often has many of both, or few of both

(David Harmon)

Languages and butterflies,Languages and butterflies,also a high correlationalso a high correlation

Where there are many languages there are also often many butterflies…

(David Harmon)






ConclusionsConclusions Oviedo & Maffi 2002: 2 Oviedo & Maffi 2002: 2

Correlations between Global 200 ecoregions as reservoirs of high biodiversity and areas of concentration of human diversity are clearly very significant, and unequivocally stress the need to involve indigenous and traditional peoples in ecoregional conservation work.

Furthermore, there is evidence from many parts of the world that healthy, non-degraded ecosystems - such as dense, little disturbed tropical rainforests in places like the Amazon, Borneo or Papua New Guinea - are often inhabited only by indigenous and traditional peoples (emphasis added).

Indigenous peoples as agents in maintaining Indigenous peoples as agents in maintaining biodiversity through TEK (Traditional biodiversity through TEK (Traditional

Ecological Knowledge)Ecological Knowledge)

The least biodiversity-wise degraded areas tend to be areas inhabited by indigenous peoples only. Since the degradation is mainly created by humans, a conclusion is that those indigenous peoples who have not been colonised by others, have been and are important agents in the maintenance of biodiversity. The knowledge they have when interacting with nature in non-degrading ways is part of what has been called "traditional ecological knowledge" (TEK)

Traditional Ecological Knowledge" (TEK)Traditional Ecological Knowledge" (TEK)

"indigenous and other local peoples' knowledge and beliefs about and use of the natural world,

their ecological concepts,

and their natural resource management institutions and practices“

(Oviedo & Maffi 2000: 6)


"a cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief, evolving by adaptive processes

and handed down through generations by cultural transmission,

about the relationships of living beings (including humans)

with one another and with their environment" (Berkes 1999: 8)


"in-depth knowledge of plant and animal species, their mutual relationships, and local ecosystems held by indigenous or traditional communities,

developed and handed down through generations"

(Skutnabb-Kangas, Maffi & Harmon 2003: Glossary).

Traditional = backward, non-scientific? 1Traditional = backward, non-scientific? 1

Traditional" to some researchers still seems to mean backward, static, non-scientific, foreclosing all economic and social mobility and opportunities

Traditional = backward, non-scientific? 2Traditional = backward, non-scientific? 2

TEK "is found to be more complete and accurate than Western scientific knowledge of local environments" (Oviedo & Maffi 2000; 6-7). Several articles in Maffi (ed., 2002) and Posey (ed., 1999) also testify to this.

Few people seem to know, for instance, that the Linnean categories were based on ancient Saami categorisation of nature

Traditional knowledge is not staticTraditional knowledge is not static

Four Directions Council in Canada (1996, quoted from Posey 1999: 4) describes:

What is "traditional" about traditional knowledge is not its

antiquity, but the way it is acquired and used. In other words, the social process of learning and sharing knowledge, which is unique to each indigenous culture, lies at the very heart of its "traditionality". Much of this knowledge is actually quite new, but it has a social meaning, and legal character, entirely unlike the knowledge indigenous people acquire from settlers and industrialized societies.

Transmission process of TEK in danger 1, ICSUTransmission process of TEK in danger 1, ICSU

“Universal education programs provide important tools for human development, but they may also compromise the transmission of indigenous language and knowledge. Inadvertently, they may contribute to the erosion of cultural diversity, a loss of social cohesion and the alienation and disorientation of youth. […] In short, when indigenous children are taught in science class that the natural world is ordered as scientists believe it functions, then the validity and authority of their parents’ and grandparents’ knowledge is denied. While their parents may posses an extensive and sophisticated understanding of the local environment, classroom instruction implicitly informs that science is the ultimate authority for interpreting “reality” and by extension local indigenous knowledge is second rate and obsolete”.

Transmission process of TEK in danger 2Transmission process of TEK in danger 2

“Actions are urgently needed to enhance the intergenerational transmission of local and indigenous knowledge. […] Traditional knowledge conservation therefore must pass through the pathways of conserving language (as language is an essential tool for culturally-appropriate encoding of knowledge)”.

from The International Council for Science (ICSU )

2002 report

Science, Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development) see www.icsu.org







TEK is necessarily encoded into the local languages of the peoples whose knowledge it is. This means that if these local languages disappear, without the knowledge being transferred to other, bigger languages, the knowledge is lost.

Question 1: Is the knowledge transferred to other

languages? The answer is NO. Question 2: Are languages disappearing? The

answer is YES.


Question 1: Is the knowledge transferred to other languages? The answer is NO

- - most indigenous children do not receive teaching in and through the medium of their own languages - the knowledge is not transferred to dominant languages which do not have the vocabulary for these nuances

- - school does not have the discourses needed (it is formal rather than informal education)


Question 2: Are languages disappearing? The

answer is YES.

Diane Ackerman 1997Diane Ackerman 1997

We are among the rarest of the rare not because of our numbers, but because of the unlikeliness of our being here at all, the pace of our evolution, our powerful grip on the whole planet, and the precariousness of our future. We are evolutionary whiz kids who are better able to transform the world than to understand it. Other animals cannot evolve fast enough to cope with us. It is possible that we may also become extinct, and if we do, we will not be the only species that sabotaged itself, merely the only one that could have prevented it.

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Dr. Tove Skutnabb-Kangas University of Roskilde, Denmark Åbo Akademi University, Vasa, Finland

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