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Spring/Summer 2010, Vol. 10, Issue 1Drinking Water News & Information for America’s Small Communities

www.nesc.wvu.edu 3

Hydraulics is the branch of engineeringthat focuses on the practical problemsof collecting, storing, measuring, trans-porting, controlling, and using waterand other liquids.This Tech Brief—thesecond in a two-part series—providesbasic information or fundamental con-cepts of hydraulic problems and willfocus on calculating flow rates in wateror wastewater conveyance (distribu-tion and collection) systems.The firstTech Brief in this series discussed vari-ous aspects of pressure.

Fundamental Conceptsof Hydraulics: Flow

16

16 Gas Drilling Boom Yields Financial BenefitsBut at What Cost to Drinking Waterand the Environment?by Natalie Eddy

by Caigan McKenzie

20 Operator ShortageHow Can We Attract and Retain Workers?

24 Are Small Community WaterSystems More at Risk than Other Systems?by Stephen Gasteyer with assistancefrom Dandan Kong

by Carl Brown27 Conservation Rates

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24

by Emma Koonse

31 Summertime Is Swimming TimeTaking Steps to Assure Proper Pool Water Quality

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by Natalie Eddy

4 On Tap Spring/Summer 2010

Rural Development, Rural Utilities Service

USDA’s Rural Development, Rural Utilities Servicestrives to serve a leading role in improving thequality of life in rural America by administering itselectric, telecommunications, and water and wasteprograms in a service-oriented, forward-looking,and financially responsible manner. Founded in1947 as the Farmer’s Home Administration, RuralDevelopment has provided more than $40 billionfor water and wastewater projects. For more infor-mation, visit their website at www.usda.gov/rus/.

The National Environmental Services Center

The National Environmental Services Center(NESC) is a nonprofit organization providingtechnical assistance and information aboutdrinking water, wastewater, infrastructureresilience, utility system management, solidwaste, and environmental training to communi-ties serving fewer than 10,000 people.

To achieve this mission, NESC offers a toll-free tech-nical assistance hotline, hundreds of low-cost orfree products, magazines and newsletters, and sev-eral searchable databases. We also sponsor confer-ences, workshops, and seminars. Visit the NESC website at www.nesc.wvu.edu or call toll-free (800) 624-8301and request an information packet.

NESC is located at West Virginia University, one of thenation’s major doctoral-granting, research institutions.

ISSN 1061-9291 Printed on Recycled Paper

Drinking Water News and Information for America’s Small Communities

Spring/Summer 2010 • Volume 10 • Issue 1

An Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Institution

Reprint Policy

Permission to quote from or reproduce content in this publication is granted when due acknowledgementis given. Please contact the editor (see page 5) andreport where and when the article was used. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflectthe views and policies of the Rural Development,Rural Utilities Service nor does mention of tradenames or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

Sponsored by USDA Rural Development

Dallas Tonsager, Under Secretary Rural Development

Jonathan S. Adelstein, Administrator

Deborah Pope, RUS Loan Specialist

Some images in this issue © 2003-10, www.ClipArt.com and www.photos.com.

For several years, we’ve been talking about moving ourprinted publications—On Tap, Small Flows, and Pipeline—to an electronic-only format. As an environmental organi-zation, it just makes sense to deliver information in as“green” a manner as we can. Not printing upwards of100,000 copies of these publications several times eachyear saves a great deal in terms of the trees and ink need-ed to print them, not to mention the fuel needed to getthem to your mailbox.

Even though there are (and have been) compelling rea-sons to move our publications exclusively to the web,we’ve held off primarily out of respect for our subscribers.Every time we’ve surveyed our readers, you’ve indicatedthat you prefer printed magazines and newsletters overthose produced electronically. Frankly, many of us here alsolike to read a hard copy better than looking at a screen.

As with so many things, though, the bottom line is, well, thebottom line. Over the last few years, NESC has had to dealwith reduced funding. By moving On Tap, Small Flows, and

www.nesc.wvu.edu 5

Who We Are

A number of people are responsible for putting On Tap magazinetogether each quarter.We encourage our readers to contact uswith ideas and suggestions. An e-mail address is provided foreach staff member below, as well as their phone extension.Call our main number toll free at (800) 624-8301 and enter theappropriate extension at the prompt.

Dr. Gerald [email protected]

Mary [email protected]

Sherry [email protected]

Mark Kemp [email protected]

Kathy Jesperson [email protected]

John [email protected]

Jamie [email protected]

Julie Black [email protected]

Caigan [email protected]

Natalie [email protected]

Marilyn [email protected]

Zane [email protected]

Jen [email protected]

Craig [email protected]

Sheila [email protected]

Executive DirectorPhone extension: 5584

Senior Program AdministratorPhone extension: 5511

Senior Program AdministratorPhone extension: 5578

Communications Manager and Editor Phone extension: 5523

Associate Editor Phone extension: 5533

Senior Project Coordinator, GraphicsPhone extension: 5505

Graphic DesignerPhone extension: 5397

Web Developer, GraphicsPhone extension: 5503

Staff WriterPhone extension: 5525

Staff WriterPhone extension: 5524

Writer and Copy EditorPhone extension: 5586

Engineering ScientistPhone extension: 5393

Technical Services ManagerPhone extension: 5564

Engineering ScientistPhone extension: 5583

Administrative AssociatePhone extension: 5517

On Tap Staff

Pipeline, to web-only publications, we save scarce funds,allowing us to apply this money to other essential activities.

I encourage you to sign up for our listservs so that you’llknow when we post new issues of our publications, as wellas learn about other interesting things going on in theworld of water.You can find the listservs atwww.nesc.wvu.edu/listserv.cfm.

I’d love to hear what you think about the new format forour publications. Please e-mail me at [email protected] call (800) 624-8301 ext. 5523. Regardless of how we doit, NESC is still committed to creating the quality informa-tion you’ve come to expect from our publications.

Regards,

Mark Kemp-RyeEditor

mailto:[email protected]��


National Rural Water AssociationAnnual Conference

September 26–29, 2010Opryland Hotel/Convention CenterNashville, TNContact: Dawn MeyersPhone: (580) 252-0629Fax: (580) 255-4476www.nrwa.org

AUGUST ‘10

American Public Works AssociationAnnual Conference

August 15–18, 2010Boston Convention CenterBoston, MAPhone: (800) 848-2792 or (816) 595-5241Fax: (816) 472-1610Email: [email protected]

JULY ‘10

National Association of CountiesAnnual Conference and Exhibition

July 16–20, 2010Reno, NVPhone: (202) 393-6226Fax: (202) 393-2630www.naco.org

If you are sponsoring a water-related event andwant to have it listed in this calendar, please sendinformation to Mark Kemp, National EnvironmentalServices Center, West Virginia University, P.O. Box6064, Morgantown, WV 26506-6064. You also maycall Mark at (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191 ext.5523 or e-mail him at [email protected].

Sponsoring an Event?

SEPTEMBER ‘10

OCTOBER ‘10

Water Environment FederationWEFTEC ’10

October 2–6, 2010Ernest N. Morial Convention CenterNew Orleans, LAPhone: (800) 666-0206 or (703) 684-2452Fax: (703) 684-2492www.weftec.org

Association of State Drinking WaterAdministrators Annual Conference and Exposition

October 17–21, 2010Hilton PittsburghPittsburgh, PAContact: Tom MavesPhone: (202) 293-7655Fax: (202) 293-7656www.asdwa.org

DECEMBER ‘10

National Ground Water AssociationAnnual Conference

December 7–10, 2010Las Vegas, NVContact: Kathy ButcherPhone: (800) 551-7379Fax: (614) 898-7786www.ngwa.org

www.nesc.wvu.edu 7

Somewhere in the country, a major water line bursts on average everytwo minutes, according to a March 14, 2010, New York Times article.

State and federal studies show that thousands of water andsewer systems may be too old to function properly. Intenserains, severely cold weather, and other environmental condi-tions only make the problem worse. In many towns and citiesaround the country, water distribution and wastewater collec-tion systems were installed around the time of the Civil War.

For decades, politicians and residents accustomed to payingalmost nothing for water delivery and sewage removal haveignored these systems. The outcome of that choice is that eachyear, hundreds of thousands of ruptures damage streets andhomes and cause dangerous pollutants to seep into drinking

water supplies.

A key solution to the problem is money.

In many cities, however, residents have protestedloudly when asked to pay more for water and sewerservices. In Los Angeles, Indianapolis, and Sacramento,

for example, proposed rate increases have been scaled backor canceled after virulent ratepayer dissent.

A 2009 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) study esti-mated that $335 billion would be needed simply to maintain the

nation’s tap water systems in coming decades. In states like NewYork, officials estimate that $36 billion is needed in the next 20 yearsjust for municipal wastewater systems.

“We’re relying on water systems built by our great-grandparents,and no one wants to pay for the decades we’ve spent ignoring them,”said Jeffrey K. Griffiths, a professor at Tufts University and a memberof the EPA’s National Drinking Water Advisory Council.

“There’s a lot of evidence that people are getting sick,” he adds.“But because everything is out of sight, no one really understandshow bad things have become.”

For more information about sustainable water and wastewaterinfrastructure, go to www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/.

The High Price of Saving U.S. Water and Sewer Systems

Last fall, a collaboration betweenRainHarvest Systems and Atlanta’s 5 Seasons Brewery produced whatis believed to be the first microbrewmade with harvested rainwater.

To achieve this feat, the brewerywas outfitted with a permanent750-gallon catchment system tocollect rainwater from the roof.The captured rainwater wasprocessed through a six-stagefilter system and sterilized withultraviolet light before enteringthe fermenting vats.

The brewery now uses harvestedwater for all of their beer produc-tion. The management feels theconcept goes is hand in hand withtheir use of local, organic producein the kitchen, reflected in theirmotto: “Passionate About FreshNatural Food and Drink.”

The system installed at 5 Seasons is described on the websitewww.rainharvest.com/info/beer.


To support a sustain-ability initiative in publicworks management, theAmerican Public WorksAssociation (APWA) hascreated a Center for Sustainability. Today, the publicworks professional must think beyond the current gen-eration, work closely with a more engaged and betterinformed public, and take an integrated systemsapproach to addressing livability and community issues.

Sustainability involves all aspects of public worksand infrastructure. “The coming decades will requirenew skills and tools to solve complex problems,” saysJulia Anastasio, APWA sustainability director, stressingthat sustainability requires solutions that are environ-mentally and socially responsible, while keeping costsat a minimum.

APWA recognizes that public works professionalsneed tools and resources to advance sustainablechange in their communities. To address this challenge,APWA is creating professional development and educa-tional activities that focus on sustainability principles.

For more information about APWA’s Center forSustainability, visit their website at www.apwa.net/sustainability/centerforsustainability.aspx.

APWA Addresses Public Works Sustainability

This 40th anniversary of Earth Day, the U.S. Department ofAgriculture (USDA) announced the release of $268.5 million tofund 69 water and wastewater projects across the country. Toprotect the environment and improve the health of rural fami-lies, USDA Rural Development will provide loans and grants forcritical water and wastewater infrastructure improvements in36 states. These monies are being dispersed through theAmerican Recovery and Reinvestment Act.

Examples of some of the funded projects:

Norton, Virginia received a $1.29 million loan and a$3.88 million grant to correct sewage overflow intotwo local rivers by upgrading the wastewater collec-tion system.

Cleburne County, AL received a $1.18 million loan anda $941,000 grant to replace a water tank and 40-year-old water lines and meters.

The Rosebud Sioux Tribe of South Dakota was grant-ed $994,000 for wastewater system improvements.

For a complete list of USDA Recovery Act projects visit their websiteat www.usda.gov.recovery.

As rivers dry up, aquifers become contaminated andrains become less dependable, many countries are turn-ing to manufacturing their own fresh water—either bydesalination technologies or the reuse of wastewater.

According to analysts at Global Water Intelligence(GWI), the increase last year in fresh water produc-tion is the biggest ever recorded, an increase of 41million cubic meters a day.

As poor and rich countries alike run out of freshwater options, desalination and reuse strategies arebecoming the norm when it comes to providingdrinking water for their people.

Improvements in technology are reducing the costof such processes, making manufactured fresh watera more feasible option for such places as Ghana andAlgeria. Carbon-free systems are also coming on line:nuclear desalination in the United Arab Emirates,solar power in Australia, and biodiesel in London.

Driven by the demand for the water-intensive pro-duction of meat, rising populations and moreextravagant lifestyles, GWI predicts water manufactur-ing capacity to double between now and 2016.

GWI is a UK-based organization that tracks theinternational water industry. Read more atwww.globalwaterintel.com.

Desalination and Reuse Up Worldwide

www.nesc.wvu.edu 9

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)Administrator Lisa Jackson is vows to address thepossibly hazardous chemical Biphenol A (BPA), commonly used in materials such as baby bottles andcarpeting, with stiff regulations. The EPA has beenaccused of dragging its feet over dealing with theissue of this chemical.

In January 2010, the U.S. Foodand Drug Administration came outwith a statement saying it wasconcerned about BPA andannounced its intention of reduc-ing the exposure to this chemicalby limiting its use by industry.

While independent studies haveindicated that BPA is present in theurine of 93 percent of Americans and the chemicalhas been linked to such health problems as cancer,heart disease, diabetes and sexual dysfunction, EPAhas refused to make a ruling on its use.

The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel is conducting anon-going study of the chemical fallout of BPA, charg-ing that current labeling fails to list such potentiallyhazardous compounds. Read the complete report at:www.jsonline.com/watchdog/watchdogre-ports/29331224.html.

EPA Vows BPA Regulations Are Coming

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has posted two new fact sheets furtherdefining the mission of the Water/Wastewater Agency Response Networks (WARN),established to improve recovery from disruptive events, human-made or natural.The premise is that by coordinating efforts between a strong base of member utili-ties willing to help each other during emergencies, response and recovery will bemore timely and effective.

By adopting the WARN approach to mutual aid and assistance, drinking waterand wastewater utilities in each state are able to sign a single agreement cov-ering issues such as indemnification, workers’ compensation, and reimburse-ment. The agreement also allows for utilities to share equipment, personnel,and other resources.

These new factsheets explain the role of state primacy agencies and wastewatersystems within the WARN program.

Access the factsheet “State Primacy Agencies: A Vital Component of WARN” athttp://www.epa.gov/safewater/watersecurity/pubs/WARN_stateprimacy_fs.pdf

The factsheet “Wastewater Systems: A Vital Component of WARN” may be downloadedat www.epa.gov/safewater/watersecurity/pubs/WARN_wastewatersystems_fs.pdf

Learn more about the WARN mutual aid and assistance network by visitingcfpub.epa.gov/safewater/watersecurity/mutualaid.cfm.

With increased conservation efforts and the reces-sion causing water-use cut backs, water rates appearpoised to shoot up across Southern California, accord-ing to an April 11, 2010, North County Times article.

These factors combined with the four-year droughthave cut into water utility budgets, and now they areasking their customers to make up the difference.

Metropolitan Water District (MWD), SouthernCalifornia’s biggest water wholesaler, will consider aproposal to raise rates up to 12.4 percent. MWD’sstaff recommends the maximum increase.

In a district report, water utilities have substantiallyreduced water sales. The report notes that sales arelikely to continue to fall into the fiscal year endingJune 30, 2010, by 20 percent from three years ago.Moreover, MWD’s expenses have exceeded revenuesin four of the past five years; officials have dippedinto reserves to cover the deficits.

California has mandated conservation not justbecause of the drought, but also because of courtrulings in favor of environmentalists. The environ-mentalists sued to reduce transfers of water fromNorthern California to preserve endangered fish inthe Sacramento River delta, a major source of thestate’s drinking and agricultural water.

For more information about water conservation,visit the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s web-site at www.epa.gov/p2/pubs/water.htm and theNational Environmental Services Center project“Future Water” at www.nesc.wvu.edu/futurewater/.

Conservation, RecessionMean Less Water Sold

Interest rates for Rural Development Utilities Service (RDUS)water and wastewater loans—issued quarterly at three differentlevels: the poverty line rate, the intermediate rate, and the mar-ket rate— have been announced. The rate applied to a particu-lar project depends on community income and the type ofproject being funded.

To qualify for the poverty line rate, two criteria must be met.First, the loan must primarily be used for facilities required tomeet health and sanitary standards. Second, the median house-hold income of the area being served must be below 80 per-cent of the state’s non-metropolitan median income or fallbelow the federal poverty level. As of May 31, 2010, the federalpoverty level was $22,050 for a family of four.

To qualify for the intermediate rate, the service area’s medianhousehold income cannot exceed 100 percent of the state’snon-metropolitan median income.

The market rate is applied to projects that don’t qualify foreither the poverty or intermediate rates. The market rate isbased on the average of the Bond Buyer index.

The rates, which apply to all loans issued from July 1 throughSeptember 30, 2010, are:


A new publication from the Urban Land Institute(ULI) discourages U.S. cities from spreading further andfurther away from water supplies and water treatment,insisting that we, as a nation, cannot afford to just liveanywhere we want. The report shows that the U.S. hasthe highest water footprint in the world, using nearly656,000 gallons per capita annually.

ULI’s report, Infrastructure 2010: An InvestmentImperative, recommends land development planning bean integral part of water management. The authorspoint out we are unable to repair and replace the waterinfrastructure we are using now, much less being ablefinance the installation and care of new equipment. Thereport hopes to be a wake-up call to America, pointingout that China and the European Union among othersare well on their way to intelligent land and water use.

ULI is a non-profit research and education organiza-tion, finding solutions to land use trends and issues. Tolearn more, visit their website at www.uli.org.

New Report Advises WiserLand Use Planning

Energy usage is the largest operating expense ofwater utilities yet it is often overlooked as an area ofpotential savings. According to Grant Van Hemert, inthe article “Reducing Energy Usage in Water andWastewater Facilities” in Water Online The Magazine,there are many ways a treatment plant can reduceenergy use, including:

• Using energy studies or energy action plans toprovide a framework for energy use analysis. Areview of technologies and process improvementsmay reveal opportunities to save energy.

• Power monitoring at pump stations and treatmentfacilities to determine actual usage numbers,allowing for complete analysis and leading toenergy savings.

• Using variable frequency drives for better controlover blowers and pumps, leading to power savings.

• Switching all office and control room lighting tofluorescent bulbs.

Read the complete article at www.wateronline.com/download.mvc/Reducing-Energy-Usage-In-Water-And-Wastewater-0001.

Water Plants Can CutEnergy Costs

RDUS loans are administered through state Rural Developmentoffices, which can provide specific information concerningRDUS loan requirements and applications procedures.

For the phone number of your state Rural Development office, con-tact the National Environmental Services Center at (800) 624-8301or (304) 293-4191. The list is also available on the RuralDevelopment Web site at www.rurdev.usda.gov/recd_map.html.

poverty line: 2.375 percent;

intermediate: 3.25 percent; and

market: 4.00 percent.

Water Treatment Plant with solar panels on the roof (Pendleton, Oregon).Photo courtesy of www.pendleton.or.us

www.nesc.wvu.edu 11

In a bitter case of irony, farm workers are dyingin the fields for want of a drink of water while thestate of California taxpayers are assuming an $11 bil-lion debt for the next 30 years to provide this samewater to the agricultural companies for crops.

While legislation for the protection of farm work-ers from inhumane working conditions by formingunions has been repeatedly vetoed by Gov. ArnoldSchwarzenegger, United Farm Workers of America(UFW) President Arturo Rodriguez accuses the legis-lature of subsidizing the farm industry at a cost of$800M a year with this new water bond.

The UFW claims that six field workers died ofheat-related illness in 2008. These farm workers werenot protected by a union contract. Rodriguez says,“We don’t believe that the giant agriculture corpora-tions should get more subsidized water until farmworkers get the right to protect themselves, includingthe right to clean and fresh drinking water.”

You can read the senate bill on employee freechoice act for farm workers at the UFW website atwww.ufw.org/_board.php?mode=view&b_code=org_key&b_no=2920&page=1&field=&key=&n=8

Farm Workers Speak OutAgainst California Water Bond

Spanish has become the second most-common language inthe U.S. after English, with Spanish being the primary lan-guage spoken at home by more than 34 million. In responseto this trend, The National Environmental Services Center(NESC) is pleased to announce the release of Spanish versionsof nine of our most popular Tech Briefs .

Each Tech Brief is a four-page publication describing a techni-cal drinking water topic in lay terms. Water conservation meas-ures, corrosion control and slow sand filtration are just a few ofthe topics now available in English and Spanish. Over the nextyear, NESC plans to add additional Spanish Tech Briefs to themore than 30 topics available in English.

“We are sure that our Spanish-speaking public will find these factsheets useful. Our Tech Briefs are popular with small communityleaders, operators and homeowners alike,”says NESC’s BusinessManager Jeanne Allen who headed the translation project.“TheSpanish versions should help us assist an even wider audience.”

Tech Briefs currently available in Spanish are:

• Corrosion Control

• Disinfection

• Filtration

• Iron and Manganese Removal

• Leak Detection

• Reservoirs

• Sand Filtration

• Water Conservation

• Water Hammer

All Tech Briefs can be ordered as hard copies at a low cost byphone or email or downloaded for free from our Web site.Ordering and download instructions can be found at:www.nesc.wvu.edu/techbrief.cfm.

Prescription Pill and Drug Disposal Pr ogramwww.p2d2program.org

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products havebeen traced in source waters across the country andincreased attention has been focused on how theseproducts can impact drinking water. Unfortunately, peo-ple who want to dispose of their medicine correctlydon’t always know what to do or where they can takethese items for proper handling.

The Prescription Pill and Drug Disposal Program—also known as P2D2—started at a small high school inIllinois with a teacher and group of students thatwanted to make a difference. It’s a free program to pro-vide the public with opportunities to bring theirpharmaceuticals to collection days/sites for proper dis-posal. The idea has really caught on and there are nowprograms in many communities in 10 states.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) data-base Health and Environmental Research Online (HERO)allows users to search and produce reports about keystudies the agency uses when it develops environmentalrisk assessments for the public.

EPA uses risk assessments to characterize the nature andmagnitude of health risks to humans and the ecosystemfrom pollutants and chemicals in the environment.Theagency launched HERO in March 2009 to make the refer-ences it uses to determine risk available to the public in theinterest of greater transparency and public accountability.

HERO includes journal articles, reports, books, book chap-ters, conference material and other miscellaneous refer-ences. It also contains data from a number of legacy data-bases used by the National Center for EnvironmentalAssessment (NCEA)—both digital and paper, where thematerial can be downloaded or purchased.


To create a better tomorrow, teach the childrenhow to preserve the environment today. Addingenvironmental education to regular curricularactivities helps children understand why theiractions contribute to the condition of the world.

The following websites (denoted by stars) offerinteractive games, ideas for classroom activities, andmany other projects for teachers, parents, and kids.

The Story of Drinking W aterwww.fcwa.org/story_of_water/html/story.htm

Fairfax Water, Virginia’s largest water utility, hosts a web page for kids about TheStory of Drinking Water. The site discusses everything from the first records of drinkingwater treatment, how much water covers the earth, what water is made of, and whydrinking water isn’t free but it’s a heck of a bargain. The site also includes fun facts,games, quizzes, and conservation tips. Teachers and educators can use the site to teachchildren about the importance of drinking water.

www.nesc.wvu.edu 13

Non-Point Sour ce Pollution http://protectingwater.com/index.html

The Hawaii State Department of Health Clean Water Branch and the City and Countyof Honolulu Department of Environmental Services host this interactive website thatexplains how non-point sources can pollute drinking water sources. The site includesprojects for teachers and students, activities that demonstrate how kids can help keeppollution out of drinking water, and discussion about watersheds.

Burt and Phil’s W ater Buster Gamewww2.seattle.gov/util/waterbusters/

Burt and Phil have a problem—high water bills. This interactive game helpskids find areas around their own homes where they can save water, money, andthe environment. The object of the game is to fix leaks and reduce water usage.The site includes instructions about how to play the game.

Down the Drainwww.k12science.org/curriculum/drainproj/

Down the Drain is an Internet-based collaborative project that allows students to shareinformation about water usage with other students from around the country and the world.Based on data collected by their household members and their classmates, students willdetermine the average amount of water used by one person in a day. They will compare thisto the average amount of water used per person per day in other parts of the world. The siteincludes student activities, teacher guides, and reference materials to name a few things.

The Groundwater Foundation’s Kid’s Cor nerwww.groundwater.org/kc/kc.html

The Groundwater Foundation Kid’s Corner site offers lists of references forteachers and students to teach kids about the importance of groundwater.The references include sample activities for the classroom, games and puz-zles, activities for kids to do at home, and much more.

Each issue, we ask members

of the On Tap Editorial

Advisory Board to answer a

drinking water-related ques-

tion.We then print as many

responses as space permits.

The opinions expressed are

not necessarily those of NESC.

Over the last several months, health carereform, domestic energy issues, airportsecurity, and mid-term elections havedominated the U.S. news.

Q:


Editorial Advisory Board

Jerry BiberstineSenior Environmental EngineerNational Rural Water Association

Rodney CokerTribal Utility Consultant (Retired)Indian Health Service

Lisa Raysby Hardcastle, P.E.U.S. Army Public Health Region-WestFort Lewis, WA

Kevin KundertPresident and Chief InstructionalSystems MechaniceTRAIN ONLINE, Inc.

Bridget O'GradyPolicy & Legislative Affairs ManagerASDWAArlington, VA

Steven D. WilsonAssistant Director for Research, MTACInstitute of Natural ResourceSustainabilityChampaign, IL

Do you see a time when water andwastewater concerns become the focusof national discussions? If so, when? Ifnot, why not?

Steve WilsonAssistant Director

for Research, MTAC

Institute of NaturalResource Sustainability

The Silent Service

Submarines during World War II were known as the silent service. For many years, the drinkingwater and wastewater industries have also become known by that name. Like those sub-marines, invisible under water, so too are the miles and miles of pipes providing service to thecustomers, invisible under ground.

Nearly all customers know—and, sadly, nearly all they care to know—is that when they turn onthe faucet the water comes out, and when they flush the toilet, the wastewater disappearsdown the drain. The only way that the water industry gets into the news if there is a majorbreakdown in the service. Look at what you see in the news with regard to these vital services:rare waterborne outbreaks, broken water mains flooding streets, sewage overflows, previouslyunheard of substances that may be contaminating the drinking water, and rate increases.

You never see news articles about treatment technologies that prevent diseases, source waterprotection efforts to safeguard the water supply, the nearly superhuman efforts put in by utilityemployees during emergencies, or the struggle to meet new regulatory mandates without hav-ing to increase rates.

Considering what has to happen to get in the news, I think I prefer staying out if it. If it meanshaving safe water, well treated wastewater, pipes repaired and staying in the ground, and thewater coming out of the tap and going down the drain, then maybe being the silent serviceisn't such a bad thing after all.

www.nesc.wvu.edu 15

Water Is in the News

Actually, I think drinking water has been a steady, visible issue in the U.S. media. Last year, the U.S. GeologicalSurvey put out a report on private well issues that caused quite a stir. It led to a lot of questions about protectingprivate well users and the need for better source water protection. The Associated Press did a series of articlesabout source water protection and contamination of our nation’s drinking water sources, specifically targetingarsenic and pharmaceuticals. We have been continually reminded for the last year about how stimulus funds arebeing spent to upgrade water and wastewater infrastructure all across the country. And, not to be left out, therehave been many national articles about the disadvantages of bottled water.

Bottled water has gone from being largely unregulated and the latest fad, to being sometimes unfairly marketedas the safe alternative to tap water, to now being considered much less green, and therefore an unpopular alterna-tive. So much so, that some municipal entities, like San Francisco, have banned bottled water use in city buildings.

Wastewater is another story and there has not been as much emphasis on the importance of proper wastewaterhandling and treatment, especially on the national level. But, that is starting to change as well. The real need is tosell the public on what they can do to help make wastewater discharge safer, and the importance of puttingresources into properly maintaining wastewater systems.

Water is precious to all of us, it’s just that historically we have taken it for granted, especially in the eastern half ofthe country where water rights laws are lax, if they exist at all, and where more water is available. But there havebeen, and continue to be, many organizations that work toward educating the public about the importance of safewater, and I think in the last several years especially, we are seeing some of the benefits of those programs. Whatthat means to me is we will continue to see water and wastewater issues in the news and as the public becomesmore aware of the issues, water and source water protection will only grow in importance and national stature.

Jerry BiberstineSenior EnvironmentalEngineer

National Rural WaterAssociation


By Natalie EddyNESC Staff Writer

Graphic DesignBy Jamie Bouquot

www.nesc.wvu.edu 17

t has been likened to thegold rush of the 1800s.

The natural gas drilling boomhas meant big business for theenergy industry, and now manylandowners are cashing in on thecountry’s latest quest for energyindependence. But the extractionof gas from these once bucolic,rural landscapes has many envi-ronmentalists crying foul, fearingfor the nation’s drinking waterand environmental integrity.

As America is sharpening itssearch for alternative energysources to ease the country’sreliance on the fluctuating pricesof Middle Eastern oil and otherpolitically unstable markets, newdevelopments in technology forgas extraction have made this oldfossil fuel more appealing.

A recent study says the U.S. hasmore than enough undergroundnatural gas waiting to be extractedto satisfy the country’s currentenergy needs for almost a century,according to an article in the WallStreet Journal. That same articlestates that advances in gas extrac-tion methods, specifically hydraulic

fracturing or “fracking,” havecaused drilling production in theU.S. to increase by 11 percent inthe past two years.

Hydraulic fracturing involvesdrilling thousands of feet verti-cally, turning the drill sidewaysand digging horizontally, thenblasting the drilled hole withwater, laced with sand and chem-icals, with intense pressure tobreak up the rock allowing thegas to escape.

Environmentalists say thechemicals used in fracking areharmful to groundwater, and several lawsuits are pendingnationwide.

Natural Gas HistoryOnce thought of as a nuisance

by oilmen, the story of gas pro-duction has had a long history.The ancient eternal fires shootingflames from the ground in pres-ent day Iraq, first described inPlutarch’s writings between 100to 125 A.D., were likely the resultof natural gas, escaping throughcracks in the ground, beingsparked by lightning. But the firstintentionally drilled gas well in

the U.S. occurred in Fredonia,New York, in 1821, when WilliamA. Hart drilled a 27-foot deepwell trying to enlarge a surfaceseepage of natural gas, accordingto the U.S. Department ofEnergy’s website.

The website also notes that “formost of the 1800s, natural gaswas used almost exclusively as afuel for lamps.” After the 1890swhen many cities began convert-ing street lamps to electricity, gasproducers had to develop newmarkets for their product.

One of the first gas pipelineswas built in 1891 to carry gasfrom Indiana to Chicago; how-ever, most pipelines wereconstructed after World War II.Almost 300,000 miles of gaspipeline had been laid across thecountry by 1950, according toscienceclarified.com.

Today, natural gas suppliesalmost a quarter of all the energyused in the U.S., and experts pre-dict that gas extracted from shaleareas could supply as much ashalf of the natural gas productionin North America by 2020.

I


Marcellus ShaleOne of the most highly sought

after gas and oil deposits lies inthe Marcellus Shale, the largestnatural gas deposit in NorthAmerica extending more than 575miles and located some 8,000 feetbelow the surface with a reportedthickness of up to 900 feet.Nestled in the Appalachian basin,the Marcellus shale is made up ofblack shale formed more than390 million years ago during theDevonian Period. This shalealone could supply the country’senergy needs for nearly twodecades, according to an articlein the Pittsburgh Tribune-Review.

The Gas Man ComethPenn State University Professor

Timothy W. Kelsey, Ph.D., saysready or not, the gas drillers arecoming. The number of permitsissued recently for gas drilling inPennsylvania has increased dra-matically. “We’re beginning asignificant period of ramp up,” headds. “I’ve heard several times thatin the long term, Pennsylvania hasthe potential of up to 150,000wells drilling in the state, butthat’s 20 years out.”

Although the gas drillers andhomeowners leasing the land willmost assuredly see a profit,accessing all of that gas throughthe shale may or may not befinancially lucrative for localeconomies. Can drilling in alocality enhance or decrease acommunity’s pocketbook?

To help answer that, Kelseyrecently studied the economicbenefits of gas drilling inPennsylvania’s Marcellus shale bycomparing similarities to theBarnette shale in Texas, whichstarted in 2001.

Kelsey says there are a lot ofdifferent angles to look at whenassessing if gas drilling will havea positive effect on a local community.

He points out that any poten-tial employment from gascompany employees and theirincome affects the local economy,including oil field service compa-nies, restaurants, retailers, andhotels. He adds that the eco-nomic impact will offer benefitsfor the construction industry,retail trade, and others but cau-tions that the extent of thesebenefits will depend on the com-munity’s makeup.

Kelsey notes that underPennsylvania law, natural gas isnot taxed, like it is in Texas. As aresult, school districts, countygovernments, and municipal gov-ernments in Pennsylvaniacurrently do not benefit from taxrevenues related to the extractionof natural gas.

He adds that Pennsylvania hastried in the past to tax gas rev-enues and predicts that “within thenext year or two, the subject willcome back up in the Legislature.”

Without tax revenue, Kelseysays communities will feel theimpact the process of drilling,fracking, and maintaining naturalgas wells can create on rural roadswith increased heavy truck traffic.As a result, local jurisdictions withgas wells will face higherdemands for services with no newrevenues to pay for the services.

Despite the financial pros andcons, Kelsey predicts that, overall,gas drilling will be positive for thestate’s economy with a few stipula-tions. “The employment impactwe would be receiving couldhelp rebuild or stimulate ruraleconomies in Pennsylvania if someof the environmental issues, likefracking and disposal of pollutedwater, are dealt with,” he says.

Map courtesy of http://eia.doe.gov/

www.nesc.wvu.edu 19

“And another planning aspect isto make sure local Pennsylvanianshave the skills needed for thejobs. If that is done, then yes, itwill likely enhance a community’sbudget, but it needs to be donewith thought rather than just let-ting it happen.”

Jobs in the natural gas industryoften require a specialized skillset. To answer that educationneed, several institutions inPennsylvania have created trainingprograms that target the industry.

Kelsey cautions, however, thatthe potential environmentalimpact is a looming concern. “Wehave a legacy in Pennsylvania.One of the things you hear talkedabout is Pennsylvania has alegacy of coal mining and is stilldealing with acid mine drainageand other activities done 100 yearsago without thinking long-term.Because of this legacy, I thinkfolks here are more aware of theneed to do it right,” he says.

Limiting ImpactsDoing it right means limiting

environmental impacts. That’s abig issue in New York, wherenatural gas drilling has beensparking controversy, particularlyin the New York City Watershed,the largest unfiltered water supplyin the U.S. providing 1.4 billiongallons of clean drinking waterdaily to more than nine millionpeople in New York City area.

Brad Gill, executive director ofthe Independent Oil and GasAssociation of New York, saysgas drilling is not a newendeavor for the state. New Yorkhas among the most stringentenvironmental standards in thecountry. He adds, “Drilling hasbeen conducted safely in NewYork for more than 100 years.”

Economically, Gill says gasproduction has been a significantbenefit to communities as a resultof real property tax revenues.Unlike Pennsylvania, gas is taxedin New York.

“When the Marcellus Shale inNew York is accessed, gas com-panies will pay significant sumsto the local tax authority (as areal property tax) for the value ofgas produced,” Gill explains.

And these tax revenues canmean big money for local gov-ernments. “From an economicdevelopment perspective, explo-ration will bring millions ofdollars into the region, benefitingresidents, service businesses, andlocal, county, and state govern-ment,” he adds.

Environmentally speaking, Gillcalls the pollution risks of drillingfor natural gas “miniscule,” addingthat fracturing is done below thewater table. “The risk or likeli-hood of groundwater or wellwater contamination is extremelylimited,” he adds. “The fresh wateraquifer is protected from thefracking conduit by multiple steelcasings. It is reinforced with aspecial concrete. With strong over-sight from the NYS DEC (NewYork Department of EnvironmentalConservation), we can accomplishclean drilling, as we have fordecades in New York.”

Cause for Concer nMyron Arnowitt, director of

Pennsylvania’s Clean WaterAction, an organization workingfor clean, safe, and affordablewater, and prevention of health-threatening pollution, says thereis “cause for concern” with theincreased gas drilling occurringacross the country.

“We’re seeing in Pennsylvaniathe beginning of problems fordrinking water sources,” Arnowitt,“whether it’s public water suppli-ers or people with private wells.”He adds that Pennsylvania hashad some instances of contamina-tion of private wells by nearbygas drilling in SusquehannaCounty in the northeastern partof state, adding that there alsohave been instances where natu-ral gas migrated from drillingsites to a local groundwateraquifer, affecting people’s private water supplies.

Continued on page 34.Continued on page 34.

One of the fastest growing occupations in theU.S. is that of a water treatment plant and systemoperator. In fact, the number of available jobs isexpected to grow 14 percent between 2006 and2016, faster than the average for all occupations,according to the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureauof Labor Statistics (BLS). That’s the good news. Thebad news is that these are precisely the jobs at greatestrisk to go unfilled for lack of qualified applicants. Twokey challenges to this pending crisis are how to findnew talent and retain employees.

Have Some RespectA key reason operators are not remaining in or

entering the field is money. “Although they arecharged with protecting human health and theenvironment, operators are one of the poorestpaid groups of public employees,” says JerryBiberstine, senior environmental engineer, NationalRural Water Association. In fact, the national meanannual wage for this occupation in 2008 was$39,950, according to the BLS. This salary is particu-larly uncompetitive for someone working in a largeplant in a large city. Those working in smaller com-munities typically have lower salaries, sometimesmuch lower.

But competitive salaries and benefits are not theonly motivators for retaining or recruiting employees.There are other things you can do to keep your

employee content. Musician Aretha Franklin sangabout it, comedian Rodney Dangerfield joked aboutit, and water operators suffer from it—a lack ofrespect. “This is especially a problem for operatorsin small systems where they are expected to beeverything from garbage collector to dog catcher,”says Biberstine. “A lot of times the water side isn’tconsidered as important as the wastewater side,even though the public health impacts can betremendous and the specific responsibilities areenormous.”

While the specific duties of an operator dependon the type and size of plant in which they work,they can include controlling equipment that movesthe water through various treatment processes;reading, interpreting, and adjusting meters andgauges to make sure equipment and processes areproperly working; controlling chemical-feedingdevices, performing water sampling and chemicaland biological analyses; and using hand and powertools to repair equipment. Operators must under-stand requirements under the Safe Drinking Water


By Caigan McKenzieNESC Staff Writer

Graphic Design by Julie Black

Guernsey Water’s treatment plant at St. Saviours, looking overthe dam spillway and water inlet to the works. Inset Photo:One of the membrane filters at the water treatment plant.

Photo Source: Festo. Guernsey Water, a business unit of the Public Services

Department (PSD) of the States of Guernsey, United Kingdom.

www.nesc.wvu.edu 21

Act, be familiar with state and local guidelines, andbe certified as public water system operators.

Yet with all this system knowledge, the operator’sinput is sometimes not sought when it could behelpful. “At a water treatment plant in north-centralWest Virginia, for instance, town managers andengineering consultants didn’t include operators indiscussions about upgrades they were making tothe plant,” says Zane Satterfield, engineering scientist,National Environmental Services Center (NESC). “As aresult, the treatment system was stationed eight feetabove the operator’s platform and did not include aladder or stepstool. No one thought about how theoperator was going to take samples. The problem isthat often the operators are not perceived as beingas educated as the managers, and that may or maynot be true, but their input is certainly important.”

The NESC training manual, Managing a SmallDrinking Water System: A Short Course for LocalOfficials supports this belief when it states that akey to retaining workers is how they are man-aged. “Do not micromanage,” the manual says.“The operator is responsible for running the watersystem and knowing its customers … trust the oper-ator to make day-to-day decisions. The benefits ofsharing power with employees increase employeemotivation, communication, job skills, and trust.”

Biberstine explains that operators are often leftout of the loop because decisions are based onpolitical promises and personal outlooks rather thanon the safety of the water or to meet regulations. “Itcan be a major conflict between the proper opera-tion of a water system and someone telling theoperator what he has to do in spite of what he isrequired to do by the state,” he says. “Managers andwater boards need to remember that operators arecertified professionals and need to show them theyare valued.”

Professional Development andTraining Programs

One way to show operators thatthey are valued is to support theirongoing education. “The operator’slevel of knowledge and awarenesswill directly influence plant mainte-nance and determine if the watersystem is distributing safe water,” theShort Course for Local Officials states.

“Training prepares the operator todo the job. Some benefits of trainingenable the operator to:

• find out about changes in regula-tions for compliance,

• note changes that will affect thewater system,

• learn about plant and distributionsystem maintenance, and

• maintain or improve certification,thus assuring the board and thepublic that the operator knows thebasics of public health protectionand water system operations.”

Continuing education doesn’t have to be expen-sive; sometimes, it can be found for little or nocost. NESC, for instance, offers a variety of operatorcourses on CD (see the end of this article fordetails). Check with professional drinking waterassociations and other nonprofit private or publicagencies for online courses. Even on-the-job train-ing (mentoring) followed by increased jobresponsibility will help further an individual’sknowledge and sense of accomplishment.

“The board should set aside funds so the opera-tor can also travel to the utility schools, conferencesor regional meetings,” the Short Course for LocalOfficials says. “These events give the operator theopportunity to network with other operators andsuppliers to discuss water systems, problems, tech-nological changes and upgrades.”

Community Colleges and InternshipsBut retaining employees is not enough to fill the

void that the drinking water systems will be experi-encing soon. In fact, some studies estimate thatutilities will lose more than 20 percent of theiroperators in the next five years, especially as BabyBoomers retire, so there is an immediate need todraw new employees into these jobs. One place tolook for potential applicants is community colleges.More than half the states have community collegeswith water programs that offer certificates or anassociate’s degree. In addition to classroom course-work, many of these programs have hands-oncourses and some offer internships.

Internships can work well for both employer andemployee. For the employer, it offers the opportu-nity to preview the level of commitment,enthusiasm, and knowledge the prospectiveemployee has before making a committed job offer;

This happy operator works in a water treatment plant in Montana.

Photo Source: Montana Water Center


and for the employee, it teaches skills that are notlearned in the classroom such as time manage-ment, organizational skills, and people skills.

Raise AwarenessEducation to raise awareness of the essential

role of water operators in providing safe, reli-able drinking water helps showcase thesepositions as career paths and not as dead-endjobs. “The treatment and disinfection of drinkingwater have saved more lives than all of the hos-pitals in the history of the world,” says StewThornley, Health Educator, MinnesotaDepartment of Health. “Yet people take it forgranted; you turn on the tap and there it is.” Tohelp spread the message about water’s impor-tance, the Minnesota Department of Health andthe Minnesota section of the American WaterWorks Association (AWWA) have been fundingand conducting a series of drinking water insti-tutes since 2001 for middle-school and high schoolteachers. During the institute, teachers develop anaction plan for integrating drinking water educationinto their curriculum. Later on in the year, they sub-mit their action plan for peer review. Once the planis integrated into the curriculum, the teacherreceives two college credits.

“The overall goal is to have an ongoing group ofhigh-school graduates in the state who are wellversed on the subject of drinking water,” saysThornley. “We make it a key part of their educationthroughout their school years. Typically, the teach-ers bring in the water superintendents of thesystems in the cities in which they teach to talkwith the students and to explain the importantwork of drinking water professionals. It generatesinterest in career paths that most of the studentswere unaware of.”

Awareness of drinking water careers is taken astep further in Portland High School, Portland,Connecticut, where high school seniors areoffered a one-semester course called “Water andPeople.” This course prepares them to take thesmall system operator certification exam as wellas introducing them to other drinking watercareers.

The course got its kick-start three years ago whenthe Connecticut section of the AWWA learned thatmore than 40 percent of the state’s 1,080 certifiedoperators were eligible to retire within five years.The Connecticut AWWA section chair at the timewas Dave Kuzminski who had more than 30 yearsexperience in the Portland water department andwho had taken a technology job that put him inclose contact with the school district, teachers, andtown officials.

“It took a lot of work, collaboration and buy in,”Kuzminski says. “Our primacy agency partnered withus in helping to develop the curriculum. We also part-nered with Gateway Community College, which is acollege that runs the water certification courseslocally for people in the industry, as well as part-nering with Portland high school and theConnecticut AWWA section. Together we were able

to develop a curriculum that we taught for the firsttime last spring semester. In fact, it’s the first of itskind in the nation, prompting the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency to make us the focus of a work-force succession video they are producing.

“We had 15 students who took the course lastyear, and at the end of it, the State of Connecticutcame down and administered the test to those whowanted to take the state certification exam. Wewere able to get four certified operators out of ourclass. We had hoped for more, but for our first year,it wasn’t bad. We have 14 more students enrolledthis semester.”

Kuzminski explains that Gateway CommunityCollege agreed to give students who pass the“Water and People” course credit toward their envi-ronmental program. He added that they havereceived a tremendous response to and requests forthe curriculum. “One of the stipulations in our part-nering with the Connecticut AWWA section is thatthey would provide $7,500 funding for the curricu-lum and then own it,” Kuzminski says. “Right nowthey are in the process of copyrighting the curricu-lum, but once that is finished, they will provide itfree of charge to schools.”

Other ways to reach out to prospective employ-ees is to set up a booth at community, high school,and university career fairs; provide outreach toyouth groups, include listings at job banks; createpartnerships with state and local unemploymentoffices that send the unemployed to workforce pro-grams to find jobs and get training; and developalliances with retired or older workers and under-represented groups such as women and militaryveterans.

Regardless of which techniques you use tospread the word about a career in the water indus-try, finding and keeping employees shouldn’t reston luck. “Adequate pay, a chance for advancement,continued training and learning opportunities, anda challenging level of responsibility will not onlybring young people into the field, it will alsoassure their interest and loyalty to the job,” saysBilberstine. “Utilities must create the proper

The City of Buda Water Department in Buda, Texas, iscurrently made up of three water operators and threetechnicians. Photo Source: The City of Buda Water Department, Texas

www.nesc.wvu.edu 23

atmosphere to bring interested employees into thefield, and more importantly, to keep them there.”

For more informationTo earn more about community colleges that

have water programs, see American Water WorksAssociation. “Community Colleges with WaterPrograms.” Download at www.awwa.org/Membership/Content.cfm?itemnumber=34980&navitemNumber=1431

For more information on Connecticut’s Water andPeople curriculum, go to www.ctawwa.org.

Fallon, Sandra and Mark Kemp-Rye, “Are YouPrepared to Handle Labor Shortages in Your WaterUtilities?” National Environmental Services Center.Download at www.nesc.wvu.edu:16080/water-wedrink/articles/utility_labor_shortages.cfm

NESC offers eight operator training CDs. Here arethe titles and product numbers in parentheses:

• Operator Basics Training Series (DWCDTR18)

• Sanitary Survey Fundamentals Prep Course(DWCDTR19)

• Point-Of-Use Reverse Osmosis ComplyingWith Arsenic Regulation in Small DrinkingWater Systems (DWCDTR20)

• Microbial Risk Assessment Tool (DWCDTR21)

• Virtual System Explorer (DWCDTR22)

• Small Utility Board Training (DWCDTR23)

• Contamination Explorer: Technical Assistancefor Small Water Systems (DWCDTR24)

• Water Quality Expedition: TechnicalAssistance for Small Water Systems(DWCDTR25)

For information about pricing and to order, call(800) 624-8301 or e-mail [email protected].

ReferencesAmerican Water Works Association. “Streamlines.” February

3, 2009. Volume 1, Number 3.

Bilberstine, Jerry, Dave Kuzminiski, Stew Thornley, andZane Satterfield. Interviews with author December andJanuary 2009.

Minnesota Department of Health, “Water Works! A DrinkingWater Institute for Educators.” Download atwww.health.state.mn.us/water/institute/index.htm

National Environmental Services Center and the WalkaboutCo. Training Consultants, Inc. Managing a SmallDrinking Water System: A Short Course for Local Officials.Participant Modules. June 2000. (Product numberTRPMCD40; price $106.60.)

U.S. Census Bureau, Bureau of Labor Statistics.“Occupational Employment and Wages.” May 2008.Download at www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes518031.htm

A member of NESC for more than 10 years,Caigan McKenzie, has had her water andwastewater articles reprinted in numerouspublications.

Drinking water on the campus of UCSC issupplied by the City of Santa Cruz, California.

Photo Source: UC Santa Cruz

Environmental Health & Safety

Are Small CommunityWater Systems Moreat Risk than OtherSystems?


A growing chorus in the U.S.maintains that community watersystems are in desperate need ofattention. As long ago as 2000,Water Online stated, “The 54,000drinking water systems and16,000 wastewater systems in theUnited States face staggeringinfrastructure funding needs ofnearly $1 trillion over the next 20years and shortfall of a half of atrillion dollars, according to Cleanand Safe Water for the 21stCentury. [T]he WaterInfrastructure Network (WIN)[estimates] that [while] America’sdrinking water and wastewatersystems spend $23 billion peryear for infrastructure, they facean annual shortfall of another $23billion to replace aging facilitiesand comply with existing andfuture federal water regulations.”

The media reports dramaticanecdotes and statistics focusingon urban water infrastructureproblems. According to U.S.Water News, for instance, theDetroit Water and SewerAuthority in 2002 estimated 35billion gallons of lost water,meaning that customers paid $25million for water that neverreached its intended destination.Shrinking population and miles ofabandoned housing and industrialspace exacerbate Detroit’s situa-tion. Nationally, the AmericanSociety for Civil Engineers hasestimated that water systems lose17 percent of treated waterthrough leaky pipes, or some 2.6trillion gallons of water per year.A New York Times front page arti-cle on water infrastructurechallenges in March 2010,depicted a water main break inthe “fashionable Dupont Circleneighborhood” of Washington,D.C. and reported that “a signifi-cant water line bursts on averageevery two minutes somewhere inthe country… in Washingtonalone there is a pipe break everyday, on average.”

By Stephen Gasteyer,Department of Sociology, Michigan State University

With assistance from Dandan Kong,Department of Sociology, Michigan State University

Graphic Design by Jamie Bouquot

www.nesc.wvu.edu 25

Small Systems Also FaceChallenges

Infrastructure problems are notjust big city problems. A wateroperator in a smaller Michigancommunity recently told me, “Atthis point we don’t even try toreplace old pipes because thereisn’t the money; we have ourhands full just fixing the breaks.”Small community water systemsmay well be in more dire straitsthan larger systems. Discussionswith small community wateroperators and consultants pointto several systematic disadvan-tages and challenges. Smallsystems lack the economies ofscale of larger systems and thusare unable to cover the costs oftreatment upgrades and infrastruc-ture repairs and replacementsthrough marginal rate increasesspread over many customers.

Because of this, small commu-nity systems are more challengedin meeting maximum contaminantlevel requirements, such as themore stringent arsenic standardsimplemented in the last decade, orother regulatory burdens. Beyondthe number of rate payers, smallcommunities have fewer financialoptions. Low population is oftenaccompanied by lack of commer-cial revenue streams for manysmall communities, meaning thatthey are unable to obtain goodbond ratings to finance waterinfrastructure projects.

This situation has deterioratedin the last two decades with thesteady decline of rural manufac-turing. The dilapidated downtownhas become iconic for smalltowns in many parts of the coun-try. Those who work with smallcommunity systems note thatsmall community water operatorsare often underpaid, and lack thenecessary skills to address newdemands from regulatory changesand emerging water treatmentand distribution challenges.Further, small community water

boards are often lambasted aslacking the interest and skills toproperly manage their systems,and often simply try to minimizewater rates at the expense oflong-term viability.

Further, new industries that areheld out as a promise for revital-ization of small communities,such as biofuel or bioenergy pro-cessing plants, may bring newchallenges for small communitysystems. These industries fre-quently have high water use andeffluent treatment demands.Without proper planning, theseattributes could lead to unfore-seen expenses for communities,both in terms of new infrastruc-ture and treatment capacity andthe need to upgrade the skilllevel of water operators—allproblematic given the list ofproblems mentioned above.

Illinois Survey Y ieldsInter esting Results

While there is broad agreementthat these issues exist amongcommunity consultants and smallsystem water operators them-selves, very few statistics exist toverify or refute these assertions.With funding from the MidwestTechnical Assistance Center andthe U.S. Department ofAgriculture, we conducted a sur-vey of water operators in 2007.The survey was sent to all regis-tered supervising operators(1,184) for community water sys-tems in the state of Illinois.

A total of 474 operatorsresponded to the survey, and 471returned surveys sufficiently validfor inclusion in our analysis (aresponse rate of approximately 40percent). Operators were askedto give background on theirwater systems and communities,including: community population,system size, source of water, sys-tem ownership, water systemhealth, water system capacity, aswell as their level of operator

training, amount of time dedi-cated, and the salary theyreceived. Illinois provides a goodbenchmark: According to the U.S.Census, the state falls in themedian on most of the criticaldemographic variables (age distri-bution, household income,educational attainment, etc.),making it an ideal for gaugingnational trends.

The distribution of responses iscomparable to the communitywater system size distribution forIllinois. It is notable that thereturned surveys over-representthe smallest categories of watersystems, and under-representmid-sized systems (those between10,000 and 100,000). Becausethere are only nine communitywater systems for communities ofmore than 100,000, it is not sur-prising that we received only acouple of responses from opera-tors at Illinois’ largest utilities.The distribution of water systemsize is relatively similar to thenational distribution. (See Table 1for comparison.)

The differences on key ques-tions are summarized in Table 2.Analysis of the survey responsesindicates that size matters: butmuch more so in terms of long-term capacity than for many ofthe indicators that we often asso-ciate with day-to-day systemcapacity. For example, when weasked how operators felt abouttheir water systems, both thosefrom systems of less than 500 andthose with more than 10,000 con-nections were most likely to saytheir water systems were in goodshape. It may well be that theoperators of the smallest systemssimply didn’t recognize loomingproblems. But there is no way toknow that from this data.Likewise, there was no discern-able pattern when we askedoperators to opine about whetherwater rates covered costs. In allsize categories of less than

10,000, approximately 20 percentfelt that rates did not cover costs,and 25 percent of those repre-senting systems of more than10,000 felt the same way. Again,it is possible to interpret this as asign of low capacity, as small sys-tems may simply not haveunderstood the extent to whichtheir system was in difficult finan-cial straits. This could explainsome of the other responses.

When we asked for moreobjective indicators of capacity, amore definite pattern emerged.Systems of greater than 10,000connections were significantlyless likely to have been citedwith violations in the last twoyears. Systems of fewer than 500hookups were significantly morelikely than systems in all othersize categories to have had waterquality violations over the lasttwo years. Systems of less than500 connections were also themost likely not to have raisedtheir rates in the last three years.

The only question where wefind a reverse trend is in the areaof management. When we asked

whether the community watersystem board or committee meton a regular basis, as a key indi-cator of management capacity,small system operators actuallyranked their systems better thanoperators from all other size cate-gories – with only 18 percent,versus 25 percent for systems ofgreater than 10,000 hookups say-ing that the water board did notmeet regularly. This does not sayanything about actual boarddeliberations or decisions, but itdoes at least indicate that some-one on the board felt the positionwas important enough to warrantregular meetings.

On the other hand, small sys-tems were in a much moreprecarious situation regarding thehuman aspects of operationalcapacity. Analysis indicates a con-sistent inverse relationshipbetween water system size andindicators of operator capacity.Operators from small systemswere, on average, older, lesstrained, and more poorly paidthan those representing largersystems. While it is not surprising,

it is somewhat alarming that 85percent of operators of very smallsystems made less than $40,000annually, and 65 percent of theseoperators were older than 50years of age at the time of thesurvey. This bodes poorly for theability to hire new operators asBaby Boomers retire.

Challenges AheadThe upshot is that many of the

assertions of those working withsmall community water systemswere confirmed by the results ofthis survey. Small systems are,indeed, more likely to be in vio-lation of water regulations, andmore likely not to be raising rateson an annual basis to avoid whathas been called “rate shock”when water systems try toaddress long term problems.

One of the most importantfindings is that the water indus-try-wide workforce crisis maywell be more severe in small sys-tems. Indeed, small systems inIllinois have both the oldest andlowest paid water operators. Itmay be that the key to sustainably


RespondentFrequency

Respondent Percent Illinois Percent U.S. Percent

Fewer than 500connections

188 39.9 36 56

501 to 3,300 connections

196 41.6 39.1 27

3,301 to 10,000connections

66 14.2 12.6 9

10,001 to 100,000connections

21 4.2 12 7

>100,000 2 0.4 0.5 1

Total 471 100 100.1 99

TABLE 1: DISTRIBUTION OF WATER SYSTEMS BY SIZE

www.nesc.wvu.edu 27

providing safe water throughoutthe state—and in other parts ofthe country—will be in helpingthose community water boardsthat meet on a regular basis tounderstand the importance ofinvesting in human capital, in theform of operators, as well asphysical infrastructure.

Acknowledgements: Thanks to theMidwest Technical Assistance Center,the Hatch Fund of the U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, and the University ofIllinois Agricultural Experiment Stationand the Michigan State UniversityDepartment of Sociology Startup Fundfor providing the resources to carry outand analyze these findings. The authorsextend a special thanks to Anne Silvisand Steve Wilson for their assistance inmoving this project forward.

Refer encesAmerican Water Works Association.

2004. Avoiding Rate Shock: Makingthe Case for Water Rates. Denver:AWWA.

Duhigg, Charles. 2010. “Toxic Waters:Saving U.S. Water and SewerSystems Would be Costly.” NewYork Times, p. A1 (March 14).

Hollands, Bruce. 2010. “TheUnderground Infrastructure Crisis:Rebuilding Water and SewerSystems without a Flood of RedInk.” Issue Brief #176, (January 18)Accessed at: www.ntu.org/news-and-issues/transportation-infrastructure/ntuib176undergroundinfrastructurecrisis.pdf.

Water Online. 2000. “America’s DrinkingWater, Wastewater Systems in Des-perate Need of Funding.” (April 20).

Percent ofRespondents that: <500 501-1500 1,501-3,300 3,300-10,000 >10,001

Rate Their WaterSystem as NotHealthy

27.4 33.8 36.6 38.5 25

Say Water SystemsCited for Violationsin Last 2 Years*

31.7 22.1 19 26.2 5

Say Rates Have NotBeen Raised in theLast Three Years*

41.8 31.8 36.8 29.7 15

Say Rates Do NotCover Costs 22.3 19.7 20.3 23.4 25

Report AverageOperator Pay < $40,000**

85.1 52.3 29.3 4.9 0

Report AverageOperator Age >50 **

65.8 56.3 55 53.8 55

Report Water BoardDoes Not MeetRegularly

18.6 22.9 20.9 22.6 25

Formerly theDirector of PolicyDevelopment andApplied Researchwith the Rural

Community AssistancePartnership, StephenGasteyer is an assistantprofessor in the SociologyDepartment at MichiganState University (MSU).

Dandan Kong is a graduate studentin the MSU

Sociology Department,research rural communityenvironmental issues.

* Indicates that this relationship was significant with a P value of .05.** Indicates that the statistical difference was significant with a P-value of .01 or below.

TABLE 2: WATER CAPACITY BY SYSTEM SIZE


Water conservation—just useless water, right? Wrong. It’s notthat easy. This article will brieflydiscuss the issue of water con-servation to lay the groundworkfor a discussion of conservationrates. Some conservation ratestructures are simple to adminis-ter. Others are hard. You needto understand what each struc-ture does, and requires, beforepicking one.

Water Conservation andConservation Rates

Water conservation is a goodthing in situations like these:

• The water supply is limitedrelative to demand. Eitherthe water supply will runout for that system (unsus-tainable supply) or suchuse will deprive other sys-tems of their water supply(interference),

• Environmental, wildlife,plant life and otherresources would sufferdegradation at uncheckedwater usage levels, and

• Higher demand wouldforce expensive systemupgrades so costs to pro-duce would rise.

Conservation rates encouragewater conservation. But conser-vation rates are not the only wayto accomplish that goal. Waterconservation techniques include:

1. Technological—Usingequipment, software andother technology-basedways to improve water use

efficiency, find and fixwater leaks, etc. Advancedtechnologies are becomingincreasingly more availablein the water industry.

2. Legal—Using water conser-vation ordinances and otherlegal based ways to forcepeople to use water moreconservatively. This tech-nique works best when thereis a long-term drought andthe reservoir is running dry.

3. Education —Teaching waterconservation. This techniquealways makes good senseand for the other techniquesto work well, they mustshould include a strongeducation component.

4. Monetary—Pricing water socustomers will try to reducetheir costs by using lesswater. This technique worksbest when billing is fre-quent enough that users cansee “cause” (watering thelawn) and “effect” (thewater bill jumps).

Conservation rates might causewater wasters to waste less,although the savings will proba-bly be far less than you wouldthink. Many of those waterwasters are affluent, and theylove their beautiful green lawnsso much that their water billcould triple —and it still wouldn’tcurb their water use. However,even if conservation rates don’tcause conservation, they will endup collecting more money fromthose who generally can afford topay more.

By Carl E. Brown, PresidentGettingGreatRates.com andCarl Brown Consulting, LLC

Graphic Design by John Fekete

Editor’s Note: The author isnot an attorney and these comments are not legal advice.The author is a rate analyst sothese comments address the practical and financial effectsof conservation rates.

www.nesc.wvu.edu 29

Conservation RateStructur es

Increasing block rates encour-age conservation all the time byall those affected by the higherrates. They are blunt instrumentsin that they tag the high-end usersall the time, not just during thepeak water use season when youreally need conservation the most.

On the up side, increasingblock rates are only moderatelydifficult to calculate. On the downside, they can discourage thosetypes of development that use lotsof water all year—and employ lotsof people—unless you have aseparate class for them.

As to the percentages by whichyou should increase rates and thenumber of blocks you should setup, there are practical limits. If,for example, you set the firstblock at 1,000 gallons of use andthe rate for that block at $2.50,and you raise the rate 25 percentover the previous rate every1,000 gallons, the resulting unitcharges will come out as summa-rized in Table 1.

Now, you may not like waterwasters, but you can’t get awaywith charging a 25,000 gallonuser a unit charge that is 128times higher that the 5,000-gallon

user. Besides, 1,000-gallon rateblocks just make the rate charttoo complex for most to calculateor explain.

A reasonable approach wouldbe to set rates for blocks of about5,000 to 10,000 gallons of use,depending upon how yourratepayers actually use water.Stop the increases by about40,000 gallons of use/month forresidential users, higher for largeusers like the industrial class. Inthis case, using the same rateescalations from Table 1, excepthaving each new rate take effectevery 5,000 gallons, your unitcharges would be as summarizedin Table 2.

With 25 percent rate increasesat every 5,000 gallons you willpull unit charges from a 25,000gallon user at a rate that is eighttimes higher than the 5,000-gallonuser in this table. As compared tothe rates in Table 1, their ratewould only be five times higher.You will encourage some conser-vation with such rates, if you canget them passed.

For practical reasons you nor-mally shouldn’t have more thanfour rate blocks for each userclass. Three is better. Each of

Those of you who manage andmake decisions for water systemsmust balance rate setting valuejudgments against these realities:Your water system is a business.All businesses must maintaincash flow properly or they willsoon be out of business. Viewedin this light, conservation ratescan do some nice things for yoursystem and to some degree, yourratepayers.

It is important to have verystrong reserves if you adoptaggressive conservation rates.That is because your rate rev-enues, especially thosehigh-volume sales, are extra sen-sitive to sales fluctuations. Yourconservation rates may actuallycause users to conserve in a bigway. Or it just might rain a lotnext year. Either way, your salesvolume and especially your salesreceipts will go down and thatcould break your system unlessyou have sufficient reserves toweather the downturn.

Everyone intuitively under-stands that water conservation isone of the things we need to doto live sustainably, but it is goodto actually discuss such issuesbefore setting rates. That getseveryone on the same page inrate setting.

Use in 1000’sCharge per 1000Gallons at This

Usage Level

Total Unit Chargesfor This Volume

of Use

1.0 $2.50 $2.50

2.0 $3.13 $5.63

3.0 $3.91 $9.53

4.0 $4.88 $14.41

5.0 $6.10 $20.52

6.0 $7.63 $28.15

7.0 $9.54 $37.68

8.0 $11.92 $49.60

9.0 $14.90 $64.51

10.0 $18.63 $83.13

~ ~ ~

25.0 $529.40 $2636.98

Use in 1000’sCharge per 1000Gallons at This

Usage Level

Total Unit Chargesfor This Volume

of Use

1.0 $2.50 $2.50

2.0 $2.50 $5.00

3.0 $2.50 $7.50

4.0 $2.50 $10.00.

5.0 $3.13 $13.13

6.0 $3.13 $16.25

7.0 $3.13 $19.38

8.0 $3.13 $22.50

9.0 $3.13 $25.63

10.0 $3.91 $29.53

~ ~ ~

25.0 $7.63 $107.72

Table 1 Table 2

Carl Brown is President of GettingGreatRates.comand Carl Brown Consulting,LLC, specializing in water,sewer and storm water

system rate analysis and related issues.Mr. Brown may be contacted at:Phone (573) 619-3411 or by e-mail at:[email protected].


those blocks should start ata natural break point inuse. For example, youshould find the averageuse of the “little old lady,widowed, retired, livingalone on Social Security.”She probably uses about2,000 gallons/monthexcept in the summerwhen she’s growing a gar-den and flowers. Then shestill doesn’t exceed 5,000gallons/month. It is logicaland defensible to set the

first rate block from zero to per-haps 3,000 or 5,000 gallons/month to protect this user fromexorbitant rates. After all, she isalready conserving water and shereally can’t afford to pay more.

The next natural rate blockwould take in the stereotypicalfamily of four that uses 5,000 to10,000 gallons/month, unless theyirrigate their lawn.

Then you set a usage block to cap-ture the reasonable lawn irrigators.

Finally, you set a rate block topenalize the real water wasters.

Seasonal conservation rates arelike the previous style except thatthe escalating rates only apply dur-ing the heavy water use season.That is the summer in most com-munities. During the “off” season,your unit rates would probably bethe same for all levels of use.

Seasonal conservation rates get atthe heart of the problem for mostcommunities. It is generally themost useful and targeted conserva-tion rate structure for communitiesthat are mainly residential.

There are other, less com-monly used conservation ratestructures, but they are usuallytoo complex for smaller systems.Stick to the basics and you willdo well. One issue that hits evenmany small systems is rates forapartment buildings, mobilehome parks and the like. If yourconservation rates climb veryrapidly and you have any largemulti-dwelling users, you willneed to normalize rates for themback to the average rate of useper dwelling.

There you have it,Conservation Rates 101. Get yourrates set right and your systemwill boost rate revenues andmaybe encourage water conser-vation, too.

Consider this general advice beforeyou enact any rate structure.Analyze your rate setting needs andcalculate what your cost to producewater is. Never sell any volume ofwater below your cost to produce.

Summertime IsSwimming TimeTaking Steps to Assure Proper Pool Water Quality

othing provides relief from a hot summer day likethe sparkling cool water of a swimming pool. Withthis enjoyment, however, comes responsibility and

significant safety risks. Not to dismiss the seriousness ofdrowning and sunburns, but as a pool owner, waterquality may be your biggest concern.

Poor pool water quality may cause many problemsand health risks, and there are many things that can foulpool water. For example, the Centers for Disease Controlsays that between 2005 and 2006, there were 78 out-breaks of cryptosporidiosis traced to contaminated poolwater, affecting thousands of people. Fortunately, if youown one of the 7.4 million pools used in the U.S., thereare ways to prevent contamination, most of them simpleand inexpensive.

What ar e some common contaminants?The two most common ways that pool water

becomes contaminated are (1) pharmaceuticals or per-sonal care products (PPCPs) and (2) body fluids. Mostpublic pool rules require patrons to shower beforeentering the water to get rid of PPCPs, which includelotions, soaps, cosmetics, perfumes, and prescriptiondrugs that include pills, liquids, or topicals such aspastes or ointments.

According to the Department of Health and HumanServices, more than half of all Americans take at leastone prescription drug, and one in six take more thanthree medications. Every day, the average person usesbetween nine and 15 personal products, which results inthe application of approximately 126 different ingredi-ents to their bodies.

Limiting the amount of PPCPs in the water improveswater quality and lessens the amount of chemicalsneeded to maintain healthy swimming conditions.

Practicing good hygiene and rinsing away any productsfrom the body minimizes the risk of impurities that cancause health issues.

Bodily fluids like blood, feces, and vomit are leadingculprits in pool water contamination and can rapidlyspread illness and disease. Other bodily fluids includesweat, saliva, and urine. Swallowing, breathing, or con-tact with bodily fluid contaminated water can causegastrointestinal illnesses. Exposure to bodily fluids mayalso cause eye, respiratory, skin, ear, neurologic, andwound infections.

To mitigate this potential contamination, encourageyour family and guests to shower before entering apool. Make sure children are clean, and take them onfrequent bathroom breaks. Do not change diapers pool-side, and ensure that diapers are completely leak proofto prevent waste from combining with pool water.

What ar e ways to assur e quality pool water?The most common sanitizer used in pool water is

chlorine, a rapid and persistent oxidant that kills theharmful organisms that cause illnesses such as gastroen-teritis and Legionnaires’ Disease, as well as earinfections, and athlete’s foot. Chlorine treatment hasprovided safe drinking water for billions of peoplearound the world and helped public health in swim-ming pools for decades.

Sandra Peppel, aquatic manager for West VirginiaUniversity’s Student Recreational Center, recommends“spending $40 at a local pool shop on an accurate test kitand actually testing the water.” Water monitoring increasesthe likelihood that problems will be noticed and correctedbefore contamination or other dangerous contents cancause any health issues. Depending on the readings, poolowners can adjust chlorine levels appropriately.

By Emma Koonse, NESC Student Intern

www.nesc.wvu.edu 31

Graphic Design By Jamie Bouquot

“Controlling pool pH is important for optimizing theeffectiveness of chlorine as a disinfectant,” says CraigMains, an engineering scientist with the NationalEnvironmental Services Center. “Chlorine reacts withwater to form a weak acid called hypochlorous acid(HOCl). HOCl further dissociates or breaks into hydro-gen ions (H+) and hypochlorite ions (OCl-). The extentof this reaction is pH dependent. As the pH decreases,there is more HOCl and less OCl-; as the pH increases,the reverse is true.

“Both HOCl and OCl- contribute to the free chlorineresidual as measured on your test kit,” Mains continues.“However, only HOCl is considered to be an effectivedisinfectant. At pH 7.2 about 60 percent of the free chlo-rine residual is in the form of HOCl. At pH 8.0 onlyabout 15 percent is in the form of HOCl. So, eventhough the free chlorine may read the same on your testkit, at pH 8 the disinfection effectiveness is much less.The recommended pH range for pools is often listed as7.0 to 8.0, with an ideal range of 7.2 to 7.6. You would,in theory, increase the disinfection effectiveness of chlo-rine by decreasing the pH below that level, but, becausethe pH of human tears is about 7.2 to 7.4, you wouldend up with water that was less comfortable to swim inand would cause stinging eyes.”

Pool owners should check the chemicals up to threetimes daily because many factors can change the chemi-cal content of the pool water. These factors includeextensive use, such as a pool party, and ultraviolet raysduring peak sunlight hours that destroy chlorine. Thelevels must be regulated and replenished accordingly tokill harmful bacteria that may develop.

When bodily fluids occur in or near a pool, immediatedisinfection procedures should be undertaken. A com-monly used disinfectant for bodily fluid outbreaks ischlorine bleach mixed with water. Pools must be evacu-ated and closed, as it can take up to 24 hours for thesesituations to be corrected.

What ar e some signs thatmy pool water isn’t safe?

There are indications that poolusers can look for that suggest thepool water needs attention. TheWater Quality and Health Councilencourages swimmers to “use yoursenses” before entering a pool.Specifically, they encourage:

• Sight—look for water thatappears clean, clear, and blue.

• Touch—check for tiles that feel smooth and clean.

• Smell—make sure there are no strong odors.

• Sound—listen for pool cleaning equipment.A strong scent and red, burning eyes accompanies

excessive chlorine levels. When chlorine is working effec-tively, no strong odors should be detected.

Too little chlorine in the pool water may cause it toappear murky and cloudy. Murkiness can also be causedby poor filtration, a lack of circulation, or improper oxida-tion practices.

Algae can grow in pools that have poor circulation andlow chlorine content. Usually green, algae can be freefloating or can cling to the walls or bottom of the pool.Algae can clog filters, cause surface damage, and threatenthe health of swimmers. Black algae are found in cracksor slits in lining, especially plastic linings, and are knownto disrupt normal chlorine levels.

Brushing the entire pool once every two weeks duringswim season helps control the growth of algae in pools.Also, maintaining pH levels between 7 and 8, as well askeeping basic chemical levels normal, minimizes algaeforming conditions.

At public pools, inquire about the health inspector’sgrade for how well the chemical levels are maintained.Pool managers would also be happy to show and explainthe pool equipment used to monitor cleanliness. If thepainted stripes along the sides and bottom of the pool arenot visible through the water, it could be a problem withwater cleanliness. Also, check the walls of the pool,which should be non-slippery.

With summer fast approaching, pool owners and publicfacilities will soon be opening and ready for thousands ofswimmers around the country. Pool owners have theresponsibility to maintain a healthy and safe swimmingenvironment. As a swimmer, it is important to take asmany precautions as possible while using a pool. Neverswim while you are ill, and be aware of what to look forto ensure you are using a clean pool. Always avoid get-ting water in your mouth, and cleanse your body prior toentering the water.

Mor e Infor mationTo learn more about swimming pool water safety and

cleanliness, visit the Centers for Disease Control website atwww.cdc.gov/healthywater/swimming/index.html or theWater Quality and Health Council’s site at healthypools.org.S

NESC Student Intern Emma Koonse is a professionalwriting and editing major at West Virginia University.After graduation in December, Emma plans to moveto Washington, D.C., to become a technical writer.

A recent Water Quality and Health Council survey found thatalmost half (47 percent) of respondents admit to one ormore behaviors that contribute to an unhealthy swimmingpool. One in five (17 percent) say they’ve urinated in thepool, and eight in ten (78 percent) are convinced their fellowswimmers are guilty. As far as showering goes, forget it.Roughly one third (35 percent) pass the shower withoutstopping, and three quarters (73 percent) say their fellowswimmers fail to shower before swimming.

The survey also found that many people weren’t clear abouthealthy swimming pool behavior. As a pool owner, you canhelp educate people—especially children—about hygienicbehaviors and the reasons behind them.


perating a water or waste-water utility has never beeneasy. And with new technolo-

gies and increasing regulations, thejob just keeps getting more difficult.

If you have questions about a partic-ular technology or about otheraspects of running your system, the National Environmental ServicesCenter’s (NESC) technical staff may have the answers you need. Our engineers, certified operators,and support staff have decades of experience working with smallwater and wastewater systems.

Call us at (800) 624-8301 and selectoption 3 to speak with one of ourtechnical assistance specialists. Eventhough many of our customers findour experience and informationinvaluable, we don’t charge for thecall or the advice. It’s free!

Horizontal wells with hydraulic fracturesare needed in order to establishproductivity in shale gas reservoirs.

In a hydraulic fracturiation operation,water and sand under high pressure areinjected into the formation in order toextract the gas from the reservoir.

This illustrates a completed shale gas wellwith hydraulic fractures.(Illustration/Caption: StatoilHydro/Statoil)


This illustrationshows an exampleof a shale gas devel-opment with several wellpad sites. Each well pad has sixproducing wells. Multiple horizontalwells per pad limit footprint and impacton the surface. (Illustration/Caption: StatoilHydro/Statoil)

Horizontal wells with hydraulic fracturesare needed in order to establishproductivity in shale gas reservoirs.

In a hydraulic fracturiation operation,water and sand under high pressure areinjected into the formation in order toextract the gas from the reservoir.

This illustrates a completed shale gas wellwith hydraulic fractures.(Illustration/Caption: StatoilHydro/Statoil)

Shale gas well in production in theMarcellus area. The well head isseen in the middle of the pad.To the right is shown separationequipment and tanks for storingproduced water before beingfurther treated.(Photo/Caption: Chesapeake/Statoil)

Drilling rig in operation drilling shalegas wells in the Marecellus area.(photo/caption: Chesapeake/Statoil)

www.nesc.wvu.edu 35

In the southwestern part of thestate, Arnowitt says there have beensome reports of people with privatewell contamination, and in theMonongahela River watershed, highTDS [total dissolved solids] levelshave been reported, above U.S.Environmental Protection Agencydrinking water contaminant levels.

“It’s a combination problem witha number of sources of contamina-tion. The concern is that when youhave a watershed that’s alreadyheavily impacted, the discharges ofwastewater from drilling operationsthat are high in TDS make the prob-lem worse. The levels now arehistorically high. If more wells aredrilled, it could be a problem for thepublic water supply,” he adds.

Many of the people leasing largesums of land in Pennsylvania arefarmers who depend on their wellsto water livestock. Arnowitt says,“We certainly advise people to usea lawyer if you are planning tolease land to a gas drilling com-pany. If you’re concerned aboutgroundwater or surface water and

want to lease your property,you should be talking to thedrilling company, making surethere are proper safeguards.

“We also advise people tomake sure the companies areproviding information aboutwhat type of chemicals arebeing used. There may beproblems with storing chemi-

cals, especially if you’re usinglocal groundwater for drinkingwater. Chemicals should not bestored in close proximity to a well.”

Drilling in Pennsylvania doubledfrom 2008 to 2009 despite the reces-sion. Arnowitt says that trendcontinued in 2009 with a significantincrease in wells. “There seems tobe a steady stream of applications,a pretty clear trend that especiallyas the recession eases, there willcontinue to be a strong stream ofapplications,” he adds.

Although Pennsylvania has regu-lated gas drilling for several years,Arnowitt says the state is not pre-pared with water protectionregulations. “[Regulations] are neededto ensure the increase in drillingwon’t cause problems with surfacewater contamination,” he adds.

Gas PainsWhether the financial gain turns

out to be worth the pain may be aquestion worked out through gov-ernment officials and the courts.Issues like the safety of hydraulicfracking and storing of chemicalsbeing used in the process are cur-rently being investigated in both thecourts and government offices.

Meanwhile, homeowners arefinding it difficult to turn downlucrative leasing agreements some-times offering as much as $5,000per acre, and gas companies areeager to start drilling.

Gill says the financial benefits areextraordinary. He adds, “Natural gasexploration will help New Yorkstate and the U.S. achieve energyindependence. Owners of smallparcels of land and big farms alikewill reap financial rewards fromleasing bonuses and royalties.

“Communities will be revitalizedwith an influx of cash that they caninvest in small businesses, homeimprovements, farming, and newcharities. Working-class people willfind an abundance of high-payingjobs as gas companies expand inour state. There will be a multipliereffect as all these dollars circulatethrough local economies.”

Arnowitt admits the potential eco-nomic benefit is very alluring butadds that the potential for negativecircumstances may outweigh thepositive. “If a property owner losesa well on their private property,you’ve lost a lot of money. Youhave to properly manage the envi-ronmental side. Otherwise, you maystand to lose more than you gain.People aren’t looking at that issueclosely enough,” he says.

Kelsey adds that there will alwaysbe environmental impacts fromenergy exploration. “We have tohave the regulatory mechanism inplace to be sure energy develop-ment is done in ways that have theleast negative impact on the envi-ronment. Is it better to have [energyexploration] in our back yard orover in a foreign country some-place? It is a value judgment oneway or another. Until we don’t needfossil fuel anymore, the simple factis that there are going to be impacts.The bottom line is we have to makesure it happens in a way that’s fairand right,” he says.

Mor e Infor mationFor more information on gas

drilling, read the following articles:

• Casselman, Ben. “U.S. GasFields Go From Bust toBoom,” Wall Street Journal.April 30, 2009. RetrievedNovember 24, 2009, atwww.online.wsj.com/article/SB124104549891270585.html.

• “Natural Gas,” Science Clarified.Retrieved December 3, 2009, atwww.scienceclarified.com/Mu-Oi/Natural-Gas.html.

• “New York City Watershed.”The Catskill Center forConservation andDevelopment. RetrievedJanuary 5, 2010, atwww.catskillcenter.org/atlas/nycwatershed/nycw_1watershed-basins.htm

• “Marcellus Shale estimated nat-ural gas yield rises to nearly500 trillion cubic feet,”Pittsburgh Tribune-Review.July 28, 2009. RetrievedJanuary 6, 2010, at www.pitts-burghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/business/s_635579.html.

• “The History Behind NaturalGas,” U.S. Department ofEnergy. Retrieved December14, 2009, at www.fossil.energy.gov/education/energylessons/gas/gas_history.html.

Learn more about Clean WaterAction by visiting their website atwww.cleanwateraction.org.

The Independent Oil and GasAssociation of New York maintainsa website at www.iogany.org.

Natalie Eddy, MSJ,has been a memberof the NationalEnvironmentalServices Center staff

for 17 years and has writtenabout a wide range of environ-mental issues.

Continued from page 19.Continued from page 19.


2010 NESC Products ListA key component of the National Environmental Services Center’s

mission is to offer free and low-cost products related to drinkingwater and wastewater. We now have more than 1,500 products fea-

tured in an up-to-date list on our website.The online catalog lists products in the following drinking water and

wastewater categories: case studies, design, finance, management, generalinformation, public education, operation & maintenance, research,

resilience, regulations, security, training and more.

Please give the item number and title of the product when you place your orderand note that shipping charges apply.To order, send an e-mail to info@

mail.nesc.wvu.edu or call us toll free at (800) 624-8301 or locally at (304) 293-4191.

Download the complete 2010 NESC Products List atwww.nesc.wvu.edu/products.cfm and order today!

1500+ Products Available

WATER TRIVIAWhat is the average snowfall to watercontent ratio?

a) 5-to-1

b) 10-to-1

c) 25-to-1

d) 50-to-1

e) none of the above

www.nesc.wvu.edu 37

water

operator

job

outlook

energy

conservation

efficiency

flow

WORD PUZZLE*

*Solution on inside back cover Wordsearch by Sheila Anderson

According to the National Snow and Ice DataCenter,the commonly used 10-to-one ratio of snow-fall to water content is a myth for much of theUnited States.This ratio varies from as low as 100-to-one to as high as about three-to-one,dependingon the meteorological conditions associated withthe snowfall.

QUOTES

We live in a moment of history where change isso speeded up that we begin to see the presentonly when it is already disappearing.

— R. D. Laing (1927–1989)

The sad truth is that excellence makes peoplenervous.

— Shana Alexander (1925–2005)

You can fool too many of the people too muchof the time.

— James Thurber (1894–1961)

Examine each question in terms of what is eth-ically and aesthetically right, as well as what iseconomically expedient. A thing is right when ittends to preserve the integrity, stability, andbeauty of the biotic community. It is wrongwhen it tends otherwise.

— Aldo Leopold (1887–1948)

He that would be a leader must be a bridge.

— Welsh Proverb

hydraulics

management

infrastructure

rates

impact

career

retirement

training

Cooking the Numbers


Sometime in the late ‘60s, I was in a class onAmerican history taught by Ed Maguire, one of myfavorite professors. Some professors outlined on theboard—with ABCs and 123s—exactly what topic was tobe discussed that day and how it would be discussed.But, not Maguire.

Ed’s teaching technique was storytelling, each storyemphasizing something important in history, somethingimportant in life, something worth remembering. Ed wasthe type of professor that came in and said things like,“Today we’re going to talk about blankety-blank.Who’d like to start?”

One day, we were discussing leadership principlesand decision-making skills when students began “tak-ing over” the building (remember, this was the 1960s).“Well,” Ed said, hearing the commotion in the hall-way, “it’s all about potatoes.”

We knew, of course, that we were about to geta “Maguirism,” and that this would be anothergood day in history class. We all were thinkingthe same thing: This must be important because,when student radicals are running through thehalls, Dr. Maguire says it’s about potatoes!

“Most people spend most of their time,waste most of their energy, and feel most oftheir frustration, when dealing with medium-sized potatoes,” Ed said. He stood there movinghis outstretched hands alternately up and down, likeLady Justice with her scales. We all sat and waited, mesmerized by his bizarre analogy.

“During the war I was a swabbie,” Maguire recalled,“and my outgoing personality often landed me on

KP—that stands for Kitchen Police, which means I pissedsomeone off and had to work in the kitchen.” All thewhile he continued to do the scale thing with his hands.

“One day the chef told me to peel potatoes and to putthe big potatoes in the pot on my left and the little pota-toes in the pot on my right.” More hand alternation. “Ispent most of my time trying to decide what to do withthe medium-sized potatoes.”

Laughs all around. We all understood theprinciple but couldn’t readily apply the con-cept to history, leaders, and life—or to theimpending riot?

“Great leaders make quick decisions onminimal data,” Maguire maintained. “Ifthey’re wrong, they make other ones. Mostof us, however, are too indecisive. It’s obvi-ous what we should do with big potatoes.

And, well, for the small ones, we even have arelevant cultural saying, ‘That’s small potatoes.’

Poor leaders—like me on KP—get stuck onmedium-sized potatoes. We wince, we waiver, we

over-think, we dilly-dally, we get mired in whatsome fruitcake philosopher recently called ‘exis-tential neurosis,’ whatever that means.” Ed thenincreased the rate at which he alternated hishands, to emphasize the ensuing chaos.

Ed leaned toward the class. “Keep your eyes onthe big potatoes,” he said. “Everything in life that is not abig potato is a small potato. There are no medium-sizedpotatoes. The chef was right. I was wrong.” And when avery agitated, big potato walked in the room, Ed calmlysaid, “Class dismissed.”

By Frederick J. Cowie, Ph.D.

Based in Helena, Montana, Fred Cowieprovides training related to emergencymanagement, terrorism preparedness,and Hazmat issues. Visit his Web site atwww.fredcowie.com to learn more.

WORD PUZZLE ANSWER KEY

Item #DWPKTR27 ............................................................$5.50 plus shipping

“Taking a test can be intimidating and

frustrating. But it doesn’t have to be a

trial by fire. Being prepared makes the

experience much less painful—and

much less of a trial.”

So begins the article “Acing the Test:

How to Prepare for an Operator

Certification Exam,” from a recent

issue of On Tap. At the National

Environmental Services Center

(NESC), we agree so much with this

“be prepared “ philosophy, that we

have put together a combination

of materials into one packet

specifically designed to help

water system operators pass the

certification test.

In addition to the article mentioned above,our Operator Training & Education Packet includes:

• the Operator Basics Training Series, an interactive CD thatprovides up to 13.5 contact hours;

• NESC’s “Basic Water and Wastewater Formulas” sheet andconversion card;

• a “Tech Brief” featuring common math problems and for-mulas; and

• a water conservation ruler.

If you, or someone you know, is getting the pre-test jitters, con-tact us and order this collection of helpful materials. Whenordering, mention #DWPKTR27. The cost is $5.50 plus shipping.Call NESC’s products unit toll-free at (800) 624-8301 and selectoption “1” or send an e-mail to [email protected].

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National Environmental Services CenterWest Virginia University Research CorporationWest Virginia UniversityP.O. Box 6064Morgantown, WV 26506-6064

On Tap MagazineDrinking Water News for America’s Small Communities

Original photo by S

heila Anderson

Why is understanding hydraulics important?

Liquid in motion produces forces and pressure whenever itsvelocity or flow direction changes. Knowing pipe pressureand flow at certain points along the pipe’s path can helpdetermine the necessary pipe size and capacity, as well aswhat pipe material would work best in given situations.Understanding hydraulics can help systems decide whatpipe-flow rates related to size and material are necessary totransport water in an efficient manner. A key rationale forunderstanding hydraulics is that it can save money forsmall systems, especially those that can’t afford engineeringservices or may not have an engineer on retainer.

Units and Variables

Understanding that water has a unit weight is important.System designers need this information to calculate othervariables. The physical and hydraulic behavior of waste-water is similar to that of clean water, and there is gener-ally no difference in the design or analysis of systemsinvolving these two liquids. Both are considered to beincompressible liquids because their volume does notchange significantly with changing pressure.

Water or wastewater has a unit weight of 62.4 poundsper cubic foot (62.4 lb/ft3); so, one cubic foot (1ft x 1ft x1ft) of water weighs 62.4 pounds. There are 7.48 gallonsin a cubic foot, with each gallon weighing approximately8.34 pounds, so 7.48 gal x 8.34 lbs/gal = 62.4 pounds.

In the metric system, the term for weight (force due togravity) is a Newton (N), and the unit weight of water is9,800 Newtons per cubic meter (9,800 N/m3). More appro-priately, this is expressed as 9.8 kilonewtons per cubicmeter (9.8 kN/m3), where the prefix kilo stands for 1,000.

PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES CENTER

Fundamentals of Hydraulics: Flow

SummaryHydraulics is the branch of engineering that focuses on the practical problems of collecting, storing, measuring, trans-porting, controlling, and using water and other liquids. This Tech Brief—the second in a two-part series—providesbasic information about hydraulic problems and will focus on calculating flow rates in water or wastewater conveyance(distribution and collection) systems. The first Tech Brief in this series discussed various aspects of pressure.

By Zane Satterfield, P. E., NESC Engineering Scientist

Download all of our Tech Briefs at www.nesc.wvu.edu/techbrief.cfm

DWFSOM150

Flow

In pipes under pressure or in open channels underthe force of gravity, the volume of water flowing pastany given point in the pipe or channel per unit timeis called the flow rate or discharge (Q).

In the U.S., flow rate may be expressed as cubic feetper second (ft3/s or cfs), gallons per minute (GPM), ormillion gallons per day (MGD). An approximate butconvenient conversion to remember is 1 MGD = 1.55cfs = 700 GPM.

In the metric system, the unit for flow rate is cubicmeters per second (m3/s). The term liters per second(L/s) is also used for relatively small flow rates.Another expression for flow rate is megaliters per day(ML/d), So 1 m3 = 1000 L and 1 ML = 106 L.

Flow rate is expressed by the formula:

Q = A x V

Where Q = flow rate or discharge in gpm, mgd or cfs (ft3/s) in U. S. — m3/s, ML/d or L/s in SI metric units

A = cross-sectional flow area usually in ft2in U. S. units — m2 in SI metric units

V = velocity of flow usually in ft/s in U. S. units — m/s in SI metric units

Flow in Pipes under Pressure

When water flows in a pipe, friction occurs betweenthe flowing water and the pipe wall, and between thelayers of water moving at different velocities in thepipe due to the viscosity of the water. The flow veloc-ity is zero at the pipe wall and maximum along thecenterline of the pipe. Velocity of flow means the aver-age velocity over the cross section of the flow.

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Tech Brief • Fundamentals of Hydraulics: Flow, Spring/Summer 2010, Vol. 10, Issue 1

The frictional resistance to flow causes energyloss in the system. This energy loss is a con-tinuous pressure drop along the path of flow.

To be able to design new water distributionpipelines or sewage force mains or to analyzeexisting pipe networks, you will need to calculatethe head losses, pressures, and flows throughoutthe system. There are several formulas inhydraulics to do this, but one of those mostcommonly used is the Hazen-Williams equation:

Q = 0.28 x C x D2.63 x S0.54

Where Q = flow rate in m3/s in SI metric or gpm in U. S.

0.28 = constant which can be used for both SI units and U.S. units with suffi-cient accuracy.

C = pipe roughness coefficient (dimensionless) can be found in tables based on pipe material such as Table 1.

D = pipe diameter in (m) SI units or (in) inches U.S. units

S = slope of hydraulic grade line, dimensionless

S = hL/L

Where hL is head loss in feetor meters

Where L is the length of pipe in feet or meters

Example 1Your water system services a vacant industrial park withexisting water lines in place. A company wants to use theentire industrial park site and needs 1,800 gpm. The exist-ing 12-inch diameter new, plastic pipe carries water with ahead loss of 10 feet per 1,000 feet of pipeline. Determinethe flow rate in the pipe using the Hazen-William equationto see if the existing piping will handle their demandsgiving that the storage and pressure head is adequate.

Solution: From Table 1, the Hazen-Williams equationfinds the pipe roughness coefficient (C) for a new, plasticpipe to be C = 140.

Now compute the value of S, where S = hL/L

S = 10 ft/1,000 ft

S = 0.010

The diameter is given in inches and stays in inches

D = 12 in

Now applying the Hazen-Williams equation

Q = 0.28 x C x D2.63 x S0.54

Q = 0.28 x 140 x 122.63 x 0.0100.54

Most calculators have a yx button. If yours does not, get one that does.

Q = 0.28 x 140 x 689.04 x 0.08317

Q = 2,246 gpm

The calculation shows that the existing 12-inch pipe willprovide more than the required amount needed by thenew facility.

Gravity Flow in Pipes or Open Channels (Not under Pressure)

When water flows in a pipe or a channel with a free sur-face exposed to the atmosphere, it is called open channelor gravity flow. Gravity provides the moving force. But,as with pressure flow, there are friction losses or energylosses in gravity flow as well. Stream or river flow is openchannel flow. Flow in storm or sanitary sewers is alsoopen channel flow, except when the water is pumpedthrough the pipe under pressure (a force main).

Most routine calculations in the design or analysis ofstorm or sanitary sewer systems involve a condition calledsteady uniform flow. Steady flow means that the dischargeis constant with time. Uniform flow means that the slopeof the water surface and cross-sectional flow area are alsoconstant in the length of channel being analyzed.

Under steady, uniform-flow conditions, the slope of thewater surface is the slope of the channel bottom.

The top of the inside pipe wall is called the crown, andthe bottom of the pipe wall is called the invert. One basicobjective of sewer design is to establish appropriateinvert elevations along the pipeline. The length of wettedsurface on the pipe or stream cross section is called thewetted perimeter. The size of the channel or pipe, as well

two

Pipe Materials CHW

Asbestos Cement 140Brass 130-140Brick Sewer 100Cast Iron

New, unlined 13010 yr. old 107-11320 yr. old 89-10030 yr. old 75-9040 yr. old 64-83

Concrete or concrete linedSteel forms 140Wooden forms 120Centrifugally spun 135

Copper 130-140Galvanized Iron 120Glass 140Lead 130-140Plastic 140-150Steel

Coal-tar enamel lined 145-150New unlined 140-150Riveted 110

Tin 130Vitrified Clay (good condition) 110-140Wood Stave (average condition) 120

Table 1. Hazen-Williams Coefficient for Different Types of Pipe

as its slope and wetted perimeter, are important factorsin relation to its discharge capacity.

The common formula for solving open channel flow prob-lems is called Manning’s formula and is written as:

Q = 1.0 or 1.5/n x A x R2/3 x S1/2

Where Q = channel discharge capacity in (m3/s) SI units or (ft3/s) U.S. units

1.0 = constant for SI metric units

1.5 = constant for U.S. units

n = channel roughness coefficient (Manning’s n) dimensionless

A = cross-sectional flow area (not the cross-section of pipe or channel) in m2 SI units or ft2U.S. units

R = hydraulic radius of the channel in (m) SI units or (ft) U.S. units

S = slope of the channel bottom, dimensionless

From the variables above the hydraulic radius of a chan-nel R, is defined as the ratio of the cross-sectional flowarea A to the wetted perimeter P. In formula form:

R = A/P

Where R = hydraulic radius of the channel in (m) SI units or (ft) U.S. units

A = cross-sectional flow area (not the cross-section of pipe or channel) in m2 SI units or ft2 U.S. units

P = wetted perimeter in (m) SI units or ft U.S. units

The roughness coefficient (n), often referred to asManning’s n, depends on the material and age of thepipe or lined channel and on topographic features for anatural streambed. It can range from a value of 0.01 fora smooth, clay pipe to 0.1 for a small natural stream. Avalue of n commonly assumed for concrete pipes or con-crete lined channels is 0.013.

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES CENTER

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Example 2A storm sewer pipe is going to be extended toan existing 3-feet-wide by 2-feet-deep concretelined channel. The extended storm sewer pipehas a peak discharge of 20 cfs (ft3/s). A 6-inch freeboard—the difference between the topof the water and the container it is in—isneeded in the channel. Will the channelhandle the flow with 6-inch freeboard?

A rectangular drainage channel is 3-feet wide andis lined with concrete. The bottom of the channeldrops in elevation at a rate of 0.5 feet per 100feet. What is the discharge from the channelwhen the water depth is flowing at 1.5 feet thatgives us a 6-inch freeboard? Use Manning’s n of0.013 for a concrete-lined channel.

Solution: Because the data is in U.S. units, usethe constant of 1.5 in the Manning’s equation.

The cross-sectional flow area (A) in the channel is:

A = 3.0 ft wide x 1.5 ft water depth

A = 4.5 ft2

The wetted perimeter P is:

P = 1.5 ft (side) x 3.0 ft (bottom) x 1.5 ft (side)

P = 6.0 ft

The hydraulic radius R is:

R = A/P

R = 4.5 ft2 / 6.0 ft

R = 0.75 ft

The slope S is:

S = rise (drop)/run

S = 0.5 ft / 100 ft

S = 0.005

Using Manning’s equation we can calculate Q discharge:

Q = (1.5/n) x A x R2/3 x S1/2 or (0.5)

It is very helpful if your calculatorhas a yx button

Q = (1.5/0.013) x 4.5 ft2 x 0.752/3 ft x 0.0051/2

Q = 115.38 x 4.5 ft2 x 0.8255 ft x 0.07071

Q = 30.3 cfs (ft3/s)

The concrete lined channel will handle theextended storm sewer with a peak discharge of20 cfs (ft3/s) with plenty of freeboard.

three

Manning’s n

Type of Pipe Min. Max.

Glass, brass, or copper 0.009 0.013

Smooth cement surface 0.010 0.013

Wood-stave 0.010 0.013

Vitrified sewer pipe 0.010 0.017

Cast-Iron 0.011 0.015

Concrete, precast 0.011 0.015

Cement mortar surfaces 0.011 0.015

Common-clay drainage tile 0.011 0.017

Wrought Iron 0.012 0.017

Brick with cement mortar 0.012 0.017

Riveted-steel 0.017 0.020

Cement rubble surfaces 0.017 0.030

Corrugated metal storm drain 0.020 0.024

Table 2. Manning’s Roughness Coefficient, n.

Circular Pipes Flowing Full

Most sanitary and storm sewer systems are built withcircular pipe. Along with the roughness coefficient, theother important factors in design or analysis are the flowvelocity (V), pipe diameter (D), pipe slope (S), and howmuch the pipe can handle flow full (max discharge Q).

In a circular pipe carrying water so that the pipe is justfull to the crown (but still under atmospheric pressureand gravity flow), the flow area (A) would be the pipecross-sectional area (π D2)/4, the area of the pipe A =(π x D2)/4. The wetted perimeter (P) is the perimeter ofthe pipe, or circle or P = π x D. Because the hydraulicradius (R) is defined as A divided by P, (R = A/P), we get:

R = A/P

R = ((π x D2)/4) / (π x D)

Or written as

(π x D2) 1

4 (π x D)

This can be reduced to:

R = D/4

For circular pipes flowing full, the Manning’s formula is:

Q = ((1.0 or 1.5)/n) x ((π x D2)/4) x (D/4)2/3 x S1/2 or 0.5

For a given value n, only the pipe diameterand slope are needed to solve for discharge (Q)in a circular pipe flowing full.

To help in analysis there are charts or nomo-graphs for the Manning’s equation just as withthe Hazen-Williams equation.

Example 3A combined sewer overflow is calculated to be14 cfs (ft3/s). The existing discharge pointneeds to be redirected under a road. A 24-inchcorrugated metal pipe is on hand in thesupply yard. Will this pipe work?

Calculate the discharge of a 24-inch corrugatedmetal pipe flowing full at a slope of two percent.

From Table 2, use the Manning’s roughnesscoefficient n. The table has a range for corru-gated metal storm drain from 0.020 min fornew condition to 0.024 for older condition.Because the condition is not given, use themiddle range of 0.022, or to generate a worst-case condition, use 0.024. However, this exam-ple uses the middle range of 0.022, n = 0.022.

The diameter is given at 24 inches but needsto be in feet; there are 12 inches in a foot so,24 in/12 in per foot = 2 ft (D = 2 ft).

The slope is given at two percent. To get thisinto decimal form, 2% /100 = 0.02. (S = 0.02).

An Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Institution

Published by The National Environmental Services Center at West Virginia University, P.O. Box 6064, Morgantown, WV 26506-6064

NESC Engineering Scientist Zane Satterfield is a licensed professional engineer and water operator who previously worked for the West Virginia

Bureau of Public Health, Environmental Engineering Division.

In U.S. units, use the constant of 1.5 in Manning’s equationfor a full flowing pipe:

Q = (1.5/n) x (π x D2)/4) x (D/4)2/3 x S1/2 or 0.5

Q = (1.5/0.022) x (π x 22)/4) x (2/4)2/3 x 0.021/2

Q = 68.18 x 3.1415 x 0.6299 x 0.1414

Q = 19.08 cfs (ft3/s)

The combined sewer overflow is 14 cfs (ft3/s). This equationillustrates that the calculated flow for the 24-inch corru-gated metal pipe flowing full at two-percent slope will handle19.08 cfs (ft3/s). The existing 24-inch pipe will work.

Closing

Hydraulics can be complex when designing or analyzingentire collection or distribution systems. Knowing the cor-rect formulas to calculate forces or pressure is the first stepin having a properly functioning system. Pipe size, tankstorage, and location are all key in getting water to systemcustomers. If any situation should come up that the watersystem staff does not feel comfortable analyzing, theyshould consult a licensed engineer.

Several software and spreadsheet programs are available toassist in the hydraulics of system design. However, the datathey generate is only as good as the information that isinput. Knowing the fundamentals of hydraulics can helpusers get the most out of these programs.

Note: The first part of this series, “Fundamentals of Hydraulics:Pressure,” is available on the National Environmental Services Centerwebsite at www.nesc.wvu.edu/pdf/dw/publications/ontap/2010_tb/hydraulics_pressure_DWFSOM147.pdf.

References

Hwang, Ned H. C. and Robert J. Houghtalen. 1996. Fundamentalsof Hydraulic Engineering Systems, Third Edition. New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Lindeburg, Michael R. 1999. Civil Engineering Reference Manual for the PE Exam. Seventh Edition. Belmont, CA: ProfessionalPublications, Inc.

Nathanson, Jerry A. 1997. Basic Environmental Technology, WaterSupply, Waste Management and Pollution Control. Second

Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

For a complete list of Tech Briefs, visit the NESC website atwww.nesc.wvu.edu/techbrief.cfm. You may download Tech Briefs forfree from the site or you may order them for a nominal cost by calling(800) 624-8301 or by sending and email to [email protected].

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Tech Brief • Fundamentals of Hydraulics: Flow, Spring/Summer 2010, Vol. 10, Issue 1

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