DRAFT FINAL - Harvard University Department of...

Arsenic 2000

An Overview of the Arsenic Issue in Bangladesh

Elizabeth M. Jones Projects Officer December 2000

Email comments to Elizabeth Jones: [email protected]

BANGLADESH

Telephone / Facsimile: +(0)2+881+5757

Mobile: +(0)19+343394

Office Address: House 123 A

Road 4, Banani Dhaka, 1213

Bangladesh

E-mail: [email protected]

DRAFT FINAL

PURPOSE

WaterAid Bangladesh has prepared this report to provide an overview of the arsenic issue in Bangladeshprimarily for agencies, organisations and individuals who are not water sector specialists and who want aninformed summary of current knowledge on:

• the background to the arsenic contamination issue• the potential scale of the problem• the work of 35 organisations active in arsenic mitigation• the instrumentation methods for the detection of arsenic• the arsenic mitigation options• the way forward

In addition, a primary objective of the document is to promote co-ordination and information sharing betweenorganisations and to highlight the need for prompt action with regard to arsenic mitigation.

Much of the required information for immediate arsenic mitigation interventions is available, but collation ofinter-agency data is urgently required, as is a pro-active approach to the development of a timely, nationalmitigation strategy.

WaterAid Bangladesh and its partner organisations in Bangladesh intend to disseminate the collatedinformation in various formats and languages, with a particular focus on participatory information media forNGOs supporting communities affected by arsenic contamination.

WaterAid intends that this report will be built upon with further sections on the chemistry of arsenic ingroundwater and new mitigation technologies as they emerge from research and testing, plus regularupdates on arsenic mitigation programmes’ progress and learning.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The documentation would not have been possible without the active participation and input of the majority ofthe 35 organisations who willingly supplied detailed information on their programmes' arsenic activities.

The author would like to offer special thanks to Han Heijnen, Ross Nickson, David Sutherland, Nasir Uddinand Karin Heissler for their support and advice during the documentation of this report.

The views and recommendations expressed in this report are solely those of WaterAid Bangladesh.

Concept: Author:

Timothy J. Claydon Elizabeth M. Jones

Country Representative Projects Officer

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WaterAid Bangladesh DRAFT FINAL VERSION 05.12.00

CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 1

2.0 BACKGROUND................................................................................................................................ 2

2.1 Summary of origin and scale of the problem...........................................................2

3.0 CURRENT ACTIVITIES ................................................................................................................... 3

3.1 Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE)...................................................3

3.2 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) ....................................................6

3.3 Department of Public Health Services / UNICEF .....................................................6

3.4 Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR)......................................................................7

3.5 World Bank ..............................................................................................................7

3.6 Swiss Agency for Development and Co-operation (SDC).........................................8

3.7 Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) .............................................8

3.8 Department for International Development (DFID)................................................9

3.9 Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA)....................................................9

3.10 Australian Aid (AusAID).........................................................................................10

3.11 United States State Department............................................................................10

3.12 Water and Sanitation Programme (WSP) Bangladesh...........................................10

3.13 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) ................................................11

3.14 Rotary International..............................................................................................11

3.15 Arsenic Crisis Information Centre (ACIC)..............................................................12

3.16 Dhaka Community Hospital Trust (DCHT) .............................................................12

3.17 PROSHIKA .............................................................................................................13

3.18 BRAC......................................................................................................................13

3.19 Grameen Bank .......................................................................................................14

3.20 WaterAid Bangladesh ............................................................................................15

3.21 Village Education Resource Centre (VERC)............................................................16

3.22 WATSAN Partnership (WPP)..................................................................................16

3.23 CARE Bangladesh...................................................................................................17

3.24 Bangladesh University for Engineering and Technology (BUET) ...........................17

3.25 University of Dhaka ...............................................................................................18

3.26 International Development Enterprises (IDE).......................................................19

3.1.1 Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (BAMWSP) ................................................. 3 3.1.2 DPHE Research & Development Division ................................................................................... 3 3.1.3 DPHE / UNICEF ....................................................................................................................... 4 3.1.4 DPHE / World Health Organisation (WHO) ................................................................................ 4 3.1.5 DPHE / DANIDA ...................................................................................................................... 5

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3.27 World Health Organisation (WHO) ........................................................................19

3.28 NGO Forum for Drinking Water and Sanitation .....................................................20

3.29 International Center for Diahorreal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDRB) .....22

3.30 London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM)...................................22

3.31 Bangladesh Consultants Limited (BCL)..................................................................22

4.0 INSTRUMENTATION METHODS FOR DETECTION OF ARSENIC................................................ 24

4.1 Field Test Kit Methodologies..................................................................................24

5.0 ARSENIC MITIGATION OPTIONS ............................................................................................... 27

5.1 Alternative Safe Water Options .............................................................................27

5.2 Arsenic Removal technologies...............................................................................28

6.0 CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD ........................................................................................... 31

6.1 Emergency or Short Term Strategy .......................................................................31

6.2 Long term strategy ................................................................................................31

6.2.1.1 Formation of a clear, concise arsenic avoidance strategy and best practice packages. .............32 6.2.1.2 Field Test Kit Validation .......................................................................................................32 6.2.1.3 Technical assistance to local manufacturers ..........................................................................33 6.2.1.4 Georeferencing and labelling / tagging .................................................................................33 6.2.1.5 Guidance on cost recovery / subsidies ..................................................................................33 6.2.1.6 Rapid assessment / evaluation of alternative water source options.........................................33 6.2.1.7 Food chain and health effect studies ....................................................................................34

6.2.1.8 Information dissemination strategy ......................................................................................34 6.2.2.1 Formation of a Rapid Response Committee...........................................................................34 6.2.2.2 Co-ordination......................................................................................................................34 6.2.2.3 Three month national level objectives with shared responsibility and clear timing for outputs ..35 6.2.2.4 Small contracts / tenders to encourage local private sector....................................................35 6.2.2.5 Public, NGO, donor, private sector working together .............................................................35 6.2.2.6 Tubewell Monitoring Strategy & Seasonality testing...............................................................35 6.2.2.7 Deep Aquifer Investigations .................................................................................................35 6.2.2.8 Health Issues......................................................................................................................35 6.2.2.9 Lesson learning regionally ...................................................................................................35

4.11 Mercury Bromide stain method ...................................................................................................24 4.12 Calorimetric methods .................................................................................................................25

5.2.1 Household level Arsenic Removal Technologies...............................................................29 5.2.2 Community Level Arsenic Removal Technologies ............................................................29

6.2.1 Urgent requirements: .............................................................................................................32

6.2.2 Essential requirements:...........................................................................................................34

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LIST OF ANNEXES ANNEXE 1 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Symptoms of Arsenicosis ANNEXE 2 Dhaka University Research Papers ANNEXE 3 Emergency Arsenic Task Force Maps MAP 1 Number of Arsenic Hot-Spot Villages MAP 2 Thanas with Hot-Spot Villages & Location of Arsenic/WSS Projects MAP 3 Thana Locations of Organisations Arsenic/WSS Projects ANNEXE 4 NGO Forum's Arsenic Related Research Activities ANNEXE 5 WaterAid / BGS Water Quality Fact Sheet: ARSENIC ANNEXE 6 WaterAid Bangladesh Participatory Arsenic Awareness Tools ANNEXE 7 Description of SODIS ANNEXE 8 Emergency Arsenic Response Approach ANNEXE 9 Detail on household level arsenic removal technologies ANNEXE 10 Detail on community level arsenic removal technologies

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WaterAid Bangladesh FINAL DRAFT VERSION 05.12.00 Page 1 of 63

1.0 Introduction As a result of a large effort by Government, donors and NGOs over the last twenty years an estimated 97% ofdrinking water in Bangladesh is now supplied by groundwater, this was considered one of the most effectivepublic health measures in the country. Tubewells have, in the majority, replaced the traditional surface watersources and diarrhoeal disease has reduced significantly.

In the early 1990s high arsenic concentrations were reported in the groundwater of Nawabgonj, westernBangladesh. There has been a large amount of debate with reference to the source and release mechanism ofthe arsenic. It is now widely accepted that it is of natural, geological origin. The arsenic is thought to be closelyassociated with iron oxides. The release mechanism of arsenic from the sediments into the groundwater ishotly debated. Evidence exists to support both reduction and oxidation theories. Every round of water quality tests show more wells that exceed the Bangladesh standard of 50 parts per billion(ppb) for arsenic in drinking water. The equivalent of ppb is micrograms/litre or µg/l. The World HealthOrganisation (WHO) guideline value for arsenic in drinking water is 10ppb. Measuring arsenic in wateraccurately is not simple at concentrations important for human health. Reliable field methods are yet to be fullydeveloped and evaluated. A protocol for marking unsafe tubewells red (greater than 50ppb of arsenic) and safetubewells green (less than 50 ppb of arsenic) has been widely adopted.

Today an estimated:• 25 million people are exposed,• 59 out of 64 districts have arsenic contaminated ground water,• 249 out of 464 upazilas are affected and• over 7000 patients have been identified.

Every day more cases of arsenosis are reported in the media. Arsenic in water is invisible and has no taste orsmell. Health effects from consuming arsenic-contaminated drinking-water are delayed. Skin lesions aregenerally first. The most important remedial action is the prevention of further exposure by providing safedrinking water. Grave concern exists for future health effects and the number of people affected by arsenicpoisoning. Malnutrition and Hepatitis B, both of which are prevalent in Bangladesh, accentuate the effects ofarsenic poisoning. Three stages of arsenicosis symptoms (primary, secondary and tertiary) are described inAnnex 1.

Long-term ingestion of high concentrations of arsenic from drinking water gives rise to a number of healthproblems, particularly skin disorders, the most common are pigmentation changes (dark/light skin spots) andkeratosis (warty nodules usually on the palms and soles of feet). Internal cancers have been linked with arsenicin drinking water. Many of the advanced and more serious clinical symptoms are incurable. Arsenicosis is notcontagious.

Community level arsenic awareness and knowledge is generally low. Information, Education andCommunication (IEC) materials have been and are being developed. Mass media and grass roots participatoryeducation tools are an important aspect of an holistic arsenic mitigation strategy.

There is a clear need for safe water options and a co-ordinated approach to the arsenic issue. The currentsituation is such that numerous Governmental departments, donors, NGOs, development banks and academicinstitutions are involved in the technical and social issues relating to arsenic contaminated groundwater.Documentation of who is doing what where is not readily accessible. This report briefly summarises theactivities of various organisations in the hope of increasing co-ordination, information sharing and thus theeffectiveness of the collaborative inputs. Further clarification on specific points relating to organisations'activities should be addressed to the concerned organisation.

Ongoing updates to this report will be necessary.

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2.0 Background

2.1 Summary of origin and scale of the problemIt is now generally agreed that the arsenic contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh is of geological origin.The arsenic derives from the geological strata underlying Bangladesh. The arsenic is thought to be closelyassociated with iron oxides. Arsenic occurs in two oxidation states in water. In reduced (anaerobic) conditionsit is dominated by the reduced form: arsenite. In oxidising conditions the oxidised form dominates: arsenate.

There are two main theories as to how arsenic is released into the groundwater:Pyrite oxidation. In response to pumping, air or water with dissolved oxygen penetrates into the ground,leading to decomposition of the sulphide minerals and release of arsenic.Oxyhydroxide reduction. Arsenic was naturally transported in the river systems of Bangladesh adsorbed ontofine-grained iron or manganese oxyhydroxides. These were deposited in flood plains and buried in thesedimentary column. Due to the strongly reducing conditions which developed in the sediments andgroundwater of certain parts of Bangladesh the arsenic was released into groundwater.

The release mechanism is still hotly debated but the second theory is thought to be the more likely explanation.

Natural processes of groundwater flushing will eventually wash the arsenic away but this will take thousands ortens of thousands of years. The flushing is particularly slow in the Bengal Basin in general because it is solarge and flat.

Local variations in the rate of groundwater movement due to the location of rivers and variations in topographyor type of sediment (clay, silt or sand) probably account for much of the local variation. Natural processes ofsedimentation and sediment transport create variations in the arsenic problem within the Bengal Basin, e.g.greater concentration in South East Bangladesh.

The British Geological Survey (BGS) national survey (3500 samples) found that 27% of shallow tubewellsexceeded the 50 µg L-1 (50ppb) Bangladesh arsenic standard. Comparable statistics for the WHO guidelinevalue (10 µg L-1 or 10ppb) show that 46% of shallow wells exceeded the value (Kinniburgh & Smedley, 2000).

The spatial distribution of arsenic concentrations above 50ppb in the BGS second phase survey showed districtbasis variations from 90% of sampled wells in Chandpur to none in the eight north-western districts.

Predicting exactly which wells are affected is difficult at the village scale and a strategic aim must therefore be tomeasure all or most of the wells in Bangladesh for arsenic. There are approximately 4.5 million public (installedby Government departments) and a total 9 million tubewells in Bangladesh. An estimated 97% of theBangladesh population of 120 million drink well water. Until the discovery of arsenic in groundwater, well waterwas regarded as safe for drinking. Piped water supplies are available only to a small portion of the totalpopulation.

In some areas, the deep aquifer and shallow dug wells may provide reliable long-term sources of groundwaterfor drinking but a strategy for protecting the deep aquifer would be essential.

The BGS results indicated that there were no other groundwater quality problems on a comparable scale toarsenic although there are quite common exceedances of WHO health-related standards for manganese, boronand uranium.

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3.0 Current Activities

3.1 Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE)DPHE is one of the key departments under the Ministry of Local Government Rural Development and Co-operatives (LGRD&C). DPHE has a number of different arsenic activities at various levels of implementationand is working with a wide variety of development organisations.

A summary of the DPHE arsenic activities follows. Further details are contained under the partner and / orsupporting organisations.

3.1.1 Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (BAMWSP)BAMWSP is the National co-ordinating project for arsenic issues relating to water supply. Its US$44.4millionbudget is co-financed by Government of Bangladesh (GoB), World Bank and Swiss Agency for Developmentand Co-operation (SDC). BAMWSP aims to co-ordinate arsenic interventions and through its National ArsenicMitigation Information Centre (NAMIC) collect, collate and disseminate arsenic information from and tointerested or active organisations. The project was formally launched September 1998 for a period of fouryears. To date 6% of funds have been disbursed.

The BAMWSP Technical Advisory Group (TAG) consists of an eight strong panel of experts who, at the requestof BAMWSP, advise on technical issues such as alternative drinking water sources, field test kit specificationsand arsenic removal technologies. Currently the TAG have recommended the following arsenic mitigationmeasures:

• Pond Sand Filter• Deep Tubewell• Rainwater Harvesting

• Hand -dug Well• Three Kolshi Arsenic Removal

Technology

Included in the mandate of BAMWSP is the emergency activity of screening all tubewells within six upazilas, thishas been completed. BAMWSP are currently testing various arsenic removal technologies and alternativedrinking water sources.

Longer-term objectives incorporate the identification of all arsenic affected thanas and the full tubewellscreening and arsenic mitigation of 40 upazilas. BAMWSP aims to co-ordinate and direct other developmentalorganisations to arsenic affected upazilas in an effort to minimise duplication and maximise the effectiveness ofthe combined activities.

Contact: Mr. Farid Uddin Ahmed Mia,Project Director, BAMWSPRoad # 31, House # 450, New D.O.H.S. Dhaka 1206,Tel: 8813815, Fax # 8813646 ,Email: [email protected]

Contact: : Dr. NurrazamanBAMWSPHouse # 450, Road # 31, New DOHS MohakhaliDhaka-1206Tel: 8815735 Fax: 8813646Email: [email protected]

3.1.2 DPHE Research & Development DivisionThe Research and Development Division (R&DD) of DPHE have been instrumental in a number of large andsmall-scale arsenic initiatives.

These include a field test kit survey of 21,000 tubewells and mapping the extent of arsenic contamination;testing arsenic removal technologies and alternative options; implementing mitigation measures; training DPHEfield staff in use of arsenic field test kits

DPHE / British Geological Survey (BGS) / Mott MacDonald Ltd carried out a rapid investigation into groundwaterstudies for arsenic contamination of all thanas (except in the Chittagong Hill Tracts) which identified the extentof arsenic contaminated groundwater within Bangladesh. Phase one included the compilation, review anddatabase of existing groundwater and sediment arsenic data from Bangladesh; a systematic groundwaterquality survey using laboratory analysis for the 41 districts then believed to be worst affected in Bangladesh; adetailed geochemical investigation in three special study areas; modelling the movement of groundwater andarsenic in a typical Bangladesh situation. Phase two continued from Phase one and extended the survey to the

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remaining districts of Bangladesh excluding the three districts of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. All information isavailable on both DPHE and BGS web sites www addresses.

Contact: Mr. Ihtishamul HuqExecutive Engineer (XEN R&D Division)DPHE, DPHE Bhaban14 Captain Monsur Ali SaraniKakrail, Dhaka-1000Tel: 9330061 Fax: 9343357Email: [email protected]

3.1.3 DPHE / UNICEFThe DPHE / UNICEF arsenic mitigation initiative to date has consisted of several National-scale activities and afocussed 'Action Research' project in five upazillas.

The national-scale activities undertaken include testing of 51,000 tubewells in 1998 using field test kits to givethe first idea of the scale of contamination Nationwide and the development and testing of a comprehensivecommunication campaign including radio and television spots.

The 'Action Research into Community Based Arsenic Mitigation' project has worked in five upazillas with BRAC(two upazillas), Grameen Bank, Dhaka Community Hospital Trust and the Integrated Service for theDevelopment of Children and Mothers (ISDCM - with Rotary Funding). The project followed an integratedapproach and included four main activities: communication about arsenic and arsenicosis; testing of alltubewells in the upazilla; arsenicosis patient identification / support / implementation; monitoring and evaluationof alternative water supply technologies. The technologies tested ranged from home-based solutions such asthe 3-kolshi arsenic removal filter to community-based solutions such as the Pond Sand Filter (PSF) fortreatment of surface water.

DPHE / UNICEF are currently developing the second phase of the project which has similar activities withfurther emphasis placed on sustainability, community involvement and community cost sharing. The phase twoproject is planned to work in 15 upazillas.

Three out of the fifteen upazillas will be funded by the UN Foundation. This project will be undertaken jointlywith the WHO and will include a research component, which will be handled by the WHO.

DFID is the main funder of a US$ 49.3million five year Rural Hygiene, Sanitation and Water Supply Project,implemented by DPHE with assistance from UNICEF. The water supply component is primarily aimedat low water table and underserved areas in 38 districts of Bangladesh. It is not specifically targeted at arsenic-affected areas but measures will be taken to ensure that all water supplies provided are free from arsenic.Implementation is expected to commence early in 2001, on completion of the inception phase.

Contact: Mr. Ihtishamul HuqExecutive Engineer (XEN R&D Division)DPHE, DPHE Bhaban14 Captain Monsur Ali SaraniKakrail, Dhaka-1000Tel: 9330061 Fax: 9343357Email: [email protected]

Contact: Md. Shafiqul IslamDeputy Chief (Water & Sanitation)UNICEF, BSL Office Complex1 Minto Road, Dhaka-1000Tel: 9336701-20, Fax: 9335641-2Email: [email protected]

3.1.4 DPHE / World Health Organisation (WHO)The WHO Environmental Health Team in Bangladesh has supported the Government of Bangladesh sincethe early stages of recognition of the arsenic problem (1994), mostly by providing technical expertise. Thisexpertise included both technological aspects of arsenic removal and an epidemiological review of the healtheffects and immediate actions required for mitigation.

As a result in 1997, WHO acknowledged that arsenic in drinking water was a "Major Public Health Issue"which should be dealt with on an "Emergency Basis". Joint studies with local institutes have been carried outto test household arsenic removal techniques and the quality of alternative drinking water sources. Anevaluation was made of the field test kits available (1998). WHO has been an active partner to Governmentand in the context of interagency collaboration, through the organisation of a National Co-ordinationconference, support for various aspects of arsenic mitigation, and through the management of aninterlaboratory comparison exercise aimed at improving capacity of local laboratories to determine arsenic

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contamination in water. Partners include other UN agencies such as UNICEF, the World Bank, IAEA, UNIDOand the FAO.

WHO have been involved in an informal Emergency Arsenic Taskforce which has documented anemergency action approach and funded a geographical information system (GIS) mapping of arsenic hotspotvillages and working areas of various arsenic projects (see appendix 3). This information is held by NAMICwho are responsible for updating the maps.

WHO have been instrumental in encouraging best practice and inter-agency co-ordination.

WHO and UNICEF will shortly start a two-year action research project on arsenic mitigation in threeupazillas, with funding from the UN Foundation. In addition to funding direct mitigation activities the projectwill monitor interventions and determine their usefulness in recipient populations, review the earlier UNICEFfive-upazilla project for health impacts and analyse the arsenic health effects in the MATLAB health andpopulation research area of ICDDRB.

Contact: Mr. Han A. Heijnen,Environmental Health Advisor, World Health Organization,DPHE Bhaban, Kakrail, Dhaka 100014 Captain Monsur Ali SaraniKakrail, Dhaka-1000Tel: 934-3372, Fax: 8613247,E-mail: [email protected]

3.1.5 DPHE / DANIDAThe DPHE/DANIDA Arsenic Mitigation Component aims to work within the visions of arsenic mitigation asexpressed in the objectives of the National policy.

These are:• Facilitating the access of all citizens to arsenic free water• Bringing behavioural changes necessary for ensuring continued use of arsenic free water for drinking

and cooking• Reducing the incidence of arsenic poisoning• Building capacity in local governments and communities to deal more effectively with arsenic related

problems• Awareness creation and promoting sustainable arsenic mitigation options• Promoting the use of surface and rainwater in order to reduce the intake of arsenic contaminated water

Learning from their previous one year pilot project the approach is planned to be replicated in 11 thanas(Bakergonj, Banaripara, Barisal sadar, Ujirpur under Barisal district, Pirojpur sadar under Pirojpur district,Sonagazi under Feni district, Lakshmipur sadar, Raipur, Ramgati under Lakshmipur district, Begumgonj,Noakhali sadar under Noakhali district).

The activities and outputs to date have included:Project orientation, baseline survey, screening of all tubewells; training of trainers for the staff members andother stakeholders, development of IEC materials, awareness creation; development and implementation ofthe Bucket Treatment Units (BTU), fill and draw (F&D), three kolshi as arsenic removal technologies; testingof alternative treatment technologies; safe water supply through the installation of deep tubewells, mini pipeschemes and rainwater harvesting; Geographical Information System (GIS) mapping, data base andinventory of tubewells; assessment of field test kit reliability; equipping and running one laboratory inNoakhali. The total budget for the DPHE/DANIDA Arsenic Mitigation Project is approximately US$ 9million.

Contact: Md. Iqbal ChoudhuryTeam Leader, Arsenic Mitigation Component,DPHE / DANIDA Water Supply & SanitationComponents,DPHE Bhaban, Kakrail, Dhaka 1000

Tel- 9346167-70, Fax # 9344791,E-mail: [email protected]

Contact: Mr. Bidyuth KumarGIS SpecialistDPHE-Danida Arsenic Mitigation projectDPHE BhabanKakrail, Dhaka-1000Tel: 9346167-70 Fax: 9344791Email: [email protected]

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3.2 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW)In 1996 a National Steering Committee for Arsenic Mitigation related activities was formed and headed bythe Honourable Minister for Health and Family Welfare. The mandate of this Steering Committee wasformulation of policies, endorsement of programmes, monitoring and co-ordination of activities related to thearsenic contamination. The committee is scheduled to convene every three-months. The Cabinet Secretary,Secretaries of all concerned ministries and Heads of all concerned government departments, local andoverseas agencies have been included in the membership of the committee.

The MoHFW, with GoB Funding, have completed the following projects and activities: a TechnicalAssistance Project (approximately US$100,000) from February 1997 to June 1998 implemented in sevendistricts concentrating on patient identification and treatment. Source water was tested for arsenicconcentrations. Community awareness programmes were initiated using appropriate communicationmaterials. All health personnel of the project districts were trained in patient identification and treatment. Atotal of 3200 patients were identified. A similar project (approximately US$16,000) was undertaken in ChapaNawabganj district where 400 arsenic affected patients were identified.

An eight-month UNDP funded emergency programme for arsenic mitigation (US $0.5 million) wasimplemented in the worst effected 200 villages of 20 districts. This project was a combination of survey andtechnology option testing. All tubewells in these villages were tested for arsenic and painted red or greenaccordingly. A GIS (Geographical Information System) was developed to identify the hot spots on a pilotbasis. Arsenic removal technologies were tested. Information Education & Communication (IEC) activitieswere implemented. The programme was conducted through a GO-NGO approach under supervision of theMoH&FW. The results showed that 62% of the tubewells in these 200 villages were found arsenic pollutedand 0.3% of the total population was found to show symptoms of arsenic poisoning.

A Phase-II US$1.2 million UNDP funded emergency programme was completed June 2000 in 300 villages.The project aimed at providing immediate relief to the 300 most affected villages in Bangladesh. The projectobjective was to identify patients, test and mark all tubewells, identify and provide the best option for arsenicfree water; and follow-up on the status of villages in which interventions had been carried out in Phase 1.

All works were contracted out to appropriate agencies for implementation under the supervision of DeputyProgramme Manager (Arsenic), MoH&FW.

In addition, from July 1999, MoH&FW has developed a treatment protocol and Information EducationCommunication (IEC) activities. MoH&FW with UNICEF funding have trained 1600 doctors and 7000 healthworkers for case identification.

To date more than 9000 patients have been identified with visible signs of arsenicosis through MOH&FWmanaged initiatives.

Contact: Dr. A. Z. M. Itekhar HossainDeputy program Manager (Arsenic)Ministry of Health and Family WelfareNIPSOM Building324 Mohakhali, Dhaka-1212Tel: 8821236, 600768Fax: 8821236Email: [email protected]

3.3 Department of Public Health Services / UNICEFUNICEF have supported DPHS and Dhaka Community Hospital Trust to develop a patient treatment protocoland in training doctors and health workers in 80 districts across the country. DPHS and UNICEF are workingtogether to build capacity of public health workers to identify and treat patients.

The health division of UNICEF also supports the following activities:

• Active patient identification in UNICEF working areas by house to house screening• Compilation of a patient profile with all related information such as - biological investigation

results (including nail and urine) water information, sign-symptoms etc.

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• Disseminate patient lists to relevant organisations, so that alternate options are prioritised to theareas with most patients.

• Distribute medicine (anti-oxidants and skin ointment) to the identified patients.• Nationwide training of doctors and health workers through DGHS.• Establish a referral and surveillance system with collaboration from DGHS and DCHT (link

patient with alternate water options in addition to treatment facilities)• Collaboration with CDC for epidemiological studies.• A planned collaboration study with DCHT to see efficiency of different treatment options for the

patients.

Contact: Dr Yasmin Ali Haque,Project Officer, UNICEF,1 Minto Road, BSL Office Complex, DhakaTel: 880-2-9336701-10Fax: 880-2-9335641-42Email: [email protected]

3.4 Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR)The National Water Management Plan Project (NWMPP) has submitted a Draft Development Strategy (DDS)to the Water Resources Planning Organisation (WARPO).

The NWMPP recognises the urgent need for arsenic-free domestic water supplies, but sets the problem inthe context of the 25-year planning horizon. This context envisages:

• A raising of arsenic standards by GoB to match existing WHO standards of 10ppb• Increased faecal contamination of static surface sources and the shallow aquifer• Increased agri-chemical contamination as farmers try to raise yields to meet a 44% decline in arable

land/capita• Expansion of areas where water tables fall below the suction limit of Village Handpumps (VHP) for water

supply and Shallow Tubewells (STW) for irrigation in the dry season, as irrigation continues to expand• Increased vulnerability to drought due to global warming, slight in an average year but dramatic in a dry

year.• An increase in living standards and demands from women for household access to water and improved

services and a need to reduce the time spent in queues for water.

The DDS notes that Deep Tubewells (DTWs) are a potential solution, but are expensive to provide for smallgroups. Even with a Tara pump they serve approximately 100 people with limited supplies. DTW fitted withsmall (1kW, 1 litre/sec) submersible pumps could supply 50 lcd piped water supply to 1000 people through a50mm diameter distribution system for an average cost of 4Tk/m3. The option meets criteria of quality,sustainability, affordability and implementability.

The DDS recognises than before such systems can be advocated on a large scale, field testing of theconcept is needed. The total cost to the Government of Bangladesh for 120 million people is estimated atUS$450 million.

DDS notes that Dhaka is in an area relatively free of arsenic, but if the current expansion south and eastcontinues, the risk will increase, as falling water tables will draw in water from greater distances. Anaqueduct conveying 20m3/s of water from the Jamuna Bridge, where the minimum flow is 6000m3/s, mayappear to be an option which is cost effective.

Contact: Sushanta Chandra KhanJoint Secretary, Ministry of Water ResourcesBangladesh Secretariat, Dhaka-1000Tel: 8615992, Fax: 8612400

3.5 World BankThe US$44.4million National level Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (BAMWSP) is co-funded by GoB, World Bank and SDC. In August 1998 World Bank approved credit of US$32.4million to GoBto implement the four-year project. To date 6% of funds have been disbursed. BAMWSP (see section 3.11)

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aims to co-ordinate arsenic interventions and through its National Arsenic Mitigation Information Centre(NAMIC) collect, collate and disseminate arsenic information from and to interested or active organisations.BAMWSP's Project Management Unit (PMU) is headed by DPHE. BAMWSP is task managed by the WorldBank Dhaka office.

The World Bank Dhaka office is planning to distribute over 100,000 household level arsenic removaltechnologies through their Nationwide nutrition programme. Information will be disseminated as to patientidentification, treatment and referral mechanisms.

World Bank has funded various workshops on technical issues relating to safe water sources. World Bankhas been involved in the organisation of photograph exhibitions in an attempt to raise the profile of arsenic indrinking water.

Contact: Dr Bilqis Amin HoqueSenior Water and Sanitation SpecialistWorld Bank, Resident Mission in Bangladesh3A Paribagh, Prioprangan ApartmentDhaka-1000Tel: 8611056-8, Fax: 8613220, 8615351Email: [email protected]

3.6 Swiss Agency for Development and Co-operation (SDC)

SDC, with GoB and World Bank, is co-funding the US$44.4million National level Bangladesh ArsenicMitigation Water Supply Project (BAMWSP). In August 1998 World Bank approved credit of US$32.4millionto GoB to implement the project. BAMWSP (see section 3.11) aims to co-ordinate arsenic interventions andthrough its National Arsenic Mitigation Information Centre (NAMIC) collect, collate and disseminate arsenicinformation from and to interested or active organisations. BAMWSP's Project Management Unit (PMU) isheaded by DPHE.

The WATSAN Partnership Project (see section 3.22) is SDC funded and is a collaborative community basedrural water supply, sanitation and hygiene sector project currently undertaken in Rajshahi and ChapaiNawabgonj Districts. The problem of arsenic contamination in ground water has necessitated investigationand implementation of affordable new technologies for the most severely affected people in the project area.

Contact: Anm Rahmatullah Habib,Swiss Development Co-operation (SDC)Embassy of SwitzerlandHouse # B-31, Road # 18Banani, Dhaka-1213Tel: 8812392-4Fax: 8823497Email: [email protected]

Contact: Dr. Fazila Banu LiliProgramme OfficerSwiss Development Co-operation (SDC)Embassy of SwitzerlandHouse # B-31, Road # 18Banani, Dhaka-1213Tel: 8812392-4Fax: 8823497Email: [email protected]

3.7 Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)CIDA are currently funding a three year (2000/2003) Environmental Technology Verification (ETV-AM) -Arsenic Mitigation Project. The project works closely with the Technical Advisory Group (TAG) and BAMWSP(see section 3.11) and is implemented though the Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Co-operatives, Local Government Division and Ontario Centre for Environmental Technology Advancement(OCETA). The CIDA contribution to the project is approximately US$2.7million.

The objective of the project is to develop a transparent process for assessing and verifying arsenic removaltechnologies and the transfer of the process and procedures to an entity designated by the Government ofBangladesh. The main outputs will include internationally recognised criteria for examining arsenic removaltechnologies; a process for certification of arsenic removal technologies and confirmed technology viabilitythrough a comprehensive field verification program.

Contact: Ms. Sylvia IslamDevelopment Adviser

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Canadian High Commission (CIDA)House # 16/A, Road # 48Gulshan, Dhaka-1213Tel: 9887091-7, Fax: 8826585, 8823043Email: [email protected]

3.8 Department for International Development (DFID)DFID have funded numerous initiatives on the arsenic issue. These include a two phased approach byDPHE / British Geological Survey (BGS) / Mott MacDonald Ltd. Phase one included the compilation reviewand database of existing groundwater and sediment arsenic data from Bangladesh; a systematicgroundwater quality survey using laboratory analysis for the 41 districts then believed to be worst affected inBangladesh; a detailed geochemical investigation in three special study areas; modelling the movement ofgroundwater and arsenic in a typical Bangladesh situation. Phase two continued from Phase one andextended the survey to the remaining districts of Bangladesh excluding the three districts of the ChittagongHill Tracts. All information is available on both DPHE and BGS web sites www addresses.

The Rapid Assessment of Household level Arsenic Removal Technologies is a DFID funded initiative. Thestudy is jointly managed by WaterAid Bangladesh and DFID and implemented by WS Atkins InternationalLtd. The consultancy will focus on nine household level arsenic removal technologies with a first phaseconcentrating on field testing technical parameters and a second phase of technical and social parametertesting. The project will feed its rapid response results into longer-term initiatives in Bangladesh. CanadianCIDA (section 3.7) are supporting a substantial intervention in partnership with Bangladeshi agencies andwill assist BAMWSP to develop an Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) protocol. The DFIDconsultancy will work closely with BAMWSP and the development of the ETV protocol, use the ETV protocol(at draft stage) and give feedback through field testing of the ETV protocol. A spin-off benefit of this DFIDfunded study will be the comparative evaluation of the Merck, GPL, HACH, NCL and PeCo75 arsenic fieldtest kits (see section 4.1 for details on field test kits). Phase one results are expected late 2000.

DFID will fund an Arsenic Mitigation and Epidemiology Project implemented by Dhaka Community HospitalTrust, with technical support from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. The three-yearproject will have an approximate budget of US$3million. The three-month inception phase is planned tocommence November 2000. The main components of this project would focus on the assessment ofcommunity based arsenic mitigation models using socio-epidemiological methods. The goal of the project isto reduce, using an affordable, sustainable and community integrated programme, both the incidence andprevalence of arsenic related ill health in Bangladesh.

DFID is the major funder of a US$ 49.3million five year Rural Hygiene, Sanitation and Water Supply Project,implemented by DPHE with assistance from UNICEF. The water supply component is primarily aimedat low water table and underserved areas in 38 districts of Bangladesh. It is not specifically targeted atarsenic-affected areas but measures will be taken to ensure that all water supplies provided are free fromarsenic. Implementation is expected to commence early 2001, on completion of the inception phase.

Contact: Peregrine SwannSenior Engineering AdviserDFID, United Nations RoadBaridhara, Dhaka-1212Tel: 8822705-9, Fax: 8823474Email: [email protected]

3.9 Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA)JICA are funding a Study Team to investigate groundwater development of deep aquifers for safe drinkingwater supply to arsenic affected areas in Western Bangladesh. The main objective of the study is to preparea master plan to cope with arsenic contamination of groundwater.

Three model purshavas and villages have been selected to carry out detailed pilot testing which includes thefollowing activities: household interviews on socio-economic conditions, arsenic test of tubewells, drilling ofdeep wells, performance and testing of arsenic removal equipment and core boring.

JICA are also supporting an interlaboratory comparative study which will work closely with the WHOinitiative.

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Contact: Mr. T. Otsuka or Md. Zulfikar Ali,JICA, head office, IDB Bhaban Agargaon (12th Floor)Tel: 9126315, 9132535, Fax # 9128804, 9128857E-mail: [email protected]: [email protected]

Contact: Dr. Naoaki ShibasakiHydrogeologist, JICA Study TeamTEL: +880-2-602419, 601180, 9880866, 88124443FAX: +880-2-8826259E-mail: [email protected]

3.10 Australian Aid (AusAID)AusAID has recently launched the Australian Arsenic Mitigation Program which has a total budget of US$1.6million. In June 2000 proposals were requested from Bangladesh, India and Australia in a public tender.

Implementation will commence January 2001, subject to approval from partner governments. The threeactivities include:

• A research project looking at methods of using iron ore to extract arsenic from water. (Orissa,India)

• A cross sectoral activity with Dhaka Community Hospital Trust (DCHT) which will reviewmethods for providing Bangladesh with safe and clean water and then pilot several of thesemethods in a number of villages in conjunction with health education. The activity will alsoupgrade the laboratory at DCHT to enable more sophisticated water quality testing

• An epidemiology study that will consider the cost of arsenic mitigation in Bangladesh and trainrepresentatives of the NGO Forum for Water Supply and Sanitation.

Contact: Mr. Rakib HossainSenior Development OfficerAustralian High Commission184 Gulshan AvenueGulshan, Dhaka-1212Tel: 8813101-5 Fax: 8811125Email: [email protected]

Contact: Charlotte [email protected]

3.11 United States State DepartmentThe U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and Geological Survey of Bangladesh (GSB) are conducting acollaborative investigation of the conditions and processes controlling the high arsenic concentrations inground water. USGS activities are planned for three more years with support provided by the U.S. StateDepartment. USGS and GSB scientists will work to analyse samples of soil, sediment and water to describethe solid-phase residence of arsenic and the chemical transformations that release the arsenic to the water.Solid-phase samples will be collected from excavations and boreholes. Water samples will be gathered byinstalling wells at multiple depths in the immediate vicinity of the boreholes so that the correspondence of thesolid and water composition can be evaluated. The initial effort is focussed in eastern Bangladesh in thevicinity of Brahmanbaria and Comilla. Plans for 2001 include collecting samples from depths up to 300meters with the intent of determining the composition of sediments in the “deep” aquifer and documentingdifferences that may account for the apparent low levels of dissolved arsenic in water extracted from greaterdepths.

The goal is to develop an understanding of the sources and sinks of arsenic in the sediment and integratethis result with sedimentology and hydrology. Future work will be at other locations on the Bengal delta(including India) with the intent of adding to efforts of other research teams and co-operatively developing aunified explanation of controls on dissolved arsenic.

Contact: George N. BreitU.S. Geological Survey, Box 25046 MS 973Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado 80225Phone: 303-236-4951Fax : 303-236-3200E-mail: [email protected]

3.12 Water and Sanitation Programme (WSP) BangladeshThe WSP is involved in the promotion of best practice in the water and sanitation sector, co-ordination ofsector activities and the provision of support to government in policy formulation and implementation.

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WSP work closely with World Bank water and sanitation team and were involved in the preparation ofBAMWSP. WSP activities include technical support to BAMWSP (section 3.11) management and technicalsupport to pilot projects and innovative approaches, organization of arsenic workshops and conferences.

WSP currently chairs the Local Consultative Group (LCG) on water supply and sanitation. The LCG is theDonors’ Co-ordination forum which is scheduled to meet monthly.

Contact: Babar N. KabirTeam Leader, WSP TeamWorld BankResident Mission in Bangladesh3A Paribagh, Prioprangan ApartmentDhaka-1000Tel: 8611056-8 Fax: 8613220, 8615351Email: [email protected]

3.13 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)Through the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW) UNDP have funded an initial eight monthemergency programme for arsenic mitigation (US $0.5 million) which was implemented in the worst effected200 villages of 20 districts. This project was a combination of survey and technology option testing (seesection 3.2). The programme was conducted through a GO-NGO approach under supervision of theMoH&FW.

UNDP funded the Phase-II emergency programme US$1.2 million which was completed June 2000 in 300villages. The project aimed at providing immediate relief to the 300 most affected villages in Bangladesh.The project objective was to identify patients, test and mark all tubewells, identify and provide the best optionfor arsenic free water; and follow-up on the status of villages in which interventions had been carried out inPhase 1.

All works were contracted out to appropriate agencies for implementation under the supervision of DeputyProgramme Manager (Arsenic), MoH&FW.

Contact: Susanne GiessenWater and Sanitation SectionUNDPIDB Bhaban (14th Floor)Agargoan, Dhaka-1207Tel: 8118600 Fax: 8113169Email: [email protected]

3.14 Rotary InternationalRotary Clubs are working jointly with UNICEF in combating the problem of arsenic contamination in groundwater. Overseas Rotary Clubs have been assisting local Rotary Clubs with funds. Arsenic mitigation activitiesinclude installation and assessment of safe water options. The main options promoted are installation ofarsenic-free deep tubewells, construction of continuous arsenic removal plant, rainwater harvesting, pond-sand-filter and dug wells.

Additional activities include tubewell screening, identification of arsenicosis patients, development ofInformation, Education and Communication (IEC) materials. The areas covered to date are Manikganj,Behra, Kachua, Sonargaon and Gunarkacha.

The Rotary Foundation has recently awarded a Grant of US$ 500,000 for an arsenic mitigation project inBangladesh. The work on this Project will commence in the near future.

Contact: Iftekharul Alam,Project Co-ordinatorHouse 5, Road 66,Gulshan, Dhaka 1212Tel: 8828098 Fax:[email protected]

Contact: David [email protected]

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3.15 Arsenic Crisis Information Centre (ACIC)The West Bengal & Bangladesh Arsenic Crisis Information Centre was founded in 1997 and is based inDhaka. ACIC is a private not-for-profit service focusing on enhancing the visibility and accessibility ofarsenic crisis related information using Internet technologies. Currently it maintains:

- A website at http://bicn.com/acic- An opt-in email newsletter (680 subscribers currently) to announce when new information is added to thewebsite (email [email protected] to subscribe)

- Three moderated email discussion groups at egroups.com,

(1) arsenic-source, for those interested in all aspects of arsenic geochemistry (email [email protected] to subscribe);

(2) arsenic-safewater, for those interested in water treatment technologies and alternative supplies ([email protected] to subscribe); and

(3) arsenic-medical, for those interested in arsenic disease diagnosis, epidemiology, treatment of symptoms,etc. (email [email protected] to subscribe)

ACIC was an individual effort until October 2000, when a student intern was hired, funded in part bysubscriber voluntary donations. Currently an office is being set up and NGO registration is being prepared.Funding will then be sought to support improvement and expansion of the information services offered.

ACIC is keenly interested in supporting and cooperating with other organizations, networks, websites,publications, etc., and actively seeks suggestions from stakeholders on how to improve its informationservices and what new information services should be set up to better serve the community.

Contact: Sara BennettEmail: [email protected]

3.16 Dhaka Community Hospital Trust (DCHT)DCHT, a private sector, not-for-profit institution, has contributed significantly towards raising arsenicawareness at Government and international level and have alerted the general public to the incidence ofarsenicosis.

In 1999 DCHT completed a UNDP/WB funded survey (Rapid Assessment Project - RAP) in 200 villages onbehalf of MoH&FW, to verify the extent of contamination and arsenicosis. Using its own resources, DCHThas also completed a country-wide sampling survey of tubewell water and found evidence that 41 of a totalof 64 districts could be at risk. DCHT undertook an extension to the RAP, within a further 300 villages. Thisstudy was managed and executed through MoH&FW (section 3.2), UNDP funded and completed June 2000.

DFID will fund an Arsenic Mitigation and Epidemiology Project implemented by DCHT, with technical supportfrom the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. The three year project will have an approximatebudget of US$3million. The three-month inception phase is planned to commence November 2000. Themain components of this project would focus on the assessment of community based arsenic mitigationmodels using socio-epidemiological methods. The goal of the project is to reduce, using an affordable,sustainable and community integrated programme, both the incidence and prevalence of arsenic related illhealth in Bangladesh. To develop and assess the success of community based mitigation models by usingscientific epidemiological processes. In additional the project will add to epidemiological knowledge ofprevalence and dose response of arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh.

AusAID will fund a cross sectoral activity with Dhaka Community Hospital Trust which will review methods forproviding Bangladesh with safe and clean water and then pilot several of these methods in a number ofvillages in conjunction with health education. The activity will also upgrade the laboratory at DCHT to enablemore sophisticated water quality testing.

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DCHT, in collaboration with NGO Forum, Village Education Centre and WaterAid Bangladesh, haveundertaken small scale arsenic action research into the effectiveness of community mobilisation andinformation systems.

DCHT have organised international conferences on arsenic and are involved in on going advocacy efforts.

Contact: Dr. Imrul KaiesDhaka Community Hospital Trust (DCHT)190/1 Boro Mogh BazarWireless Rail Gate, Dhaka-1217Tel: 9351190-1, 8314887Fax: 9338706, 8313385Email: [email protected]

Contact: Mr Ranjit DasDhaka Community Hospital Trust (DCHT)190/1 Boro Mogh BazarWireless Rail Gate, Dhaka-1217Tel: 9351190-1, 8314887Fax: 9338706, 8313385Email: [email protected]

3.17 PROSHIKAPROSHIKA, under three separate joint ventures, has imported simple and sustainable arsenic mitigationtechnologies from Canada, Belgium and Germany to combat arsenic contamination in groundwater.

PROSHIKA state that the three technologies, already commissioned in various parts of the arseniccontaminated areas of the country yielded satisfactory results through ensuring supply of arsenic freedrinking water and also prevention of various water-borne diseases.

PROSHIKA and Canadian International Water Purification Limited (CIWPL) have entered into an agreementfor manufacturing of low-cost water purifiers for household use both in urban and rural areas of Bangladesh.The aim of the Canadian Water Purifier (CWP) is to effectively remove arsenic as well as parasites, bacteriaand viruses from water. The joint venture project of manufacturing household level water filters has beeninstalled in Palashbari, Savar, production has commenced.

Under another joint venture agreement with ALTECH of Belgium, PROSHIKA has installed a surface watertreatment plant at Patgram in Tungipara and safe water from surface water can be treated. Each such plant(approximate cost US$16,000) can produce 1500 Litre of water per hour and is estimated to meet thedemands of approximately 500 families. PROSHIKA has signed a new agreement with ALTECH to set up afactory in Bangladesh for the production of Surface Water Treatment Plants. All the accessories of the plantwill be produced in Dhaka.

PROSHIKA has signed a separate agreement with SIDKO Limited of Germany. "Continuous ShallowGround Water Arsenic Removal Plants" have been installed at Chapai Nawabganj and Bhanga.

PROSHIKA has been creating awareness among its target beneficiaries about arsenic contamination, safewater and measures to be taken for preventing health affects of arsenic.

Contact: J. K. RaralDirector, Health Housing and Water & Sanitation ProgrammePROSHIKA, 1/1-GA, Section-2Mirpur-2, Dhaka-1216Tel: 8015945-6, 8016015Fax: 8015811Email: [email protected]

3.18 BRACBRAC, is one of the largest national non-governmental organisations and has a proven capacity for field-level programme implementation, socio-economic research, a strong institutional network and experience intraining of community members in testing tubewell water for arsenic.

BRAC initiated arsenic mitigation activities through testing all 802 tubewells in its field offices. 12% werefound to be arsenic contaminated.

In Hajiganj upazilla 93% of the 11,954 tubewells tested by BRAC in this upazilla showed the presence ofarsenic. When the results of field testing by Village Health Workers (VHW) were cross-checked with

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laboratory results 93% were consistent. The testing program in Hajiganj upazilla was completed in just over amonth.

In 1998 BRAC completed a countrywide testing of tubewells, which were installed by the Department ofPublic Health Engineering (DPHE) during 1997-1998 with assistance from UNICEF. A total of 12,604tubewells were tested under this project using field kits. It took 35 days to complete the testing.

In 1999 BRAC, in collaboration with UNICEF and DPHE, initiated a pilot project on community-based arsenicmitigation in one union of Sonargaon upazilla under Narayanganj district The project followed an integratedapproach and included four main activities: communication about arsenic and arsenicosis; testing of alltubewells in the upazilla; arsenicosis patient identification / support / implementation; monitoring andevaluation of alternative water supply technologies. The technologies tested ranged from home-basedsolutions such as the 3-kalshi arsenic removal filter to community-based solutions such as the Pond SandFilter (PSF) for treatment of surface water

In June 1999 BRAC extended the action research on community-based arsenic mitigation to two upazillas:Sonargaon of Narayanganj district and Jhikargacha of Jessore district. Working closely with DPHE/UNICEF,BRAC actively involved communities in assessing and mitigating the arsenic crisis.

Once tubewells have been tested for arsenic BRAC then involve communities in highly affected areas infinding alternative sources of safe drinking water. This project attempted to test different options of safedrinking water in the two upazillas. As very little was known about the effectiveness and acceptability ofdifferent safe water options at the beginning of the project, it was essentially an ‘action research’ to assessthe different options. Contact: Mr. ZakariaEnvironmental ResearcherArsenic Section, BRAC66 Mohakhali C/A, Dhaka-1212Tel: 8824180-7 Fax: 8823542Email: [email protected]

3.19 Grameen BankGrameen Bank, with assistance from UNICEF and DPHE (see section 3.1.3), started its testing programmein 1997 in Chandpur district. The project followed an integrated approach and included four main activities:communication about arsenic and arsenicosis; testing of all tubewells in the upazilla; arsenicosis patientidentification / support / implementation; monitoring and evaluation of alternative water supply technologies.The technologies tested ranged from home-based solutions such as the 3-kalshi arsenic removal filter tocommunity-based solutions such as the Pond Sand Filter (PSF) for treatment of surface water.

Arsenic Research Group [BD] is conducting an action-research project on arsenic contamination in the ruralsetting of Bangladesh, funded by PRPA of Grameen Trust.

The target village is located in Comilla.

Screening of tube-wells was carried out using the NIPSOM field test kit and the tube-wells were marked withspecified colours, i.e. red for contaminated tube-wells (arsenic content >50ppb), and green for safe tube-wells (arsenic content <50ppb)] . Water from only 12 (twelve) out of total 159 tube-wells in the village werefound to be below 50ppb.

A communication campaign was carried out by meeting with different sections of the community, groupdiscussions, house to house visits by researchers and field assistants in order to build up public awarenesson the arsenic contamination related problems.

The 2nd phase survey was carried out to record the population and tube-wells on a household basis and toidentify the households and/or population served by individual tube-wells. The objective of carrying outthis survey was to identify the extent of contamination in the specified area and the population at risk.

A few patients were identified but no detailed health screening was carried out.

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The oxidant and coagulant based 'Emergency arsenic removal unit's [a modified two bucket system withreverse circulation] are currently undergoing the final phase of field trials. A 'Pond Sand Filter [PSF]' and two'Sanitary Dug-Wells' will be installed in the village.

The Arsenic Research Group is involved in the development of a ceramic/earthenware based low costsurface water purifier under the direct supervision of Mr. Reid Harvey.

Contact: Norzahan BebumGeneral Manager, Grameen BankTraining InstituteMirpur-2, Dhaka-1216Tel: 8011425Fax: 8013559Email: [email protected]

Contact: Dr. Arif Mohiuddin SikderCoordinator, Arsenic Research Group [BD]306 Iqbal Center [2nd Floor], 42 Kemal Ataturk Avenue,Banani, Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh.Phone: 882 882 99 80Email: [email protected]

3.20 WaterAid BangladeshWaterAid Bangladesh is actively involved in both the grassroots level arsenic screening, mitigation and smallscale research (through their national NGO partner organisations) and advocacy of best practice and co-ordination at policy level.

To assist the promotion of easily understandable, appropriate and reliable information dissemination tocommunities and field workers involved in and affected by arsenic a formal partnership between NGO Forumfor Drinking Water & Sanitation (see section 3.28) and WaterAid Bangladesh exists. The NGO ArsenicInformation and Technical Support Unit (NAISU) will commence early 2001.

The NAISU target information group is an important aspect of the approach as the aim is to ensureunderstanding of the cause, effect and mitigation measures of arsenic in groundwater. The target group willinclude communities, field workers and office workers. These target groups require different levels ofinformation presented in an appropriate format. In order to reach the broadest possible network the NGOForum regional offices will have access to information via email, telephone and the postal service.

NAISU's immediate objectives are to reach out and support small to medium sized NGOs acrossBangladesh who are trying to understand the issues surrounding arsenic contamination of water suppliesand support them to assist their beneficiaries to address and tackle these issues. NAISU will also developand disseminate layman’s (easily understood) Bangla and English language material and training to a targetpopulation of non-technical community and field workers.

WaterAid Bangladesh have developed two sets of participatory arsenic awareness tools (see Annex 6) whichencourage discussion and understanding at community level.

WaterAid Bangladesh and Village Education Resource Centre (VERC) are working together in the piloting ofarsenic removal technologies, screening and mitigation in their project areas of Sitakunda and Nawabgonj.

Village Education Resource Centre (VERC) in collaboration with WaterAid Bangladesh, DCHT and NGOForum have undertaken small-scale arsenic action research into the effectiveness of community mobilisationand information systems.

WaterAid Bangladesh support and advocate the local manufacture of field test kits through field userfeedback and comparative evaluations.

WaterAid, working in collaboration with British Geological Survey (BGS), have developed a six page ArsenicFact Sheet (see Annexe 5) summarising the health effects, occurrence in groundwater, field testingmethodologies and remediation techniques.

WaterAid Bangladesh have been involved in an informal Emergency Arsenic Taskforce which hasdocumented an emergency action approach (Annexe 8) and funded a geographical information system (GIS)mapping of arsenic hotspot villages and working areas of various arsenic projects (see Annex 3). Thisinformation is held by NAMIC who are responsible for updating the maps.

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The Rapid Assessment of Household level Arsenic Removal Technologies is a DFID funded initiative. Thestudy is jointly managed by WaterAid Bangladesh and DFID and implemented by WS Atkins InternationalLtd. The consultancy will focus on nine household level arsenic removal technologies with a first phaseconcentrating on field testing technical parameters and a second phase of technical and social parametertesting. The project will feed its rapid response results into longer-term initiatives in Bangladesh. CanadianCIDA (section 3.7) are supporting a substantial intervention in partnership with Bangladeshi agencies andwill assist BAMWSP to develop an Environmental Technology Verification (ETV-AM) protocol. The DFIDconsultancy will work closely with BAMWSP and the development of the ETV protocol, use the ETV protocol(at draft stage) and give feedback through field testing of the ETV protocol. A spin-off benefit of this DFIDfunded study will be the comparative evaluation of the Merck, GPL, HACH, NCL and PeCo75 arsenic fieldtest kits (see section 4.1 for details on field test kits). Phase one results are expected late 2000.

WaterAid Bangladesh actively encourages information sharing.

Contact: Elizabeth JonesProject OfficerWater Aid-BangladeshHouse 123A, Road 4, Banani,DhakaTel: 880-2-8815757Fax: 880-2-8815757Email: [email protected]

Contact: Md. Nasir UddinProgramme EngineerWater Aid-BangladeshHouse 123A, Road 4, Banani,DhakaTel: 880-2-8815757Fax: 880-2-8815757Email: [email protected]

3.21 Village Education Resource Centre (VERC)VERC are actively involved in the tubewell screening and development of community led arsenic mitigationstrategies and approaches.

VERC and WaterAid Bangladesh are working together in the piloting of household level arsenic removaltechnologies, tubewell screening, community awareness raising and community led mitigation activities intheir project areas of Sitakunda and Nawabgonj.

VERC in collaboration with DCHT, NGO Forum and WaterAid Bangladesh have undertaken small scalearsenic action research into the effectiveness of arsenic mitigation approaches reliant on communitymobilisation and information systems, not the provision of infrastructure.

Contact: Md. Masud HossainAssociate Project Co-ordinatorVERC, AnandapurSavar, DhakaTel: 7710412, 7710779Email: [email protected]

3.22 WATSAN Partnership (WPP)The WATSAN Partnership Project (WPP) is a collaborative community based rural water supply, sanitationand hygiene sector project currently being implemented in Rajshahi and Chapai Nawabgonj Districts ofBangladesh. The Swiss Agency for Development and Co-operation (SDC, section 3.6), being the initiatorand funder, has brought together a partnership of local and international agencies for strengthening andaccelerating development activities in the rural areas. In this partnership project, SDC is a member of thesteering committee which is chaired by the three International NGOs on a rotational basis. The main role ofthe Project Management Unit (PMU) is to co-ordinate activities amongst partners.

The three international NGOs: CARE, IDE, and DASCOH act as support organisations to facilitate thedevelopment of local organisational capacities in working towards sustained water use and better sanitationfor the rural community. NGO-Forum is also conducting an action research on rainwater harvesting in threeof the working areas under WPP.

The primary objective of the project is to improve user's sustainable access and use (i.e. hygiene behaviourpractices) of affordable water and sanitation facilities in the project area, especially in the low water tablearea of Bangladesh. The problem of arsenic contamination in ground water has necessitated investigationand implementation of affordable new technologies for the most severely affected people in the WPP area.

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To mitigate the arsenic problem, WPP has started to work with arsenic reduction technologies andalternative safe water sources. The arsenic reduction options tested are: DPHE / DANIDA Bucket TreatmentUnit (BTU), the three kolshi method, Safi Filter and SORAS (see Annexe 9). The alternative water sourceoptions are rainwater harvesting, dugwells (with handpump and without handpump) and SODIS (SolarDisinfection, see Annexe 7) for improving the bacteriological water quality. All these technologies are new inthe project area and some are still at the research stage.

Development and marketing of affordable handpumps is one of the major activities of WPP. IDE havedeveloped an affordable deep-set Jibon handpump for the low water table area. Reliable Pre and Posttesting of water quality (arsenic) is a pre-requisite for successful implementation of the WPP deep-sethandpump tubewell programme.

This program will be completed by 31st December 2001.

Currently, WPP is preparing a program for arsenic awareness, screening, patient identification, communitydevelopment and mitigation planning for 640 villages in collaboration with all partners.

Contact: Md. Abdul MotalebProject Co-ordinatorWATSAN Partnership Project (WPP)2 Parigag (3rd Floor)Prioprangan Apartment, Dhaka-1000Tel: 8619711 Fax: 8619711Email: [email protected]

3.23 CARE BangladeshThe arsenic activities of CARE Bangladesh are associated with three projects. The WATSAN PartnershipProject in Rajshahi, Nawabganj (WPP, see section 3.22) the Flood Proofing Project in Kurigram, Netrokona(FPP) and the Sanitation And Family Education Resource project in Sitakunda, Chittagong (SAFER).

The field test kits used are the NIPSOM and E-Merck kits with some cross-checking by the arsenator andlaboratory. WPP do not paint the tubewells themselves but inform the community of the results and explainthe relevance. Within both the SAFER and FPP tubewells are painted red or green.

Within the WPP, before the sinking of new tubewells, staff carry out an assessment of the surrounding area.Pre and post installation arsenic testing and develop a system of periodic testing.

CARE mitigation activities include the three kolshi, DPHE/DANIDA bucket treatment unit, community basedtraining and practical demonstrations, community based arsenic removal plants (SIDCO, see Annexe 10),monitoring of technologies, protected dug wells, rainwater harvesting, SODIS (see Annexe 7) and SORAS(see Annexe 9), participatory Information Education & Communication (IEC) materials, folk songs and dramasessions.

CARE believes in sustainability through cost sharing with the community. There is no blanket policy forpercentage as it is dependent on circumstance and users' feedback.

Contact: Dr. Ziya UddinProject Co-ordinator, WATSAN ProjectCARE BangladeshHouse # 60, Road # 7ADhanmondi R/A, Dhaka-1209Tel: 8114207-9, 9111948Fax: 8114183Email: [email protected]

3.24 Bangladesh University for Engineering and Technology (BUET)The Environmental Engineering Division of BUET is currently working on:

(1) development of a domestic arsenic removal unit based on activated alumina(2) improvement of the two-bucket unit using ferric chloride as a coagulant and(3) development of a domestic arsenic removal unit based on iron coated sand.

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BUET has an extensive array of arsenic measurement equipment including AASGF, AASHG, SDDC unitsand Field Test kits.

International Training Network (ITN)-Bangladesh Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management at BUEThave been involved in the development of Arsenic Field Test Kits, evaluation of the performance of PondSand Filters (PSF) and Rainwater Harvesting as alternative sources of water supply. ITN are involved intraining on arsenic at tertiary level.

In addition M. Feroze Ahmed, Professor of Civil/Environmental Engineering, BUET is an active member ofthe BAMWSP Technical Advisory Group (section 3.11).

Contact: Professor M. Feroze Ahmed,ITN -Bangladesh Centre,Civil Engineering Building (3rd floor), BUET, Dhaka 1000,Tel: 9663693, 9663695 Fax: 9663695, 8613026,E-mail: [email protected]

3.25 University of DhakaThe University of Dhaka has undertaken a number of arsenic related research works within the Departmentof Geology, the Department of Soil, Water and Environment and the Department of Chemistry. These aresummarised under the relevant departments below. A detailed list of the research papers produced featuresas Annexe 2.

Department of GeologyArsenic Investigation in the Bengal Delta Plain of Bangladesh and hydrogeological research into:

i) The origin and Distribution of Arsenic in Central Bangladesh 1997ii) The occurrence and distribution of Arsenic in Meherpur 1998iii) The occurrence and distribution of Arsenic in Chowmohani 1999

Contact: Dr. Kazi Matin,Dept of Geology,University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000Tel: (880-2) 9661920-59 Ext 6015 (W)Fax : (880-2) 8615583

email: [email protected]

Contact: Dr. Aftab Alam KhanGeohazard Research Group, Department of GeologyUniversity of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000.Voice : (880-2) 9661920-59 Ext 6029, 6015 (W)

(880-2) 9001214, (880-2) 8016083 (H)Fax : (880-2) 8615583E-mail: [email protected]

[email protected]

Department of Soil, Water and EnvironmentThe department runs a joint ACIAR (Australia)-Dhaka University project on the "Transfer of Arsenic in water-soil-plant systems in Bangladesh and Australia". The project duration is initially for a period of three yearsextendable to five years. The department is working on the arsenic load from irrigation water to the soil andits subsequent transfer to the human body and other biological systems through the food chain.

Relationships between the nutritional status of a patient and the manifestation of the contamination are beingstudied. Some statistical models on the whole system are being produced. The Australian team leader is Dr.RAVI NAIDU from CSIRO, Adelaide. The co-partners in the project are DCHT and INFS, Dhaka University,those in Australia are Ballarat University, CMIS, Adelaide.

The laboratory at the Department of Soil, Water and Environment is equipped with AAS hydride generator toanalyse Arsenic in ppb levels.

Contact: Dr. S.M. Imamul Huq, Professor,Department of Soil, Water and Environment,Dhaka University, Dhaka 1000Tel: 9661900-59 Fax: 8615583Email: [email protected]

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Department of ChemistryResearch and development of the three kolshi household level arsenic removal technology in collaborationwith the Sono Diagnostic Center Environment Initiative.

Contact: Professor Amir H. Khan,Department of Chemistry, Dhaka UniversityTel: 505846email: [email protected]

3.26 International Development Enterprises (IDE)IDE are involved in both the technical and the social mobilisation aspects of arsenic mitigation. IDE are oneof the three international NGOs managing the WATSAN Partnership Project (WPP, see section 3.22). Theprimary objective of the project is to improve user's sustainable access and use (i.e. hygiene behaviourpractices) of affordable water and sanitation facilities in the project area, especially in the low water tablearea of Bangladesh. The problem of arsenic contamination in ground water has necessitated investigationand implementation of affordable new technologies for the most severely affected people in the WPP area.To mitigate the arsenic problem, WPP has started to work with arsenic reduction technologies andalternative safe water sources. The arsenic reduction options tested are: Bucket Treatment Unit (BTU), thethree kolshi method, Safi Filter and SORAS (see Annexe 9). The alternative water source options arerainwater harvesting, dugwells (with handpump and without handpump) and SODIS (Solar Disinfection, seeAnnexe 7) for improving the bacteriological water quality. All these technologies are new in the project areaand some are still at the research stage.

Development and marketing of affordable handpumps is one of the major activities of WPP. IDE havedeveloped an affordable deep-set handpump named the Jibon for low water table areas. Reliable Pre andPost testing of water quality (arsenic) is a pre-requisite for successful implementation of any deep-sethandpump tubewell program.

IDE are independently experimenting with alternative source technologies which include a ceramic filter totreat surface water and economic designs of rainwater harvesting tanks.

IDE have produced two short videos which are shown around the country to increase arsenic awareness at alocal level.

Contact: David NunleyHead, IDE BangladeshHouse # 15, Road # 7Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205Tel: 8614485, 8619258Fax: 8613506Email: [email protected]

3.27 World Health Organisation (WHO)In response to the arsenic crisis the WHO Task Force dealing with the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-waterQuality have given priority to the preparation of a technical monograph on the control of health hazards fromarsenic in drinking-water. This work commenced in March 1998. These decisions culminated in a jointendeavour of interested United Nations agencies including UNICEF, WHO and World Bank. It was agreedthat the report would have global coverage considering the fact that arsenic in drinking water is a problem inmany parts of the world. However, the current arsenic-related problems and their solutions in Bangladeshand West Bengal, India are to be highlighted.

A UN Synthesis Report on Arsenic in Drinking Water is being prepared, covering the following areas:

• Sources of Contamination

• Environmental Health and Human Exposure Assessment

• Exposure and Health Effects

• Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Arsenic Poisoning

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• Drinking Water Quality Guidelines and Standards

• Safe Water Technology

• Communication for Development

• Development of Mitigation Strategies

This report will be a synthesis of the "state-of-the-art" arsenic knowledge. It is expected that planners,government officials, development aid agencies, and other stakeholders at the national and regional levels,as well as the scientific community in general, will use the report as a primer on arsenic and will promotenecessary action. At the same time, the report will identify current knowledge gaps and research needs. Thedraft in preparation will be made available for public review and comment. The final draft report will beavailable on the WHO website at “www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/water_quality/arsenic.htm” inJanuary 2001. Hard copy of this pre-print version will also be available for local review by January 25, 2001in Bangladesh only.

Under the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), WHO, in conjunction with the ILO andUNEP, will publish an update of the Environmental Health Criteria for Arsenic in December 2000. The EHCprovides an authoritative reference on environmental transport and distribution of arsenic; environmentallevels and human exposure; kinetics and metabolism; and effects on laboratory animals and in vitro systems,on human health and on other organisms in the environment.

Contact: Mr. Han A. Heijnen, Dr. Jamie BartramEnvironmental Health Advisor, World Health Organization, Water, Sanitation & Health ProgramDPHE Bhaban, Kakrail, Dhaka 1000 PHE/SDE, World Health OrganizationTel: 934-3372, Fax: 8613247, CH-1211 Geneva 27, SwitzerlandE-mail: [email protected] Fax: 41 22 791 4159, E-mail:

[email protected]

3.28 NGO Forum for Drinking Water and SanitationNGO Forum is an apex service delivery agency of the implementing NGOs and CBOs within the WatSan sector.

NGO Forum has established an “Arsenic Cell” to focus and prioritise its involvement in arsenic mitigationactivities. To date NGO Forum has field-tested 20,056 water samples. Of this total number of samples 4612were found to be above 50ppb arsenic concentrations. The tests were conducted in 2882 villages in 257 thanasof 58 districts. This data is given, on a regular basis, to the National Arsenic Mitigation Information Centre(NAMIC).

The ultimate goal of the Arsenic Cell is to provide safe drinking water for people in the intervention areasthrough:

I. Exploring possibilities of applicable and sustainable arsenic removal measures as well as seekingalternative water supply sources.

II. Implementation of arsenic mitigating activities for safe water supplies through NGOs & CBOs.III. Setting up a decentralised organisational structure capable of implementing operating, and maintaining

the mitigation measures.

The above mentioned objectives will be attained by:

I. Networking and collaboration with the NGOs, CBOs, government & external support agencies,multilateral organisations, researchers and academics working on this issue.

II. Optimal utilisation of NGO Forum’s resources - both software & hardware - in implementing arsenicmitigation measures.

NGO Forum is plays a role in the Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (BAMWSP, seesection 3.1.1) as a member of the steering committee as well as in the selection of Partner NGOs and CBOsfor implementation in the BAMWSP project area.

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To assist the promotion of easily understandable, appropriate and reliable information dissemination tocommunities, field and office workers involved in and affected by arsenic a partnership between NGO Forumand WaterAid Bangladesh (section 3.20) has been formed. The NGO Arsenic Information and TechnicalSupport Unit (NAISU) will commence early 2001.

The target information group is an important aspect of the approach as the aim is to ensure understanding ofthe cause, effect and mitigation measures of arsenic in groundwater. The target group would includecommunities and field workers. These target groups require different levels of information presented in anappropriate format. In order to reach the broadest possible network the NGO Forum regional offices willhave access to information via email, telephone and the postal service.

NAISU's immediate objectives are to reach out and support small to medium sized NGOs acrossBangladesh who are trying to understand the issues around arsenic contamination of water suppliesand support them to assist their beneficiaries to address and tackle these issues. NAISU will develop anddisseminate layman’s (easily understood) Bangla and English language material and training to a targetpopulation of non-technical community and field workers.

NGO Forum has developed and produced two posters and two leaflets for arsenic education. Thesematerials have been distributed among the affected community through partner NGOs & CBOs of NGOForum and also among other stakeholders including mass media and NAMIC.

NGO Forum has been disseminating research-oriented information relating to arsenic and arsenicosis throughits monthly Bangla newsletter titled “PANIPRABAHO” and quarterly English newsletter “WATSAN”. Thesenewsletters are distributed among various NGOs, government offices and other concerned stakeholders all overthe country. NGO Forum provides training on technical and social issues of arsenic mitigation.

NGO Forum is providing alternate water options which include the DPHE/DANIDA Bucket Treatment Unit(BTU), Rainwater Harvesting Systems (RWHS), Pond Sand Filters (PSF), Dug Wells and Iron & ArsenicRemoval Plants (IARP).

NGO Forum has established a water quality-testing laboratory with Danida funding. The laboratory wasdeveloped with technical assistance from the School of Environmental Studies (SOES), Jadavpur University,Calcutta, India. The following water quality parameters can be tested: Arsenic, Iron, Residual Chlorine,Chloride, Fluoride, Nitrite, Nitrate, Phosphate, Sulphate, Aluminium, pH, total dissolved solids, suspendedsolids, alkalinity, total hardness, salinity, conductivity, turbidity, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, COD, BOD,dissolved oxygen and bacteriological analysis.

The research activities of NGO Forum are listed in Annex 4. NGO Forum in collaboration with DCHT, Village Education Resource Centre and WaterAid Bangladesh haveundertaken small scale arsenic action research into the effectiveness of community mobilisation andinformation systems. Contact: Mr. S.M.A. Rashid, Executive Director ,4/6 , Block-E, Lalmatia, Dhaka1207Tel- 8119597, 8119599 Fax # 8117924E-mail: [email protected]

Contact: Dr Milton, Head of Arsenic Cell4/6 , Block-E, Lalmatia, Dhaka1207Tel- 8119597, 8119599 Fax # 8117924E-mail: [email protected]

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3.29 International Center for Diahorreal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDRB)ICDDR,B is running a health and demographic surveillance system in 142 villages of the Matlab upazilla,encompassing a 220,000 population. The Matlab health and demographic surveillance system (HDSS) wasinitiated in 1966. The database records all vital events and health information upgraded on a monthly basis.The data bases include child health, maternal health and nutrition information, and are linked to a GIS(Geographic Information System) database.

ICDDRB has been involved in small-scale research on arsenic exposure and mitigation. A pilot study wasperformed in Matlab with a sample of tube wells from all areas. In Matlab surveillance systems revealingmore than three quarters of samples had total arsenic above the Bangladesh permissible limit of 50 ppb.ICDDR,B are currently (2000-2001) initiating large-scale epidemiological studies on arsenic and healthconsequences; Studies on arsenic exposure, the health consequences, the role of nutritional status, andeffects of interventions. The laboratory capacity is currently also strengthened to serve the needs of arsenicresearch.

ICDDR,B has been working through local and international NGOs on arsenic monitoring and mitigationefforts which have included testing household level arsenic removal technologies, pond sand filter testingand piloting low cost rainwater harvesting techniques.

Contact: Dr. Mahfuzar RahmanArsenic and Environmental Epidemiologist,ICDDR,B, GPO Box 128, Dhaka-1212Tel: 880-2-8811751-60 (ext 2236), 9885155Fax: 880-2-8826050Email: [email protected]

3.30 London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM)LSHTM is involved in the epidemiological aspects of research on arsenicosis and arsenic mitigation efforts invarious countries including Bangladesh. LSHTM have emphasised the enormity of the problem, emphasisethe need to look at all aspects of safe water and for meticulous research in order to better understand thedifference between dose response in various areas, health-related behaviours and sustainability of mitigationefforts.

LSHTM will provide technical support to a DFID funded Arsenic Mitigation and Epidemiology Projectimplemented by DCHT (see section 3.16). The main components of the project will focus on thedevelopment and assessment of community based arsenic mitigation models using epidemiological andsocial scientific methods. The purpose of the project is to develop a sustainable, integrated mitigation modelfor preventing arsenic related ill-health in Bangladesh. In addition the project will add to epidemiologicalknowledge of prevalence and dose response of arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh.

Contact: Tony FletcherEnvironmental Epidemiology Unit, Dept of Public Health & PolicyLSHTM, Keppel St, London WC1E 7HT, UKTel: 44-(0)171-9272429Fax: 44-(0)171-5804524Email: [email protected]

3.31 Bangladesh Consultants Limited (BCL)A BCL team is conducting a three-month (October - December 2000) study to evaluate the disposal method

of arsenic residuals related with treatment systems developed and operated in the field.

The research team will conduct a survey of selected NGOs, donor agencies, and private companies thathave installed treatment units in the field. Field visits will be arranged to the installations in the villages.During the field visits, the research team will determine whether the users of the treatment units are followingsafe disposal methods. A record will be kept of the disposal methods observed. In addition some samples ofarsenic residuals will be collected for analysis during these field trials. The samples collected will most oftenbe taken from the soil/sludge pile on which the residuals are disposed of, although this may vary dependingon the different technologies and disposal methods.

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A leaching test will be conducted on the samples to determine whether the arsenic ions are bound to thesolids, or propagate the arsenic contamination to the surrounding soil, surface water, and potentially, thegroundwater. The BUET Environmental Laboratory will be hired to conduct the leaching tests

The output of this study will take the form of a report describing both the treatment units and the disposalmethods observed in the field. It is hoped that the findings will determine whether the present operationaltreatment units, or more specifically the sludge disposal methods associated with these units, need to be re-evaluated.

The research report will be shared with all interested parties. The research team will present the report to allorganisations that co-operated with the study and will be available for discussion should the organisationwant clarification of the findings.

Contact: Nikita Eriksen-Hamel34 Dhanmondi RA, Road 16Dhaka-1209, BangladeshTelephone: (880-2) 811 5023E-mail :[email protected] Site: www.bclgroup.com

Contact: Begum Kamrun Nahar Zinia34 Dhanmondi RA, Road 16Dhaka-1209, BangladeshTelephone: (880-2) 811 5023E-mail :[email protected] Site: www.bclgroup.com

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4.0 Instrumentation Methods for Detection of Arsenic The amount of testing required and the need to provide feedback to those using well water, suggest use offield testing kits. Several kits exist, but are not as yet independently validated within Bangladesh. Measuringarsenic in water accurately is not simple at concentrations important for human health. Reliable field methodsare yet to be fully developed and evaluated. Every round of water quality tests show more wells that exceed the Bangladesh standard of 50 parts perbillion (ppb) for arsenic in drinking water. The equivalent of ppb is micrograms/litre or µg/l. The WorldHealth Organisation (WHO) guideline value for arsenic in drinking water is 10ppb.

Weaknesses of field testing include the issues such as:(1) the field test kits being subject to fluctuations in sensitivity and accuracy depending on the

model of the kit;(2) excess light and foreign matter encountered in the field, are thought to interfere with the

analysis,(3) individual differences are inevitable when many field workers are involved (i.e. operator error).

Laboratory analysis, providing suitable quality assurance measures are introduced, will ensure the accuracyof data but is more costly than field-testing. Laboratory testing has a cost of approximately US$8 to US$10per sample. Field-testing has a cost of approximately US$0.5 per sample.

Due to the nature of laboratory testing being remote good co-ordination is necessary with the field to ensurecorrect tubewells are marked with correct concentrations (i.e. painted red or green). Collaboration with fieldstaff as well as map information and efficient transportation are essential.

Field test kits that are commercially available use the mercury bromide method or the Silver Diphenyl DithioCarbamate (SDDC) method. Laboratory analytical equipment used includes atomic absorption spectrometry(AAS), ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma) and ICP/MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma/Mass Spectrometry).

WaterAid Bangladesh support and advocate the local manufacture of field test kits through field userfeedback to local manufacturers and discussions with interested parties.

4.1 Field Test Kit Methodologies

4.11 Mercury Bromide stain methodMost of the current field-test kits (e.g. Merck, Asian Arsenic Network -AAN, General Pharmaceuticals Limited-GPL, NIPSOM, HACH) are based on the "Gutzeit" method. This involves the reduction of arsenite andarsenate by zinc to give arsine gas which is then used to produce a stain on mercuric bromide paper.

There have been many studies on the sensitivity and reliability of these kits. The most extensively fieldtested of these kits are the Merck, AAN and GPL kits. The evaluations have generally shown these kits to bereasonable at detecting high concentrations (greater than 100ppb) but less reliable at lower concentrations.

The newly developed HACH kit is currently undergoing extensive field-testing and to date has producedencouraging results on both reliability and accuracy when cross-checked with laboratory testing.

The PeCo75 is a handheld instrument developed by Professor Walter Kosmus of the Karl FranzensUniversity in Austria. This field kit is a development of the standard Gutzeit method in that it replaces zincwith sodium borohydride and so removes the problem of obtaining low-arsenic zinc. This method usestablets instead of powdered or liquid chemicals and has a simple robust arsine generator. The PeCo75 usesa calculator-style device to measure the stain developed photometrically rather than by eye and is easilycalibrated. The PeCo75 has shown good reliability and accuracy to 5ppb in laboratory environments. Field-testing is currently underway.

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4.12 Calorimetric methodsOther field test kits use the SDDC (Silver Diphenyl Dithio Carbamate) method which relies on arsinegeneration and the colour reaction with SDDC. Arsenic hydride is absorbed into a solution of silver diphenyldithio carbamate; the orange to red-violet soluble compound that is produced is analyzed by absorptionspectrophotometry. The absorption line is measured to find the arsenic concentration. If no substances thatobstruct the process are present then detection of arsenic concentrations to below 50ppb is feasible.

Two companies are currently developing single element low cost field spectrophotometers. The analyticalrange is claimed to be between 0-100ppb with analysis at 10ppb level guaranteed. Laboratory analyses arereported as accurate but have not, as yet, been made public. Field-testing will be required.

The two companies are based in India:

1) Spectrochemicals LimitedEmail: [email protected]

2) National Chemical LaboratoryPune 411 008, IndiaFax: 91-20-5893761Tel: 91-20-5893300E mail: [email protected] Table1: Basic data on field-test kits

Field Test kit Capital Cost(approx. US$)

Commercially andlocally available

Manufactured Time taken pertest (minutes)

Contact

E. Merck 50 Yes Germany 30 ?

GPL 45 Yes Bangladesh 20 [email protected]

NIPSOM ?40 ? No ? Bangladesh 10 [email protected]

HACH 160 Yes USA 30 [email protected]

PeCo75 800 Yes Austria 15 [email protected]

Spectrochemicals ?50 In the near future India ??10 [email protected]

NCL 100 In the near future India ??10 [email protected]

Further contact details: Dr. M. H. FaruqueeArsenic & Environmental Health ConsultantAsia Arsenic Network (AAN)Yamagata Dhaka Friendship Hospital6/7 Block-A, LalmatiaDhaka-1207Tel: 9129354Email: [email protected]

Mr. Zaki Azam ChowdhuryMarketing ManagerGeneral Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (GPL)House # 48/A, Road # 11/ADhanmondi, Dhaka-1209Tel: 9132594Fax: 9120657Email: [email protected]

Ajit DattaCommercial OfficerHACH-Technoworth Associates Ltd78 Motijheel C/A (1st Floor)Motijheel, Dhaka-1000Tel: 9555646, 9559776, 9568461Fax: 9562215, 8616947Email: [email protected]

Dr. Hassina MomotajResearch Associate (Arsenic)NIPSOMNIPSOM Building324 Mohakhali, Dhaka-1212Tel: 8821236, 600768Fax: 8821236

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5.0 Arsenic Mitigation OptionsDrinking water can be obtained from groundwater, surface water or rainwater sources. Each source hascharacteristics relating to quality, quantity, reliability, user acceptability and costs that will determine use.When considering sources and water supply technologies for arsenic mitigation, selection should be on thebasis of avoidance or of a substantial and consistent reduction of the ingestion of arsenic. (ref..)

In assessing best alternative water options and / or arsenic removal technologies the following basic criteriashould be evaluated:

• Water Quality (i.e. does the systemconsistently provide bacteriologically andchemically safe water?)

• Water Quantity (e.g. flow rate, access towater at peak times)

• Affordability (capital, operation &maintenance)

• Reliability• Life expectancy (e.g. how does one know

when to change filter media)• Convenience (e.g. time & effort involved)• Time considerations• Gender issues (e.g. ergonomically

appropriate, division of labour)

• Environmental risks (e.g. sludge disposal,excess water / drainage issues)

• Operational safety (e.g. user accidentalmisuse, physical and chemical safety,robustness)

• Risk substitution (e.g. introduction ofbacteriological contamination)

• Logistical sustainability of system (e.g. arereagents available locally, life time of system,market base, involvement of private sector)

• User acceptability• Necessary operation and maintenance

training• Information, Education & Communication

In Bangladesh, deep tube well sources provide safe water at relatively high costs. Shallow ring wells arecheaper, but provide a lower quality of water and also may dry up mid dry season. Rainwater is a goodalternative in the monsoon, but requires excessive storage if the full dry season is to be bridged. Lesserinvestment in storage provides up to 250-280 days of drinking water. Surface water and ponds arecontaminated with pathogens and begin drying up in the dry season. Tubewells with handpumps providewater near the house, but large numbers, up to 80-90 % in some coastal areas, exceed the Bangladesharsenic standard of 50ppb, thus requiring arsenic removal technologies. (ref…)

5.1 Alternative Safe Water OptionsAlternative safe water options can be provided at either household or community level.

The household level options include:

• accessing water by sharing safe (green) tubewells,• using protected dug wells,• rainwater harvesting,• treating surface water (e.g by use of solar disinfection, SODIS, see annexe 7).

Community level alternative options include:

• Deep tube well with hand pump,• Deep tube well with motorized pump, overhead tank and series of stand posts (below tank or

distributed in the area),• Rainwater harvesting,• Surface water treatment through pond sand filters,• Other surface water filters or treatment technologies,• Disinfection systems

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5.2 Arsenic Removal technologiesHousehold and community level arsenic removal technologies should be subjected to rigorous testing inidealised field conditions, in real household conditions, and in laboratory conditions. It is imperative that theperformance of the technologies is adequate and as anticipated in the household or the community - not onlyin the laboratory or in supervised field conditions. They should produce an adequate quality and quantity ofwater even when the technology is subject to a certain degree of “misuse” such as may be caused byimproper mixing, use beyond assumed safe removal capacity of a filter, shortcuts, etc. Removal technologiesshould be such that their presentation (sachet, pill or adsorbent layer), operation and functioning (mixing,settling), storage and abstraction, favour the adequate operation at the household and community level toensure provision of safe water.

There are four main methods of arsenic removal:

• co-precipitation (coagulants form flocs that bind arsenic and are then filtered out)• adsorption (arsenic adsorbed onto surface of media)• ion-exchange (arsenic ions attracted to charged polymer resins)• membrane filtration (selectively permeable membranes remove arsenic by filtration)

Some stakeholders have expressed doubts about the viability of household arsenic units, and suggested thatcommunity level arsenic removal units are preferable. They note the difficulties associated with persuadingmillions of households to use arsenic removal units, and in ensuring that they are used correctly, and theadvantages of centralized operation and maintenance, including arsenic testing, by trained caretakers. Theyalso express concern about the effect of private sector involvement, with its emphasis on commercialviability, on the poor. However, these compelling arguments ignore history. The failure of concerted efforts toprovide community water supplies for all is what led to the massive growth in private handpump tubewells inthe first place, and existing investments in community water treatment units, such as pond sand filters, oriron removal plants, have rarely produced safe or sustainable water supplies (reference: #####).

This listing of technologies does not indicate that they are safe technologies to use or that they consistentlyremove arsenic to below 50ppb. This listing should be used as an information point and organisations areencouraged to seek further detail either from organisations testing the technologies or the technologyproponents. The responsibility for safe implementation lies with the respective implementing organisation.

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5.2.1 Household level Arsenic Removal TechnologiesThe DFID funded (see section 3.8) Rapid Assessment of Household Level Arsenic Removal Technologieswill comparatively evaluate the first nine of the household level technologies listed below. The results fromthis evaluation will be available by March 2001.

The CIDA funded (see section 3.7) Environmental Technology Verification study will validate a total of 13household level arsenic removal technologies. This three year programme commenced late 1999 (???).

Household level arsenic removal technology options include the following (see Annexe 9 for further details ofthe technologies):

1. Passive SedimentationNo proponent2. DPHE / DANIDA Bucket Treatment UnitContact: DPHE-Danida Water Supply and SanitationComponents, Arsenic Mitigation Component, 2888,Central Road, Harinarayanpur, Maijdee Court,Noakhali. Ph. 0321 55823. Stevens' Institute TechnologyProfessor Meng, Center for Environmental Engineering,Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030.E-mail: [email protected]. Suruzzaman, Earth Identity Project, House 13A,Road 35, Gulshan, Dhaka-1212. Tel: 88120494. Ardasha FliterMr. Sounir Mojumdar, CRS-Ardasha Filter Industries,Chagalnaya Bazar, Chagalnaya, Feni5. GARNET home-made filterShah Monirul Kabir, Programme Officer/GARNETSecretary, GARNET-SA, 1/7, Block-E, Lalmatia, Dhaka-1207, Tel: 91174216. SONO- 3 kolshi methodProfessor A.H. Khan, Department of Chemistry,University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, E-mail:[email protected]. A.K.M. Munir, Director, SDC-Environment Initiative,College More, Courtpara, Kushtia 7000

7. BUET Activated Aluminium Filter

Dr. M.A. Jalil, Department of Civil Engineering, BUET,E:mail: [email protected]. Alkan Activated Aluminium FilterM. Saber Afzal, MAGC Technologies Ltd, House 15,Road 5’ Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205. E-mail:[email protected]. Tetra HedronUS: Waqi Alam, [email protected]: Mr. Wazir Alam or Mr. Altaf, Dhaka Tel:988277010. Ion exchange resinsContact: #####11. Rajshahi University / New Zealand iron

hydroxide slurryContact: ######12. SORAS (Solar Oxidation and Removal of

Arsenic) Contact: Martin Wegelin, Daniel Gechter and Stefan Hug, Swiss Federal Institute for Env. Science and Technology (EAWAG), Dept. of Water & Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC), 8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland internet: www.eawag.ch, www.sandec.ch Abdullah Mahmud and Abdul Motaleb, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), GPO Box 928, Dhaka, Bangladesh

5.2.2 Community Level Arsenic Removal TechnologiesCommunity level arsenic removal technology options include the following (see Annexe 10 for further detailson the technologies):

1. Arsenic / Iron Removal Plants18 District Towns Project, ###Rotary International / UNICEF,DPHE / DANIDA,NGO Forum for safe drinking water and sanitation.

2 SIDCOMir Moaidul Huq, General Manager, Sidko LimitedParagon House (7th Floor), 5, Mohakhali c/A., Dhaka-1212Phone: 880-2-9881794 / 8827122Fax: 880-2-9883400E-Mail: [email protected]

3 AlkanM. Saber Afzal, MAGC Technologies Ltd, House 15,Road 5’ Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205. E-mail:[email protected] Arsen-X SystemContact: Ostertech Inc. 37 North Forge Drive,Phoenixville, Pennsylvania 19460, USAPhone / fax: +610 935 066Email: [email protected] Tetra Hedron

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US: Waqi Alam, [email protected],Bangladesh: Mr. Wazir Alam or Mr. Altaf, Dhaka Tel:9882770

6 ?READ-F #######

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6.0 Conclusion and way forwardThe conclusion and way forward is separated into an emergency or short-term strategy and a long-termstrategy. The long-term strategy section is further divided into urgent issues and those that are essential but notas urgent. It is imperative that two distinct yet systematic strategies are developed to enable full co-ordinationand guidance to organisations active in arsenic mitigation. The strategies should run in parallel with each otherand ensure formal lesson learning and dissemination of documentation between the different andcomplimentary approaches. A clear distinction can be made between a strategic long-term aim and anemergency mitigation programme.

6.1 Emergency or Short Term StrategyA rapid response is essential to provide a level of relief to arsenic effected communities and to give cleardirection and co-ordination to implementers and donors a like. An emergency response should be measured indays not years.

On-going mitigation projects presently cover only limited geographical areas. Immediate action is required tocreate a holding situation and offer relief to families that are not yet covered by mitigation projects. Theemergency response is about providing a better option not necessarily the ideal solution. It is about riskminimisation using the knowledge available today.

The emergency strategy would focus on the current level of knowledge and assisting in the immediate mitigationmeasures to bring relief to the worst effected areas currently identified. The emergency strategy could take asimilar approach to that documented by the Emergency Arsenic Task Force (see Annexe 8). The informalEmergency Task Force was formed at the request of the Donor Local Consultative sub-group on water andsanitation and funded the development of the maps in Annexe 3.

An emergency situation requires an emergency response - fast, effective, well targeted action.

Three main areas for rapid response are:

1) Grassroots and mass media campaigns to increase awareness on arsenic avoidance and bestmitigation practices (in part being carried out by BAMWSP, DPHE, UNICEF, DANIDA and other actorsbut there is a need for clear, simple and consistent information to avoid confusion and / or panic withinthe community)

2) To increase the number of people with access to safe water especially in hotspot villages (defined asvillages with greater than 70% tubewells arsenic affected and at least one patient identified) and otherhighly effected areas. This would be done by the use of the Emergency Arsenic Task Force approach(Annexe 8) and maps (Annexe 3). Decisions on the safe water option should take into account theoptions listed in Annexe 8, the preliminary results from the DFID rapid assessment of household levelarsenic removal technologies and the community preference. This approach would also find all arsenic'hot spots' in the remaining districts using random survey, awareness campaigns, medics etc.

3) To increase the number of people with access to appropriate medical advice and treatment through anemergency programme similar to that documented in Annexe 8.

6.2 Long term strategyThe development of a longer-term strategy is currently hindered by key gaps in information. This section listsareas of work identified as significantly delaying progress towards a sustainable strategy of nation-wide arsenicmitigation. It is noted that formal learning from the Emergency / Short term Strategy should feed into the longerterm approach but that the Emergency Strategy should not be delayed through attempting compliance with thelong term strategy, e.g. awaiting results from longer term work before rapid implementation, this will defeat theobjective of rapid response to people worst affected.

The following recommendations are listed under Urgent Requirements and Essential Requirements. TheUrgent Requirements are seen as those areas of work, which, if undertaken, would have a wide reaching andrapid positive effect on arsenic mitigation. If funding for the Urgent Requirements were forthcoming these couldbe completed by appropriate organisations to give preliminary guidance within a six-month timeframe. This isrealistic for the workload involved in each study but not necessarily for the administration of the fundingorganisation.

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The Essential Requirements are issues that are not as urgent and not feasible for completion over a short timeframe. A number of the Urgent Requirements will be built upon and developed further within the longertimeframe of the Essential Requirements. An example of this are the strong linkages and ongoing lessonlearning between the DFID funded Rapid Assessment of Household Level Arsenic Removal Technologies andthe longer term CIDA funded Environmental Technology Verification for Arsenic Mitigation (ETV-AM) work. Theformer is a six-month study to give preliminary results on the technical and social aspects of nine arsenicremoval technologies, this information will give technology guidance to organisations that are currentlyimplementing in the field situation and is a rapid response. The DFID work will also pre-test parts of the draftETV-AM and the results will feed into the development of the ETV-AM. The longer term CIDA ETV-AM initiativewill work over a three-year timeframe to develop a protocol for the verification of arsenic removal technologies.

Good co-ordination and communication are key to effective learning and reduction of duplicated efforts.

The recommendations do not deal specifically with apportioning responsibility for the recommended work nor dothey deal with the need for organisational restructuring or institutional capacity building. It is hoped that therecommendations will be taken forward by responsible organisations that have the dynamism to react within anappropriate timeframe.

6.2.1 Urgent requirements:The following activities and outputs should be forth coming within a six-month timeframe.

6.2.1.1 Formation of a clear, concise arsenic avoidance strategy and best practice packages. Collation of experience on the best practices brought together in simple packages of best approach withinformation known to date. The starting point would be concept papers on the activities and outputs of keyorganisations active in particular aspects of arsenic mitigation. These would be formulated through discussionwith NGOs, International NGOs, donors, Government, private sector and development banks.

The best practice packages would be separated into:

1) Information, Education and Communication Materials2) Tubewell Screening, Monitoring, Georeferencing and Associated Protocol Development3) Patient Screening, Treatment and Protocol Development4) Arsenic Removal Technologies5) Alternative Safe Water Sources6) Data Collection, Storage, Collation and Dissemination

The best approach packages would be dynamic documentation and updated on a six monthly basis. Theconcept papers would act as the foundation for co-ordination and formation of working groups on key mitigationissues. The best practice packages would be formulated through participatory workshops which would involvekey stakeholder organisations currently involved in arsenic mitigation programmes. The workshops would be anopen forum for lesson learning, information sharing and discussion of best practices which would bedocumented by an independent body. The working groups specific to an aspect of arsenic mitigation wouldappoint a chairperson and meet quarterly to encourage co-ordination in the development of best practiceapproaches.

The chairs would meet on a six monthly basis, brief each other on the developments within each of themitigation activities and encourage consistency of approach. The chair of this co-ordination meeting would bewell informed to be a dynamic leader for the national co-ordination of arsenic mitigation (see section 6.2.2.1).

6.2.1.2 Field Test Kit Validation

Reliable field test kits are a prerequisite for measuring all or most of the wells in Bangladesh for arsenic. Therehave been at least four evaluations of arsenic field test kits within the period November 1998 to November2000. The arsenic field test kits under development or currently available include MERCK, GPL, HACH,NIPSOM, PeCo75, NCL and Spectrochemicals (see section 4.1). The evaluations to date have focused on theaccuracy and reliability of three or four of the kits. A rapid comparative assessment of the field test kits invarious water chemistry parameters is essential, this will in part be addressed by a DFID funded study (seesection 3.8). The evaluation would be undertaken by an objective organisation and would include intensivelaboratory analysis, field testing, field user/operator feedback, assessment of reagents and methodology,assessment of manufacturers' capacity on issues such as quality assurance and production capacity. Whereappropriate the evaluation would make recommendations for modifications of the kits and technical assistancewould be provided to locally and regionally manufactured kits.

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6.2.1.3 Technical assistance to local manufacturers Local private sector should be encouraged to assist in the arsenic mitigation effort. Two key areas for privatesector involvement are in the local manufacture of arsenic field test kits and the manufacture of arsenic removaltechnologies. Section 6.2.1.2 refers to the necessity for field test kits and the recommendation for technicalassistance for local manufacturers.

A similar case can be made for the involvement of local private sector in the development and supply of arsenicremoval technologies. It is imperative that a reliable supply chain exists for both field test kits and arsenicremoval technologies. The Delhi based Regional Water and Sanitation Programme have funded a study intothe supply chains of household level arsenic removal technologies. The report is currently at draft stage.

The demand for both arsenic removal technologies and field test kits exists yet local private sector is notinvesting readily. An encouraging environment to local private sector investment would include small to mediumsized tenders, weighted scoring on tenders for local manufacture, direct technical assistance to promisingdevelopments, a transparent evaluation with constructive recommendations for technology / processmodifications and ways to address broader constraints on private sector investment.

6.2.1.4 Georeferencing and labelling / tagging The large effort required to test all tubewells within a short time frame is made more significant by the potentialfor data loss and duplication of testing. To minimise this risk and maximise the speed at which tubewells can betested, data recorded and monitoring systems put in place the issue of georeferencing and tagging or labellingof tubewells must be addressed.

Currently the protocol is for tubewells to be painted red or green depending on their unsafe or safe status.BAMWSP request that the tubewell testing information is then forwarded to the National Arsenic MitigationInformation Centre (NAMIC). The majority of organisations do not georeference the tubewells and theinformation received by NAMIC may be referenced by village, upazilla or name of tubewell owner. This varietyof data is difficult to store in an accessible form.

A strategy or protocol for the use (and availability) of Geographical Positioning Systems (GPS) in the collectionof tubewell testing data needs to be formulated. ACIC (see section 3.15) have suggested a pool of GPSsavailable for organisations without immediate access to GPSs. A GPS currently retails at approximatelyUS$150.

The long-term sustainability of painting tubewells red or green should be revisited. Paint peels or fades and canbe painted over. As an emergency measure the red / green paint is a solution but on a longer-term basis amore complete data set would be useful at the tubewell. Each tubewell would be georeferenced and datarecorded in an easily accessible format by a central body (e.g. NAMIC) but at community level a system oftagging or labelling with important data is required. The data marked on each tubewell would include thearsenic concentration, the date of testing, the test kit used and the organisation responsible for the test. Thisinformation would be easily available to the household and other organisations carrying out tubewell screening.

The NAMIC data recording format must be systemised and widely distributed if the data that NAMIC request isto be of use to the arsenic mitigation effort. The tubewell tagging or labelling mechanism must also bestandardised.

6.2.1.5 Guidance on cost recovery / subsidies A consistent, realistic strategy for cost recovery on provision of safe water (either through alternative sources orarsenic removal mechanisms) and arsenic field testing costs. A projection of necessary budget for initial testingand regular monitoring of water quality using field and laboratory methodologies is necessary as is a budgetprojection of provision of safe water to all effected households.

Policy should be formulated through discussion with stakeholders including NGOs, Government, donors,development banks, private sector and community leaders. A top down approach is unlikely to be successful.

6.2.1.6 Rapid assessment / evaluation of alternative water source options A large number of organisations have experience in alternative water source technologies. These technologiesinclude household and community level technologies (see section 5.1). The collation of the available datawould enable a simple decision tree to be formulated to assist in alternative source selection at field level. Note:A more substantial, longer-term study could be undertaken which would feed into Essential not UrgentRequirements.

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6.2.1.7 Food chain and health effect studies The human health significance of other sources of arsenic, such as those via the food chain, need to be furtherexplored, as do the relationships between diet/nutrition and the long-term effects of arsenic, and the dose-response and dose-effect relationships in drinking water.

Knowledge on health effects of arsenic is incomplete and the situation is complicated by factors such asHepatitis B, nutritional status and the actual form of arsenic.

DCHT (see section 3.16) are commencing a three-year programme to answer some of these questions. A rapidcollation of existing data, including information from DCHT, would be a useful exercise to support dietary adviceto arsenicosis patients. 6.2.1.8 Information dissemination strategy The poor availability of reliable information hinders action at all levels and may lead to panic, exacerbated ifmisleading reports are made. Effective information channels have yet to be established to those affected andconcerned.

All recommendations made within this report are void if effective, accurate and rapid communication andinformation dissemination does not take place. A clear strategy, taking into account the different target groupsand level of information required, is an essential part of an arsenic mitigation effort.

Ease of access to information is essential and organisations should be encouraged to share information widely.The central body of NAMIC has responsibility for information collection, collation and dissemination. Thevolume of data and documentation is large. The capacity of NAMIC or any one organisation for this task shouldbe assessed.

Dissemination channels should include mass awareness and community awareness in addition to thedissemination of technical reports or strategies. Different media have different target audiences. Informationchannels should include radio, television, newspapers, IEC materials, internet, newsletters, workshops, etc.

A reference listing of available reports on particular aspects of arsenic mitigation should be made available anda central resource centre for arsenic documentation and materials set up. The resource centre would holdeasily accessible documentation and be staffed by resource personnel able to assist in recommending reportsand giving advice or referral for appropriate technical advice. The resource centre would respond to email andtelephone queries and requests for information. NGO Forum for drinking water and sanitation and WaterAidBangladesh (see section 3.20) are currently setting up this type of a resource centre for small to medium sizedNGOs.

6.2.2 Essential requirements:The following activities and outputs will lead on from the previous section 6.2.1.

6.2.2.1 Formation of a Rapid Response Committee The need to identify knowledge gaps and initiate appropriate work to bridge these gaps will be a continuousprocess. Section 6.2.1.1 outlines the need for best practice packages and working groups to take forwardparticular initiatives. The meeting of the chairs of these working groups would be a forum for identification ofknowledge gaps. The group or committee would have strong linkages with key organisations active in arsenicmitigation. The chair of this co-ordination meeting would be well informed to be a dynamic leader for the nationalco-ordination of arsenic mitigation.

The chair of each working group must give appropriate time and importance to the identification of knowledgegaps. The six monthly meeting of working group chairs would then recommend initiating particular works. Thisgroup or committee would have an easily accessible budget donated by various donors and would have theability to engage consultants for short-term studies to stopper knowledge gaps. For effective outputs from thisinitiative a system of either remuneration or chair rotation should be in place to ensure an unrealistic workload isnot placed on the chairs. Clearly the accountability, transparency and terms of reference for such a committeeneed to be fully addressed and documented. It would be useful to have diverse membership of the committeeincluding representatives from research, donor, Government, NGO and private sector organisations. IdeallyGovernment would chair such a committee.

6.2.2.2 Co-ordination Leading from section 6.2.1.8 and 6.2.2.1 clearer information dissemination and co-ordination of the manydifferent arsenic mitigation initiatives is essential in the effective coverage and timely assistance to communities.

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The Emergency Arsenic Task Force maps (Annexe 3) indicate the geographical distribution of the largerorganisations' mitigation efforts. These maps give an overview of the working areas but need constant updatingand further detail to be a fully utilised tool. This additional detail and data is essential and is related to the extentof the organisations' activities within a particular thana and the planned timing for implementation. For examplean organisation could be working in only 2 villages within a particular thana but unless more detailed GIS mapsexist it may be read as the entire thana being covered by a certain organisation. A similar problem arises withtiming of interventions. If an organisation is planning to work in 30 thanas it is unlikely that the work will besimultaneous, it may be spread over a two-year period. Easy access to this information is important for co-ordination of ongoing mitigation efforts and geographical direction for new interventions.

6.2.2.3 Three month national level objectives with shared responsibility and clear timing for outputs

To encourage accountability, transparency and achieving outputs a participatory workplan exercise for arsenicmitigation should be formulated. A national level rolling three-month workplan would be widely shared withinterested stakeholders. The workplan would be formulated with and by key stakeholders. The stakeholderswould share the responsibility for monitoring and action on certain outputs.

Clear outputs, responsibilities, timing and funding arrangements would be documented and the overall nationalprogramme monitored against the set objectives. It would not be the sole responsibility of the largestprogramme to achieve each of the set objectives / outputs but to ensure responsibility for a particular output wasassigned to an appropriate organisation.

The work plans would move from three to six-monthly within two years.

6.2.2.4 Small contracts / tenders to encourage local private sector On going support for local private sector participation (section 6.2.1.3) through the letting of small contracts andprovision of an appropriate enabling environment.

6.2.2.5 Public, NGO, donor, private sector working together Look for innovative ways to encourage public, private, NGO and donor organisations to work together and shareinformation.

6.2.2.6 Tubewell Monitoring Strategy & Seasonality testing Development of a cost effective, technically sound monitoring strategy for field testing of tubewells.

Design and implementation of a study to assess the seasonal variations of arsenic in groundwater.

6.2.2.7 Deep Aquifer Investigations Collation of data and design of further work to assess the feasibility of the deep aquifer as a partial or fullsolution for arsenic mitigation. Various amounts of deep aquifer investigations have been funded by DPHE,JICA, DFID, UNICEF and DANIDA. Collation of this data and the co-ordination of new initiatives is key to thedevelopment of a deep aquifer protection and use strategy.

6.2.2.8 Health Issues A significant amount of work is ongoing with relation to water testing, treatment and arsenic releasemechanisms. Less work focuses on the health impacts and medical aspects of the problem. Clearly the waterquality and medical issues are related but currently research and documentation appears to focus on thegroundwater issues.

A working group similar to that proposed in section 6.2.1.1 and 6.2.2.1 could formulate a strategy identifyingmedical knowledge gaps. Training of health officials to recognise symptoms of arsenic poisoning and theappropriate treatment is one area useful work.

6.2.2.9 Lesson learning regionally Other than Bangladesh countries within the region which have reported high arsenic concentrations includeIndia, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, China, ??Sri Lanka and Pakistan.

The case for regional lesson learning and experience sharing is strong. Currently there is little informationexchange between the affected countries. A formal mechanism for regional information exchange is necessaryto ensure that good practice is rapidly propagated.

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Annex 1

PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND TERTIARY SYMPTOMS OF ARSENICOSIS

Note: taken from Dhaka Community Hospital Trust Information

IN PRIMARY STAGE

1.Melanosis - Darkening or blackening of skin colour. Small black spots or diffuse black patchesparticularly over the trunk and back then gradually over the whole body.

2.Keratosis - Skin becomes hard & rough especially on palms of hands soles.

3.Conjunctivitis- Reddening of eyes.

4.Bronchitis- Infection of respiratory system.

5.Gastroenteritis- Includes nausea, vomiting and loose motion.

IN SECONDARY STAGE

1.Leuko-melanosis- Black & white spots on various parts of the skin of the body.

2.Hyperkeratosis- Rough nodules on palm & sole.

3.Non pitting edema- Swelling of leg.

4.Peripheral neuropathy - Terminal neurosis.

5.Kidney & liver- Various complications of kidney &liver occur.

IN TERTIARY STAGE

1.Gangrene- Necrosis with putrefaction of terminal limbs of the body.

2.Cancer- Cancer of skin, urinary bladder & lungs.

3.Failure of function of the liver.

4.Failure of function of the kidney.

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Annexe 2

Dhaka University Research Papers

Department of Geology

Research Supervised/conducted by Dr. K M Ahmed, at Geology Department, DU:

M.Sc. Theses:1. Geology and Geochemistry of Arsenic Occurrence in Groundwater of Singair Thana, Manikganj District.

M.Sc. Thesis (M Shahnewaz), Department of Geology, University of Dhaka, 1999.2. A Comparative Study of Arsenic Contaminated (Iswardi, Pabna) and Non-Contaminated (Thakurgaon

Sadar) Aquifers, NW Bangladesh. M.Sc. Thesis (S Shamima Parveen), Department of Geology, Universityof Dhaka, 1999.

3. Physico-Chemical Status of Arsenic Contaminated Aquifers in Nawabganj Sadar and its Surroundings,Nawabganj District. M.Sc. Thesis (S M M Alam), Department of Geology, University of Dhaka, 1999.

4. Origin and distribution of arsenic in central Bangladesh. M. Sc. Thesis (Ross Nickson), Department ofGeological Sciences, University College London, UK, 1997.

5. Arsenic in groundwater at Meherpur, Bangladesh-a vertical pore water profile and rock/water interactions.M. Sc. Thesis (J Perrin), Department of Geological Sciences, University College London, UK, 1998.

6. Arsenic in groundwater at Meherpur, Bangladesh-spatial variations and hydrogeological controls. M. Sc.Thesis (M Burren), Department of Geological Sciences, University College London, UK, 1998.

7. The vertical and spatial variability of arsenic in the groundwater of Chaumohani, Southesat Bangladesh.M.Sc. Thesis (S Mather), Department of Geological Sciences, University College London, UK, 1999.

8. Arsenic occurrence and distribution in Tala, Satkhira, SW Bnagladesh. M.Sc. Thesis (L Mazumder), Divisionof Land and Water, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden - 1999.

9. The vertical and spatial variability of arsenic in Magura town, SW Bangladesh. M.Sc. Thesis (J Cobbing),Department of Geological Sciences, University College London, UK, 2000.

10. Arsenic in groundwater at Magura, SW Bangladesh-a vertical pore water profile and rock/water interactions.M. Sc. Thesis (A Carruthers), Department of Geological Sciences, University College London, UK, 2000.

11. Modelling of arsenic transport in Magura area, SW Bangladesh. M. Sc. Thesis (H Cheetam), Department ofGeological Sciences, University College London, UK, 2000.

12. Geostatistical and Hydrogeological Evaluation of Arsenic Field Testing Data from Jhikargachha Upazila,Jessore, SW Bangladesh. M.Sc. (Sabiqunnahar) - ongoing.

13. Investigation of the Deeper Aquifer as a Source of Arsenic Free Water in Kachua Municipality, Chandpur,SE Bangladesh. M.Sc. (M Zubaer Ahmed)- ongoing.

14. Vertical profiling of arsenic in groundwater, porewater and sedimants from Magura, western Bangladesh(Alison Carruthers)

15. Modelling the movement of arsenic to public water supply wells in the deep alluvial aquifer, southernBangladesh (Helen Cheetham)

Other Research: 1. Sedimentological and Mineralogical Studies on Arsenic Contaminated Aquifers within Bangladesh. For

Ground Water Circle, Bangladesh Water Development Board. Completed December 1997.2. Sedimentological and Mineralogical Studies on Arsenic Contaminated Aquifers within Bangladesh. For

Ground Water Circle, Bangladesh Water Development Board. Completed September 1998. 3. Sedimentological and Mineralogical Studies on Arsenic Contaminated Aquifers within Bangladesh. For

Ground Water Circle, Bangladesh Water Development Board. Completed September 1999.

The following papers have been prepared jointly with the Geohazard Research Group (GRG) in the Departmentof Geology, University of Dhaka.

Khan, A.A., Akhter, S.H. and Bhuiyan, A.H. 1999. Arsenic in groundwater vis-a-vis impact of watershedmanagement in the Ganges delta of Bangladesh. Oriental Geographer, v.43, No. 2, p. 1-14.

Khan, A.A., Akhter, S.H, Hasan, M.A., Ahmed, K.M. and Imam, M.B. Etiology of arsenic in the groundwater ofthe Bengal Delta - constraints from geological evidences. KTH-DU Special Publication Volume "GroundwaterArsenic Contamination in the Bengal Delta Plains of Bangladesh", Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,Sweden. (Accepted).

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Khan, A.A. and Akhter, S.H. Can geophysical resistivity detect arsenic contaminated aquifer? KTH-DU SpecialPublication Volume "Groundwater Arsenic Contamination in the Bengal Delta Plains of Bangladesh", RoyalInstitute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden. (Accepted).

Ahmed, K.M., Imam, M.B., Akhter, S.H., Hasan, M.A. and Khan, A.A. Sedimentology and mineralogy of thearsenic contaminated aquifers in the Bengal Delta of Bangladesh. KTH-DU Special Publication Volume"Groundwater Arsenic Contamination in the Bengal Delta Plains of Bangladesh", Royal Institute of Technology,Stockholm, Sweden. (Accepted).

Khan, A.A., Alam, S.M.M. and Akhter, S.H. Clay and the fate of arsenic transport in the Upper Ganges DeltaPlain of Bangladesh. Accepted for presentation and publication in the Proceedings of InternationalSymposium on Suction, Swelling, Permeability and Structure of Clays. IS-Shizuoka 2001, January 11-13, 2001,Japan. A. A. Balkema Publishers,Rotterdam, Netherlands.

Khan, A.A., Akhter, S.H. and Alam, S.M.M. Evidence of Holocene transgression, dolomitization and the sourceof arsenic in the Bengal Delta. Proceedings of GEO2000, Int. Conf. Geotech. Geoenv. Eng. And Management.UAE University at Al Ain, 4-7 November, 2000. A. A. Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

Khan, A. A.; Imam, B.; Akhter, S. H.; Hasan, M. A. & Ahmed, K. M. U. 1998. Subsurface investigation in thearsenic problem areas of Rajarampur, Chanlai and Baragharia, Nawabganj district, Bangladesh. ResearchStudy Report for UNICEF-DPHE.

Imam, B.; Akhter, S. H.; Khan, A. A.; Hasan, M. A. & Ahmed, K. M. 1998. Sedimentological and Mineralogicalstudies on aquifer sediments within Bangladesh. Research Study Report for Groundwater Circle, BangladeshWater Development Board.

Khan, A. A.; Akhter, S. H.; Ahmed, K. M. & Hasan, M. A. 1999. Sedimentological and Mineralogical studies onarsenic contaminated aquifers within Bangladesh. Research Study Report for Ground Water Section,Bangladesh Water Development Board.

Khan, A. A. and Alam, S. M. M. Oxidation - reduction debate on arsenic vis-a-vis options for safe water.Accepted for publication in the "Bangladesh Environment 2000", a publication of the InternationalConference on Bangladesh Environment (ICBEN-2000), ITN, BUET.

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Annexe 3

EMERGENCY ARSENIC TASK FORCE MAPS OF HOTSPOT VILLAGES

1. MAP 1 Number of arsenic hot-spot villages in various thanas

2. MAP 2 Thanas with hot-spot villages and location of arsenic/WSS projects

3. MAP 3 Thana locations of different agencies arsenic/WSS projects

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MAP 1

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MAP 2

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MAP 3

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Annex 4

NGO Forum arsenic related research activities:

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES

! Conducted a study on evaluation of arsenic field testing kits in collaboration with School of EnvironmentalStudies (SOES), Jadavpur University, West Bengal, India.

Ongoing Research activities

! Conducting research on different aspects of arsenic including Quality of alternative arsenic-free safe wateroptions.

! Evaluation of BTU in terms of Social acceptability, Arsenic removal efficiency, Health hazards and costeffectiveness (Danida supported).

! Randomised Invention trial to assess dietary contribution to total arsenic exposure, (Aus Aid funded, incollaboration with NCEPH, Australian National University, Canberra)- Data collection phase is over, food &biological samples are being analysed now at Canberra).

! Health hazards (Respiratory effects, Nutritional status, Hypertension) caused due to ingestion of arsenic (NGOForum initiative)- data completion is over and report will be published soon.

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Annex 5 Water Quality Fact Sheet:

Arsenic

WHO guideline value (recommended limit): 10 µg 1-1

National standard in most countries: 50 µg 1-1

Typical range in groundwater: usually < 10µg 1-1 (up to around 3000 µg 1-1)

This is one of a serious of information sheets prepared for a limited number of inorganic constituents of significanthealth concern that are commonly found in groundwater. The sheets aim to explain the nature of the health risk, theorigin and occurrence of the constituent in groundwater, the means of testing and available methods of mitigation. Thepurpose of the sheets is to provide guidance to WaterAid Country Office staff on targeting efforts for water-qualitytesting and to encourage further thinking within the organisation on water-quality issues.

Health effects

Arsenic is a ubiquitous element found in theatmosphere, soils and rocks, natural waters andorganisms. It is mobilised in the environment througha combination of natural processes such as weatheringreactions, biological activity and volcanic emissions aswell as through a range of human activities, includingmining, industry and agricultural use of arsenicalpesticides. Of the various sources of arsenic in theenvironment, drinking water probably process thegreatest threat to human health.

Arsenic has long been recognised as a toxin andcarcinogen. Long-term ingestion of highconcentrations from drinking water can potentially giverise to a number of health problems, particularly skindisorders, of which the most common are pigmentationchanges (dark/light skin sports) and keratosis (wartynodules, usually on the palms and feet). Additionalsymptoms include other more serious dermotalogicalproblems (e.g. skin cancer and Bowen's diease), cadio-vascular (blackfoot disease, Raynaud's syndrome,hupertension, gangrene), neurological, respiratory andhepatic dieases as well as diabetes mellitus. Suchsymptoms have been well-documented in areas ofknown groundwater contamination such asBangladesh, West Bengal, Taiwan, northern China,Mexico, Chile and Argentina.

A number of internal cancers have also been linkedwith As in drinking water, particularly lung, bladder,liver, prostate and kidney cancer (e.g. Smith et al.,1992 - 1998). Much research is being carried out toassess the risks of such cancers at the levels of thedrinking-water standards. Clinical symptoms of Aspoisning and their relative prevalence seem to varybetween affected regions and there is no clearagreement on the definition of As poisoning.

Some studies have shown a clear relationship betweenarsenic dose from drinking water and the developmentof cancer and other diseases. However, therelationship may be complicated by other factors suchas nutritional and general health status (hepatitis B mayexacerbate the problems) and water chemistry (e.g.

aqueous arsenic chemistry, dissolved ironconcentration). Debate also remains over whether athreshold as concentration exists below which theelement is effectively safe (e.g. Smith et al., 1999).

Latency periods of several years for the developmentof arsenic-related health problems have been noted inseveral investigations a factor which in part explainswhy many of the problems in developing countrieshave only recently emerged despite several years ofgroundwater use.

Many of the advanced and most serious clinicalsymptoms are incurable, others can be treated andsymptoms can to into remission provided a supply oflow-As drinking water is provided a relatively earlystage. Early detection of arsenic in drinking water andprovision of low arsenic alternatives is thereforecritical and the element warrants special monitoring inpotentially vulnerable groundwaters.

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Following the accumulation of evidence for the chronictoxicological effects of As in drinking water,recommended and regulatory limits of many authoritiesare being reduced. The WHO guideline value for As indrinking water was provisionally reduced in 1993 from50 µg 1-1 to 10 µg 1-1 The new recommended value isbased largely on analytical capability. Standards basedon risk alone would likely be lower still. At present,most countries, and indeed all developing countries,continue to use the 50 µg 1-1 limit as the nationalstandard because of limited analytical capability.

Occurrence in groundwater

Arsenic concentrations in natural waters varysignificantly, potentially spanning more than fourorders of magnitude. Groundwaters are generally morevulnerable to accumulation of high arsenicconcentrations than surface waters because ofincreased opportunity for chemical reactions betweenwater and host rocks and the high ratios of solid tosolution compared to surface waters. Exceptions canoccur locally where surface waters (as well asgroundwaters) are contaminated by point sources(mining, geothermal, industrial) or where river watershave a high component of baseflow (groundwater).Groundwaters are where the greatest number of, as yetunidentified, high- arsenic sources are likely to befound.

Observed arsenic concentrations in groundwater arethemselves highly variable. Most groundwaters tend tohave concentrations < 10 µg 1-1 but may range up toand in excess of 3000 µg 1-1 in some conditions.Arsenic and fluoride together are now recognised asthe greatest problems of all inorganic constituents ingroundwater.

Most cases of arsenic contamination in groundwaterare naturally-derived, either due to the occurrence offavourable oxidation/ reduction and pH conditions inthe aquifers (see below) or due to inputs from localgeothermal sources. Arsenic problems may also beexacerbated in areas affected by mining activity (coaland metals associated with sulphide minerals). Bothmining effluent and geothermal waters often havearsenic concentrations in the milligram-per-litre rangeand can cause major increases in concentrations ofsurface waters and groundwaters. Unlike affectedmajor aquifers, these tend to be relatively localised tothe contaminant source and are usually easilyidentified. Contam-ination from industrial sources mayalso be severe locally, but such cases are comparativelyrare.

Unlike many other toxic trace elements, arsenic ispotentially highly mobile in water given theappropriate environmental conditions. It forms anionic(negatively charged) species in water and hence unlikecations can be stable in soluble form at the neutral to

alkaline pHs (6.5-8.5) characteristic of mostgroundwaters. However, arsenic is strongly adsorbed(adhered) onto sediments and soils, particularly ironoxides, as well as aluminium and manganese oxidesand clays. These are common constituents of aquifersand are the reason why most groundwaters have lowarsenic concentrations.

Arsenic occurs in two oxidation states in water . Inreduced (anaerobic) conditions, it is dominated by thereduced form: arsenite and in oxidising conditions bythe oxidised form: arsenate. Ad-sorption (and hencerestricted mobility in water) is particularly strong forarsenate.

High arsenic concentrations in groundwater are mainlyfound in cases where adsorption is restricted. These arefound naturally under two main types of conditions:

ii) strongly reducing (anaerobic, low-Eh) ground-waters where arsenite dominates and hencesorption to oxides is less favourable. Iron oxidesthemselves may also dissolve in such conditions,which may release funher arsenic;

iii) oxidising (aerobic) aquifers with highgroundwater-pH values (> 8), typically restr-ictedto arid or semi-arid environments. Suchgroundwaters commonly also have high con-centrations of other potentially toxic elementssuch as fluoride, boron, uranium, vanadium,nitrate and selenium.

Although the precise mechanisms of arsenic release ingroundwater are not yet fully understood, there appearto be two further criteria necessary for the developmentof high arsenic concentrations in groundwaters fromthese two environments. Naturally- contaminatedaquifers recognised so far tend to be:

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i) geologically young (ie. sediments depositedin the last few thousand years) and;

ii) groundwaters characterised by slow flowconditions, either because of low hydraulicgradients low-lying areas such as flat alluvialbasins and the lower parts of deltas) or lack ofactive rainfall and recharge (arid areas, closedbasins).

Examples of anaerobic aquifers affected by arsenicinclude the alluvial and deltaic aquifers of Bangladeshand West Bengal (formed by erosion of the Himalayain the last few thousand years), and alluvial and lakesediment aquifers of Inner Mongolia, southern Taiwanand the Danube Basin, Hungary. Examples ofoxidising aquifers with arsenic problems include theloess aquifers of central Argentina and Chile (formedover the last few thousand years largely by winderosion of Andean rocks) and alluvial aquifers ofnorthern Mexico and parts of south-west USA (Figure1; Smedley and Kinniburgh, 2000).

Arsenic problems in mining and mineralised areasoccur because of the oxidation of sulphide minerals(especially pyrite and arsenopyrite) which can containvery high concentrations of arsenic and which oxidiseby aeration, particularly by the disturbances created bythe mining activities. Arsenic problems have beenrecorded in sulphide-mining areas in many parts of theworld, but are particularly well documented in parts ofThailand, Ghana, the USA and Canada (Figure 1).Recent health problems from mining-related arseniccontamination have also been recognised in part ofMadhya Pradesh, India.

Areas where potential future arsenic problems may beidentified therefore include:

i) large low-lying present-day alluvial and deltaicbasins composed of young sediment wheregroundwater flow is slow or stagnant and whereanaerobic conditions prevail (poss-ibilitiesinclude the lower reaches of the Indus Valley ,Pakistan, the Mekong and Red River deltas ofVietnam and possibly the lower reaches of theNiger Delta,

DOCUMENTED ARSENIC PROBLEMS IN GROUNDWATER AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Figure 1. Documented arsenic problems in groundwater and the environment. Includes known occurrences ofgeothermal and mining-related arsenic problems

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Nigeria);

ii) inland basins with young sediments in arid andsemi-arid areas (such as parts of northern China);

iii) sulphide mining and mineralised areas(occurring in basement aquifers in for example partsof Africa, including Ghana, South Africa, Zimbabweand India);

iv) geothermal areas (possibilities include the EastAfrican Rift of T anzania, Uganda and Kenya,although no arsenic data are known for the region).

Arsenic in water is invisible and has no taste or smell.Hence other diagnostic features of water chemistry needto be investigated to identify potential arsenicoccurrences. Features of the different types of high-arsenic groundwater environ-ment are shown in Figure 2.

Field testing for arsenic

Arsenic has not been traditionally included on lists ofelements routinely tested by water- quality testinglaboratories in developing countries and so some arsenic-rich sources undoubtedly remain to be identified. Therecent discovery of arsenic contam-ination on a largescale in Bangladesh in particular has highlighted theneed for a rapid assessment of the situation in similaraquifers world-wide. The intended revision of thedrinking-water standard for arsenic in a number ofcountries has also prompted the need for inclusion of theelement in water-quality monitoring programmes.

Aquifers with identified arsenic problems typically havea high degree of spatial variability in concentrationswithin relatively short distances (metres to kilometres).This means that in vulnerable aquifers, ideally each wellused for drinking water needs to be tested to ensure itsfitness for use. In affected aquifers such as those ofBangladesh, this can mean large numbers of sources(several million tubewells). Laboratory analysis ispreferable, but difficult on such a large scale. Field-testkits are an alternative, but need to be simple, rapid,inexpensive and reliable to use.

Most of the current field-test kits {e.g. Merck, AsianArsenic Network, All-lndia Institute of Hygiene &Public Health, NIPSOM (Bangladesh)) are based on the'Gutzeit' method,

Figure 2. Flow diagram to assist identification ofpotential high-arsenic groundwater provinces(DOC; dissolved organic carbon, DO: dissolvedoxygen. Eh: redox potential)

which involves the reduction of arsenite and arsenate byzinc to give arsine gas which is then used to produce astain on mercuric bromide paper. There have been manystudies of the sensitivity and reliability of these kits,particularly in India and Bangladesh. They are usuallygood at detecting high concentrations (greater thanaround 100 µg 1-1) but despite claims, have rather poorerreliability at lower con-centrations. Few would claim thatthey are reliable enough at concentrations of less than 50µg 1-1, the critical range for drinking waters. Stringentquality control of analyses using field- test kits needs tobe carried out by laboratory cross-checking.

There are a number of new developments in field-testkits but probably the most promising is the' ArsenatorLight' developed by Professor Walter Kosmus of theKarl Franzens University, Graz, Austria. This is a logicaldevelopment of the standard Gutzeit kit in that it replaceszinc with sodium borohydride and so removes theproblem of obtaining low-arsenic zinc; uses tabletsinstead of liquid chemicals and so avoids the need forcarrying strong acids in the field; has a simple and robustarsine generator; has improved sensitivity and precision,uses a calculator-style device to measure the staindeveloped photometrically rather than by eye and iseasily calibrated. The kit is still being developed with thesupport of UNICEF, Bangladesh.

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Remediation techniques and supply of low-arsenicdrinking water

A number of solutions to the arsenic problems ofvulnerable aquifers have been suggested for differentsituations. The only clear conclusion is that no singlesolution is appropriate for all problems.

Identification of safe tubewells

In areas where groundwater-arsenic problems may besuspected but data are lacking, a broadscale randomisedsurvey of selected tubewells is required to identify thescale of the potential problem.

In areas of known arsenic problems such as Bangladeshand West Bengal, identification of safe tubewells isbeing carried by rigorous water testing (laboratory andfield tests) of sources used for drinking, as well asperiodic monitoring to ensure long-term safety. Even inseverely contaminated areas, not all wells within a givenaquifer are contaminated (greater than the nationalstandard concentration). Hence groundwater should notbe abandoned completely without further evaluation. InBangladesh, a British Geological Survey study hasshown that of some 3500 groundwaters collectednationally, 25% were above 50 µg 1-1 and 35% above 10

µg 1-1 (Kinniburgh and Smedley, 2000). There is alsothe possibility of selective use of contaminated sources(for washing etc). However, in some areas, a highpercentage of tubewells may be contaminated andalternatives therefore need to be found.

Groundwater treatment

The most commonly used methods of treatment of high-arsenic waters at community and municipal level are bythe addition of coagulants such as alum or potassiumpermanganate. Alum is readily available in mostcountries but has the drawback of leaving residualaluminium and sulphate in treated waters and is not veryefficient for waters above pH 7.5. Alum is beingpromoted for domestic use in Bangladesh using a two-bucket (alum and sand) system. Potassium permanganateis also added to reducing groundwaters to oxidisearsenite to arsenate and thereby facilitate its removalAdsorption of arsenic to the manganese oxide producedalso occurs. Ferric chloride is also used, but more so inwestern countries because of cost. The efficacy of thevarious treatments depends on a number of factors,including the original arsenic concentrations and theoverall water chemistry . Activated alumina is also usedin some areas to remove arsenic by adsorption, thoughthis is also expensive and not so suitable for developingcountries. Both alum and activated alumina are alsocommonly used to remove fluoride (see Fluoride FactSheet).

For anaerobic groundwaters, there may be some benefitfrom simple natural flocculation of iron present in thewater which precipitates as iron oxide upon aeration.This may be done by simply leaving water for a period(overnight) to allow aeration and settling. Where arsenic

concentrations are high and/ or arsenic:iron ratios arehigh, this will be less effective but while the method maynot remove the arsenic completely, it will certainly help.This method is not effective for aerobic groundwatersbecause iron concentrations are usually low.

Treatment of affected groundwater in Bangladesh andWest Bengal is also being tried at household level usingpots with various adsorption media (e.g. sand, gravel,clay) with varying success.

In oxidising aquifers with high pHs, arsenic is often notthe only water-quality problem. Water treatment mayalso require salinity reduction alongside removal of otherproblem elements such as fluoride, boron, uranium,vanadium and selenium. Where possible, reverseosmosis is commonly carried out to remove theseconstituents, but the method is expensive and notsuitable for village-level treatment in poor communities.

Alternative tubewell siting

In Bangladesh and West Bengal, older aquifers at greaterdepth (> 150 m) have mainly low arsenic concentrationsand have in places been developed for drinking-watersupply. The great spatial variability in arsenicconcentrations also offers some possibilities foralternative siting. Potential for alternative tubewellsiting, either spatially or with depth therefore arises insome vulnerable aquifers. However, spatial and depthvariations in arsenic concentrations are not universallypredictable in different aquifers. For example, theoccurrence of low-arsenic groundwaters at depth inparts of Bangladesh and West Bengal is specific to theregion and cannot be used as a rule of thumb elsewhere.This approach requires a detailed knowledge of thehydrogeological and geochemical conditions of the localaquifers. Provision of deeper tubewells involvessignificant extra cost. The current extent ofunderstanding of spatial variations on a local scaleprobably does not allow accurate prediction of thelocations of low-arsenic groundwater sources spatially.

Use of hand-dug wells in reducing aquifers

In reducing (anaerobic) aquifers, it has often been foundthat shallow open hand-dug wells have low arsenicconcentrations whilst tubewells only a few metres deeperhave much higher concentrations. The difference isprobably due to maintenance of aerobic conditions in theopen well and also to regular flushing 0£ the shallowestparts of the aquifer, close to the water table, by inputs ofrecent rainwater. Low arsenic concentrations are typicalof hand-dug wells in Bangladesh and West Bengal aswell as in Ghana. The problem arises withbacteriological quality 0£ open dug wells, as they aremore vulnerable to pollution from the surface. Suchsources require bacterial disinfection for potable use.UNICEF (India) has developed a sanitary well systemwith a well cover, hand pump and chlorination pot forthis purpose.

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Rainwater harvesting

In areas with sufficient rainfall, collection and storage ofrainwater for potable use may be possible, at leastseasonally. The method involves collection of rainwatereither from roofs or with sheets of plastic and storage inlarge cement tanks. Once in the tank, rainwater can bestored safely without bacterial contamination for severalmonths. Rainwater harvesting has been practised for along time in many coastal areas, island communities andother areas where aquifers are saline. It is now also beingtried in arsenic-affected areas, for example parts ofBangladesh.

Treated surface water

Surface water usually has low arsenic concentrations(generally much less than 10 µg 1-1) but may suffer fromserious bacterial contamination and can cause severehealth problems if not treated. Use of pond sand filters isbeing tried to remove bacteria in some areas. Theseusually involve filtration of surface water through asand- and gravel-filled tank. Such filters are beinginstalled for example by UNICEF in parts ofBangladesh. The filters are generally effective, providedthey are periodically cleaned.On a larger scale, urban piped-water supplies distributingtreated river water are being installed in some arsenic-affected areas (e.g. West Bengal). This is howeverexpensive and not suitable immediately for many large,dispersed and rural communities.

Data sources

Clewell, H. J., Gentry, P. R., Barton, H. A., Shipp, A.M., Y ager , J. W. and Andersen, M. E. 1999.Requirements for a biologically realistic cancer riskassessment for inorganic arsenic. Internl.J.Toxicol., 18, 131-147.

Kinniburgh, D. G. and Smedley, P. L. 2000.Groundwater Studies of Arsenic Contamination inBangladesh, British Geological Survey TechnicalReport, in press.

Smedley, P. L. and Kinniburgh, D. G. 2000. Source andbehaviour of arsenic in natural waters. Chapter 1,In: UN Synthesis Report on Arsenic, ed: Redekopp,A., in press.

Smith, A., Hopenhayn-Rich, C., Bates, M., Goeden, H.,Hertz-Picciotto, I., Duggan, H., Wood, R., Kosnett,M. and Smith, M. 1992. Cancer risks from arsenicin drinking water. Environ. Health Persp., 97, 259-267.

Smith, A., Goycolea, M., Haque, R. and Biggs, M. L.1998. Marked increase in bladder and lung cancermortality in a region of Northern Chile due toarsenic in drinking water. Am.J. Epidemiol., 147,660-669.

British Geological Survey, 2000.

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ANNEXE 6 WaterAid Bangladesh Participatory Arsenic Awareness Tools

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Annexe 7 FROM THE SODIS WEB SITE What is SODIS?

A treatment method to eliminate the pathogens which cause water-borne diseases Ideal to disinfect small quantities of water used for consumption A water treatment process depending on solar energy only An alternative water treatment option for use mainly at household level An old but so far hardly applied water purification method

Limitations of SODIS SODIS does not change the chemical water quality SODIS does not increase the water quantity or reduce water shortages SODIS is not useful to treat large volumes of water SODIS requires relatively clear water (turbidity less than 30 NTU) SODIS needs solar radiation(exposure time: 5 hours under bright or up to 50% cloudy sky, or 2 consecutive days under 100%cloudy sky)

The Process Diarrhoeal diseases may be transmitted through contaminated drinking water and cause the death of over threemillion people annually. Solar water disinfection (SODIS) can contribute to improve this precarious situation. So far, two different processes using solar energy for water treatment have been developed independently.Thefirst focuses on solar water disinfection by radiation, and the second applies solar thermal water treatment. Extensive laboratory and field tests conducted by EAWAG and its partners revealed that synergies, induced bythe combined application of radiation and thermal treatment, have a significant effect on the die-off rate of themicroorganisms. Hence, the best use of solar energy is, therefore, the combined application of the twotreatment processes. Field tests also revealed that Vibrio cholerae are effectively inactivated by solar waterdisinfection. Contact EAWAG / SANDEC Martin WegelinProgramme Officer Water Treatment Ueberlandstrasse 133CH-8600 Duebendorf / Switzerland phone +41-1-823 50 19fax +41-1-823 53 99e-mail: [email protected]

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Annexe 8

Emergency Arsenic ResponsePrepared by the informal arsenic emergency task force (July 2000)

It may be noted that over the last six months several appeals have been made at LCG for emergency actionand an Emergency Task Force had been formed. This generic proposal is the result of the inputs made by thevarious members of the Task Force.

WORK/MOBILISATION APPROACH

Who will do it, where will it be done, what will be done and how will it be done. The selection criteria and a quickmobilisation approach need to be setup.

Defining a ‘hotspot’: selection criteriaThe emergency action will cover ‘hotspot’ villages which are defined as villages with at least one patientidentified with visible symptoms and having at least 70% tubewells above permissible limit for arsenic(50ppb).These areas will be selected from information provided by NAMIC, BAMWSP and the Mapping of‘hotspot’ villages. Hotspot areas where there is no project activity maybe prioritised. Based on NAMIC data baseThana maybe identified with at least 1 hotspot village. Hotspots where little has reached affected families-where they do not have access to at least one safe water source and to urgent nutritional (micro-nutrients,vitamins etc.) and medical care maybe selected. Areas where large organisations and other donors are alreadyworking need not be included since they already have resources to mobilise.

Where will it be done: in a thana with at least on hotspot village• Emergency action in thana with at least 1 hotspot village where there is no project.• Emergency action in hotspot thana having project with partial coverage• To based on NAMIC data base, Mapping Hotspots

When will it be done: Within 6 months of commencementThe emergency action program will have been completed ideally within 3/4 months(September-December). Aflexibility time frame of upto a maximum of 6 months maybe considered if there is a strong need.

Who will do it: Mobilisation Approach:• Emergency Steering CommitteeThe co-ordination and steering of the emergency action and implementation plan shall be the responsibility ofthe Emergency Steering Committee. These committee members will consist of the core Emergency Force andrepresentatives from the following major organisations/departments:

1. BAMWSP: Mr. Fariduddin2. World Bank: Mr. Minnatullah3. Core EmergencyTask Force:4. Ainun Nishat (IUCN)5. Han Heijnen (DPHE-WHO)6. H. Tabatabai (GTZ)7. Sharmeen Murshid (Brotee)8. Elizabeth Jones (Water Aid)

Emergency Implementing Teams- Local and International development agencies/NGOs/PVDOs/CBOsThe Steering Committee will select local non government organisations, private development agencies andcommunity based organisations of the respective selected areas to implement the emergency program throughEmergency Teams.

3. HOW AND WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE: ACTIVITY PLAN

The emergency action program will have three essential thrusts:

1. Screening tubewells:Tubewells (shallow and deep) in the selected thana must be tested with field test kits and 10% validated withthe AAS method (particularly those which show safe arsenic levels must be cross checked)

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2. Provide immediate access to safe water: Options possible• Deep tubewell (1000ft. and above):• Surface water filter plant• Community level As removal technology• Household level As removal technology (e.g. Kolshi filter, SODIS etc.)• Rain water harvesting• Protected hand dug well• Any other available surface water technology (, pond sand filter etc.)

Emergency Teams will demonstrate how to install and operate these. They will distribute iron filings for Kolshifilter, bucket etc, and work closely with village/community and union parishad so that the work continues afterTeams depart.

3. Provide emergency medical care to the affected:One or more Emergency Mobile Doctor’s Teams similar to Medicines sans Frontieres (perhaps even jointly withthe help of such an organisation) need to visit ‘hotspots’ throughout the emergency period. Local doctors willwork with the team during local travel for the continuation of the service. Emergency Team will provide supply tovillage bodies/union parishad/health staff etc. micronutrients, vitamins for arsenic affected people.

• Referral for seriously affected patients• Symptomatic medical relief for the less affected:

-Distribute vitamins A, E, C, B-Provide micro-nutrients and ointment

4. Vital information disseminationAn Emergency Team will go out to the village and inform community on the status of tubewells and on any ofthe above mentioned safe options made available to them. They will demonstrate how to install and operatesimple technologies.Re-enforcement of basic messages using existing IEC material developed by BAMWSP and others and throughradio, microphone and meetings.• Do not drink from red tube wells• Drink from green ones and allow others to share• Improve diet to include some protein and take vitamin supplement• Collect rain water for drinking and cooking.• Demonstrate:

-Households level arsenic removal technologies-Community level arsenic removal technologies-Surface water filter-How to collect rain water

• Announce dates of arrival of doctors teams• Explain external symptoms and refer to health centersIn all cases NGOs, CBOs will mobilise the village community and work closely with the Steering Committee andwith local health staff and DPHE.

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Annexe 9

Detail on Household Level Arsenic Removal Technologies

TECHNOLOGY PASSIVE SEDIMENTATIONProcess Sedimentation – co-precipitation with iron on oxidation

Chemical controls Relies on passive coagulation with ironMain control is iron in the waterPO4 > ASO4 >> SiO4 >FHigh HCO3 has –ve impactHigh Ca/Mg has +ve impact

Physical controls Duration of settlingFinal water could be contaminated by stirringBacteriological contamination could be an issue

Operating procedure Fill kolshi and leave to settle for over 12 hours. Pour top 2/3rds

for use and discard lower 1/3rd.

Flow rate - low turbidity- high turbidity

N/AN/A

Time for 20 litres to pass 12 hours (depends on size of kolshi – 12 hrs = 30l kolshi)

Litres in 12 hours 20 litres (depends on size of kolshi – 20 litres = 30l kolshi)

Batches before deterioration- low turbidity- high turbidity

N/AN/A

Claims on effectiveness

(Results and references)

2 out of 17 wells tested took As below 50ppb. Greatestinfluence seen was negative correlation between As removaland Electrical Conductivity.

Water Aid, March 2000. Household Level Arsenic RemovalMethodologies, Preliminary Research Report.

Costs (capital and recurrent) 20 litre aluminium kolhsi – approx. Tk. 200/-

Contact details -

Stirling University (UK), VERC, DFID and WaterAid are currently testing this technology.

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TECHNOLOGY DPHE/Danida Bucket Treatment UnitProcess Oxidation/coagulation/filtration

Chemical controls Relies on enhanced coagulationLess dependent upon groundwater FeChemical oxidant enhances arsenite removalPO4 > ASO4 >> SiO4 >FHigh HCO3 has –ve impactHigh Ca/Mg has +ve impactIdeal pH 6.5 to 8 for optima functioning of alum

Possible residual Mn

Physical controls Agitation and duration of coagulationSand packing in filterDistribution of water over filterSand grain size and claysSand Fe and Organic C contentCharacter and rate of flow through filter

Operating procedure Pour water into the top bucket. Add mixture of aluminiumsulphate and potassium permanganate and stir vigorously 20times. Leave to settle for 2 hours. Turn tap to send water tolower bucket where it passes through a sand filter. Turn tap inbottom bucket to get drinking water.


70 litres per hour (but 23 l/hr including 2 hours preparation)50 litres per hour (but 17 l/hr including 2 hours preparation)

Time for 20 litres to pass Approx. 3 hours (1 hour settling + 1 hour filtration)

Litres in 12 hours 60 litres


17 batches – no deterioration40% fall in flow after 6 batches, then constant to 15 batches

Examples of claims oneffectiveness


Noakhali – 100% As below 50ppb after treatment (initial levels120-1000ppb.)DPHE/Danida Arsenic Mitigation Pilot Project Information leaflet‘Arsenic Removal at Household Level’

Sitakunda and Gomastapur – 100% As below 50ppb aftertreatment (initial levels 116-201 ppb)Water Aid, March 2000. Household Level Arsenic RemovalMethodologies, Preliminary Research Report.

Costs (capital and recurrent) Tk. 300-350 depending on the production cost of the flat coverfor the lower bucket.

Contact details DPHE-Danida Water Supply and Sanitation Components,Arsenic Mitigation Component, 2888, Central Road,Harinarayanpur, Maijdee Court, Noakhali. Ph. 0321 5582

The total cost of the 2BTU is Tk 300 (US$ 6.00)Households buy the reagent from project staff at Tk 10 (US$ 0.10) for a 250g pot that lasts an averagehousehold about one month1.

WATSAN Partnership Project, NGO Forum, VERC, BAMWSP, DFID and WaterAid are currently testing thistechnology.

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TECHNOLOGY SONO 3-KOLSHI FILTERProcess Filtration

Chemical controls Relies on passive coagulation with Fe and/or adsorption to sandmatrixPO4 > ASO4 >> SiO4 >FHigh HCO3 has –ve impactHigh Ca/Mg has +ve impact

Physical controls Sand/iron filings/charcoal packing in filterDistribution of water over filterSand grain size and claysSand Fe and Organic C contentCharacter and rate of flow through filter

Operating procedure Pour water into top kolshi. Use water from the bottom kolshi.


Approx. 5 litres per hourApprox. 5 litres per hour

Time for 20 litres to pass Approx. 4 hours

Litres in 12 hours Approx. 60 litres


15 batches with no major deterioration15 batches with no major deterioration



As (III) from 800ppb to less than 50ppb (2ppb)As (total) from 1100ppb to less than 50ppb (10ppb)A.H.Khan et al, ‘Appraisal of a Simple Arsenic Removal Methodfor Groundwater of Bangladesh’, Journal of EnvironmentalScience and Health, A35(7), 1021-1041 (2000)

Costs (capital and recurrent) Tk. 325/-

Contact details Professor A.H. Khan, Department of Chemistry, University ofDhaka, Dhaka-1000, E-mail: [email protected]. A.K.M. Munir, Director, SDC-Environment Initiative, CollegeMore, Courtpara, Kushtia 7000

This filter mechanism is low cost and readily available in Bangladesh. BRAC, UNICEF, VERC, DFID, BAMWSPand WaterAid are currently testing this technology.The total cost of the three kalshi unit is Tk 250 to 300 (US$ 5 to 6), of which about 50% is the cost of the metalstand. BRAC have experimented with bamboo and wooden stands, but found that these were even moreexpensive to produce than the metal stand. The cost of a replacement kalshi, including iron filings and coarsesand, is about Tk 55 (US$ 1.10).Reference: (##########)

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TECHNOLOGY STEVENS INSTITUTE TECHNOLOGYProcess Coagulation/filtration

Chemical controls Relies on enhanced coagulation and co-precipitation (ferroussuphate)Less dependent upon groundwater FeChemical oxidant (chlorine-based) enhances arsenite removalPO4 > ASO4 >> SiO4 >FHigh HCO3 has –ve impactHigh Ca/Mg has +ve impact

Physical controls Sand cleaning and packing in filterDistribution of water over filterSand grain size and claysSand Fe and Organic C contentCharacter and rate of flow through filter

Operating procedure Collect 20 l in a bucket, add chemicals and stir rapidly for aminute. Pour into filter (bucket with holes on top of sand inlarger bucket) and wait for water.


18 litres per hour18 litres per hour

Time for 20 litres to pass Just over one hour



Steady decline to 50% initial flow after 10 batchesSteady decline to 50% initial flow after 10 batches



Kachua - less than 50ppb As in treated water (max. 25ppb) frominitial As concentrations of 300-800ppb).BAMWSP testing programme

Kishoreganj and Munshiganj – max. As was 19ppb from initialuntreated concentrations of 280-468ppb.Xiaoguang Meang and George P. Korfiatis, ‘Removal of Srsenicfrom Bangladesh Well Water by the Stevens Technology forArsenic Removal (STAR)’. Occasional Paper.

Costs (capital and recurrent) Tk 500/-

Contact details Professor Meng, Center for Environmental Engineering, StevensInstitute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030. E-mail:[email protected]

Md. Suruzzaman, Earth Identity Project, House 13A, Road 35,Gulshan, Dhaka-1212. Tel: 8812049

The cost of the tablets is estimated at 2 US dollar per family per year. Steven’s Institute has plans tomanufacture the tablets locally.

BAMWSP and DFID are currently testing this technology.

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TECHNOLOGY ArdashaProcess Filtration

Chemical controls Unkown

Physical controls Character and flow rate through filter

Operating procedure Pour water into tray within bucket. Use tap to get treated waterfrom bottom of bucket.


1.1 litres per hour1.1 litres per hour

Time for 20 litres to pass 19 hours



No deterioration in 15 batchesNo deterioration in 15 batches



DPHE R& D (Ishtishamul Hoque) have done some assessmentand think it reduces As below 50ppb. Not sure why.

Costs (capital and recurrent) Tk. 550

Contact details Mr. Sounir Mojumdar, CRS-Ardasha Filter Industries,Chagalnaya Bazar, Chagalnaya, Feni

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TECHNOLOGY GARNET FILTERProcess Filtration

Chemical controls Relies on passive coagulation with Fe and/or adsorption to sandmatrixPO4 > ASO4 >> SiO4 >FHigh HCO3 has –ve impactHigh Ca/Mg has +ve impact

Physical controls Sand packing in filterDistribution of water over filterSand grain size and claysSand Fe and Organic C contentCharacter and rate of flow through filter

Operating procedure Water frequently topped up in top bucket. Flow regulated tosecond bucket – regular checking required.


0.7 litres per hour0.4 litres per hour

Time for 20 litres to pass Approx. 30 hours



50% initial flow after 7 batches30% initial flow after 5 batches



Removal efficiencies of 70-100% cited in GARNET’s ownliterature, depending on the presence of As and Fe in the feedwater.

Costs (capital and recurrent) Tk.250-600 based on material for stand and containers

Contact details Shah Monirul Kabir, Programme Officer/GARNET Secretary,GARNET-SA, 1/7, Block-E, Lalmatia, Dhaka-1207, Tel: 9117421

GARNET members, including CARE-Bangladesh, are testing this technology. DFID are also testing thistechnology.

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TECHNOLOGY BUET ACTIVATED ALUMINIUM FILTERProcess Oxidation, sedimentation, filtration, active alumina

Chemical controls Semi-reversible adsorption to Al2O3

Arsenite removal occurs (through oxidative step)

Physical controls Formulae to calculate bed-volumes to exhaustion (for 0.1mg/lAsO4, 15000 bed volumes)Potentially prone to clogging by FeOH

Operating procedure Fill top bucket and add chemicals as directed. Stir vigorouslyand leave for one hour. Turn tap to allow water into theactivated alumina column. Retrieve water from bottom ofcolumn.


Approx. 8 litres per hourApprox. 8 litres per hour

Time for 20 litres to pass Approx. 2.5 hours



Steady gentle deterioration (<10% over 15 batches)Steady gentle deterioration (<10% over 15 batches)



Costs (capital and recurrent) Tk. 1000/-

Contact details Dr. M.A. Jalil, Department of Civil Engineering, BUET, E:mail:[email protected]

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TECHNOLOGY ALCAN ACTIVATED ALUMINIUM FILTERProcess Sedimentation, filtration, active alumina (AAFS-50)

Chemical controls Semi-reversible adsorption to Al2O3

Arsenite removal occurs (through oxidative step- chlorine)

Physical controls Formulae to calculate bed-volumes to exhaustion (for 0.1mg/lAsO4, 15000 bed volumes)Potentially prone to clogging by FeOH

Operating procedure Usually attached to well head and pump directly into the filter


>300 litres per hour>300 litres per hour

Time for 20 litres to pass 3-5 minutes

Litres in 12 hours >3600 litres


No deteriorationNo deterioration



Studies by Department of Chemistry, Dhaka University, andBRAC (Sonargaon) show a removal rate of 100%.

Costs (capital and recurrent) US$100 (5 year warranty, expected life 10 years). Annual filtermaterial costs US$200. Costs expected to fall.

Contact details M. Saber Afzal, MAGC Technologies Ltd, House 15, Road 5’Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205. E-mail: [email protected]

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TECHNOLOGY TETRA HEDRONProcess Ion resin exchange

Chemical controls Reversible exchange of anions with chlorineRelatively independent of feed As and FePotentially affected by competing SO4 and NO3

Affinities for ion exchange SO4>NO3>ASO4>Cl-PO4 not known

Physical controls Formulae to calculate bed-volumes to exhaustion (for 1mg/l SO4,1000 bed volumes)Potentially prone to clogging by FeOH

Operating procedure Fill first container with feed water (over chlorine tablet), waterenters second container and turning the tap at the secondcontainer releases the water for. Water supply is almost instant.


90 litres per hour85 litres per hour

Time for 20 litres to pass 15 minutes



No deteriorationNo deterioration



Pre-testing through BAMWSP for 50 units installed in Singair,Hajiganj, Urzipur, Gopalganj (50 units in all) suggest completeremoval of As from initial concentration of 100-1700ppb.

Costs (capital and recurrent) Tk. 12000/- plus annual costs of Tk. 6000/- (ion resin columnlasts on average for six months)

Contact details US: Waqi Alam, [email protected]: Mr. Wazir Alam or Mr. Altaf, Dhaka Tel: 9882770

ION EXCHANGE RESINS

Manganese dioxide coated sand (MDCS), prepared by reacting potassium permanganate with manganesechloride under an alkaline condition and in the presence of sand, shows promise as a medium for use in smallsystems or home-treatment units. No leaching of manganese has been detected.

Resin technologies also exist in Bangladesh and are currently being field tested by BAMWSP. The system theyuse is a simple two bucket methodology with an approximate unit cost of Tk4000.

The local availability of this medium is uncertain, READ-F manufacture a simple two bucket system which is aresin based technology.

RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY / NEW ZEALAND IRON HYDROXIDE SLURRY

This filtration methodology requires the addition of an iron hydroxide slurry to a three chamber unit. The capacityof the unit is estimated at 100 litres. The top chamber is the mixing chamber which contains the iron hydroxideslurry, and to which raw water is added. In adding water, the slurry is churned up and mixes with water. Thewater is drained through the middle, second chamber which constitutes a sand filter. After passing through thesand filter the treated water is stored in the bottom, third chamber and is collected by tap.

Four units currently exist in Rajshahi. This technology is being tested by Rajshahi University.Contact: [email protected]

Arsenic 2000


SORAS (Solar Oxidation and Removal of Arsenic)

SORAS is a simple method that uses irradiation of water with sunlight in PET- or other UV-A transparent bottles to reduce arsenic levels from drinking water. The SORAS method is based on photochemical oxidation of As (III) followed by precipitation or filtration of As (V) adsorbed on Fe (III) oxides. Some groundwater in Bangladesh contains Fe (II) and Fe (III) and therefore, SORAS could reduce arsenic content and would be available to everyone at virtually no cost. It could be a water treatment method used at household level to treat small quantities of drinking water.

The SORAS method can be applied within a certain range of arsenic concentrations. It has to be carefully introduced in arsenic-affected villages by demonstration projects in which the users are adequately trained and the socio-cultural acceptance of SORAS assessed. In case of successful application, the supply problem of robust plastic bottles in adequate numbers will than have to be studied in order to embark on large-scale programs required to solve the arsenic problem in Bangladesh and in other parts of the world.

SORAS is a simple arsenic removal process applied at household level with locally available resources. However, the arsenic removal efficiency is limited to approx. 50 - 70 % and hence, raw water up to 100 - 150 µg/L can be treated with this low cost method. Arsenic affected people are desperately waiting for water treatment options which have to be developed and promoted by the different actors of the Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (BAMWSP). SORAS is such an option, at least it is a useful interim measure until better options might be available. Faced with the choice between drinking water that contains 150 and more µg/L of poisonous arsenic, or after treatment by SORAS, water that contains half or a quarter of that amount, who would not opt for the later ? Furthermore, SORAS also removes the iron and improves the taste of the water to which people attribute a high interest. The SORAS method is now ready to be applied within a certain range of arsenic concentration. It has to be carefully introduced in arsenic-affected villages by demonstration projects in which the users are adequately trained and the socio-cultural acceptance of SORAS assessed. In case of successful application, the supply problem of robust plastic bottles in adequate numbers will than have to be studied in order to embark on large-scale programs required to solve the arsenic problem in Bangladesh and in other parts of the world. Martin Wegelin, Daniel Gechter and Stefan Hug, Swiss Federal Institute for Env. Science and Technology (EAWAG), Dept. of Water & Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC), 8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland

internet: www.eawag.ch, www.sandec.ch Abdullah Mahmud and Abdul Motaleb, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), GPO Box 928, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Arsenic 2000


Annexe 10

Detail on Community Level Arsenic Removal Technologies

ARSENIC / IRON REMOVAL PLANTSA number of organisations working in geographical areas with the problem of high iron concentrations indrinking water have designed and constructed community level iron removal plants. In areas that are alsoeffected by high arsenic concentrations the arsenic removal rates of these iron removal plants have beenmonitored.

Organisations that have piloted this arsenic removal methodology include:

• 18 District Towns Project• Rotary International / UNICEF

• DPHE / DANIDA• NGO Forum for safe drinking water and

sanitation

SIDCOAdsorpAs® is an Adsorbent developed by M/S HARBAUER GmbH, Berlin in co-operation with the TechnicalUniversity of Berlin, Germany.

SIDCO claim that studies on the adsorption of both arsenic forms (AsIII & AsV) on different adsorbents havedetermined that granular activated ferric Hydroxide with high specific surface has 5 to 10 times higher efficiencyfor adsorption of Arsenic from water than other adsorbents.

The main application of AdsorpAs® is the adsorptive removal of arsenate and arsenic. Arsenic binds on thesurface of AdsorpAs® by chemiesorption process forming a stable surface complex with ferric hydroxide.AdsorpAs® does not require chemical regeneration and does not produce any regenerate sludge. The residualmass of the spent AdsorpAs® is small.

The adsorption technique with Granular Ferric Hydroxide in fixed bed reactor is simple, safe and effectivemethod for elimination of arsenic from contaminated groundwater. Depending on the concentration of arsenic inraw water 50,000 to 70,000 bed volumes can be treated with Granular ferric Hydroxide.SIDCO claim that the system is cost-effective. The running/operating cost of the AdsorpAs® system for removalof arsenic from drinking water having a 250 ppb Arsenic concentration is less than 1.0 paisa (US$0.02) per literof guaranteed arsenic below the WHO (10ppb) recommendation level in water.

Organisations currently tting this technology include BRAC , CRAE, Rotary International, UNICEF, DPHE andProshika. This technology is also utilised in India (M/S. Pal Trockner [P] Ltd.) by PHED, Govt of West Bengal,to remove Arsenic from ground water.

Contact: Mir Moaidul Huq, General Manager, Sidko LimitedParagon House (7th Floor), 5, Mohakhali c/A., Dhaka-1212Phone: 880-2-9881794 / 8827122Fax: 880-2-9883400E-Mail: [email protected]

ALCAN Activated Alumina FilterA process of sedimentation, filtration and active alumina with the system usually attached to well head andpumped directly into the filter. Approximate flow rates of >300 litres per hour. Approximate capital cost US$100(5 year warranty, expected life 10 years). Annual filter material costs US$200. Costs are expected to fall.Studies have been carried out by Department of Chemistry, Dhaka University, and BRAC (Sonargaon). Within a12hour timespan >3600 litres can be treated.Contact: M. Saber Afzal, MAGC Technologies Ltd, House 15, Road 5’ Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205. E-mail:[email protected]

Arsen-X SystemArsen-X adsorbent is an inorganic matrix which selectively adsorbs and binds targeted compounds. The mediawill bind arsenic, chromium, selenium and ferric cyanide. Arsen-X is claimed to be suitable for either dose orflow through systems. Arsen-X also claims to produce a very low sludge volume. The pH value of the treatedwater will increase slightly when Arsen-X is working enabling a monitoring systems other than testing for arsenicconcentrations to be put in place.

Arsenic 2000


Contact: Ostertech Inc. 37 North Forge Drive, Phoenixville, Pennsylvania 19460, USAPhone / fax: +610 935 066Email: [email protected]

?READ-FContact: #######

TETRA HEDRONIon resin exchange mechanism. Fill first container with feed water (over chlorine tablet), water enters secondcontainer and turning the tap at the second container releases the water. Water supply is almost instant. Flowrate approximately 85 litres per hour Pre-testing through BAMWSP (a total of 50 units installed in Singair,Hajiganj, Urzipur, Gopalganj) suggest good removal of As from initial concentration of 100-1700ppb. The capitalcosts are approximately Tk. 12000/- plus annual costs of Tk. 6000/- (the ion resin column lasts on average forsix months)Contact: US: Waqi Alam, [email protected], Bangladesh: Mr. Wazir Alam or Mr. Altaf, Dhaka Tel: 9882770

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