Date post: | 25-Dec-2015 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | alexandrina-shepherd |
View: | 214 times |
Download: | 0 times |
DrugsForensic Science
Chapter 9
Objectives• Compare & contrast psychological and
physical dependence• Name and classify commonly abused drugs• List & define the schedules of the Controlled
Substances Act• Describe the lab tests normally used to
perform a drug identification analysis• Explain the testing procedures used for
forensic identification of marijuana• Understand the proper collection and
preservation of drug evidence
What is a drug?A drug can be defined as a NATURAL or
SYNTHETIC substance that is used to produce physiological or psychological effects in humans or
other higher order animals.
Three uses for drugs:• Drugs can be used to sustain or to prolong life
(medicinal)• Drugs can provide an escape from the pressures of
life (recreational)• Drugs can be used to end a life (suicidal)
How did it start?
1960s:• Hallucinogens, amphetamines, and barbiturates
found their way out from legal drug laboratories into the streets
• Marijuana became the most widely used illicit drug in the United States
• 1970s:• Alcohol consumption continued to rise—today
90 million Americans drink regularly, and 10 million people are hopelessly addicted to alcohol.
• Heroin addiction emerged as a national problem
• Cocaine abuse started continues to increase today
How did it start?
• Drug abuse has grown from effecting the members of the lower end of the socioeconomic ladder to a problem that affects all social and ethnic classes.
• Today in the United States, 23 million people use illicit drugs, including about a half million heroin addicts and nearly six million cocaine users.
Who does it affect?
• In the United States, MORE THAN 75% of evidence evaluated in crime laboratories is drug related.
• The amount of drug-related evidence is a serious distraction from the evidence from other types of serious crimes, such as homicides.
• Nevertheless, the expansion of the crime lab because of the drug cases has increased the analytical power of the lab.
What does this have to do with Forensic Science?
• The first drugs to be regulated by law were those that had “habit-forming” properties– Opium and its derivatives– Cocaine– Marijuana
• Drug dependence depends on many different physiological and social factors
Drug Dependence
• Physiological Factors Controlling Drug Dependence:– Patterns and degrees of intensity– Nature of the drug– Route of administration– The dose– Frequency of administration– Individual’s metabolism
Drug Dependence
• Social Factors Controlling Drug Dependence:– Personal characteristics of the user– His/her expectations about the experience– Society’s attitudes and possible responses– Setting in which the drug is used
Drug Dependence
• The nature and significance of drug dependence must be considered from two overlapping points of view– The interaction of the
drug with the individual– The drug’s impact on
society
Drug Dependence
• The conditioned use of a drug caused by underlying emotional needs– Arise from social and personal factors that
come from a person’s want to create a sense of well-being and to escape from reality. • Seeking relief from personal problems• Stressful situations• Sustain a physical and emotional state that permits
an improved level of performance
Psychological Dependence
• The intensity of psychological dependence heavily depends on they nature of the drug used.
• High-degree drugs: Easily addictive– Alcohol, heroin, amphetamines, barbiturates,
and cocaine• Lower-degree drugs: Less addictive
– Marijuana, codeine-based drugs
Psychological Dependence
The Bottom Line!
NO DRUG IS SAFE!
• Drugs produce changes in the body called physiological dependence.
• When a person abstains from a drug, severe physical illness can sometimes follow called withdrawal sickness or abstinence syndrome.– Sometimes the desire to avoid this sickness
compels the person to use the drug trying to be avoided.
Physiological Dependence
• Withdrawal sickness (abstinence syndrome)– Symptoms:
• Body chills• Vomiting• Stomach cramps• Convulsions• Insomnia• Pain• Hallucinations
Physiological Dependence
• Occurs when a drug user is on a regular schedule of drug intake
• The interval between doses must be short enough so that the effects of the drugs never wear off completely
• Missing doses:– Heroin addicts take doses every 6 to 8 hours
—after this, withdrawal symptoms occur– Alcoholics have a continuous pattern of daily
use in large quantities.
Physiological Dependence
• The social impact of dependence is directly related to the extent to which the user has been preoccupied with the drug.
• Often has a consequence of neglectful relationships with individuals and social responsibilities. – Personal health– Economic relationships– Family obligations
Social Impact of Dependence
• Drug dependence is not a problem that is limited to the United States but involves most of the world’s population.
• As a result, many individual, social, cultural, legal, and medical factors influence the decision to prohibit or impose strict controls on a drug’s distribution and use.
• Society must weigh the benefit of the drug to it’s potential harms.
Worldwide Issue
• Society must weigh the benefits v. harm that the drug will do to society as a whole.
• Some drugs do not carry adverse consequences and are considered “legal.”
– Examples: tobacco and coffee– Even though prolonged use can damage body
organs and injure an individual’s health, there is NO EVIDENCE that they result in antisocial behavior.
Harm v. Benefits?
Narcotic Drugs
• Narcotic is derived from the Greek word narkotikos, which means a state of lethargy or sluggishness.
• Pharmacologists’ definition:– Substances that bring relief from pain and produce
sleep
• The term “narcotic” has become associated with any drug that is socially unacceptable so many drugs are improperly classified as narcotics.
Narcotic Drugs
• Narcotic drugs are analgesics– Analgesics relieve pain by depressing the central
nervous system.– Regular use of narcotics leads to physical
dependence.
Narcotic Drugs
The source of most analgesic narcotics is opium—a gummy, milky juice exuded through a cut made in the unripe pod of the poppy plant (Papaver somniferium)
• Plant is grown mostly in Asia• Opium is brown and is 4-21% morphine
Narcotic Drugs
• Morphine is extracted from opium• Most addicts prefer to use a morphine
derivative called heroin.– Heroin is made by reacting morphine with
acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride.– Heroin is highly soluble in water and makes
street preparation for IV administration simple– IV administered heroin’s effects are almost
instant
Narcotic Drugs
• Heroin is often “cooked” with water before administration over a candle with a spoon
• It is injected with a syringe into a vein• Produces a “high” that is accompanied by drowsiness and a deep-
sense of well-being• Effects are short, generally lasting only three to four hours
Heroin—A Narcotic Drug
• Purity of Heroin– 1960s & 70s: 15-20%
heroin– Currently the purity of heroin
has increased to approximately 35%
– What is the remaining 65%?• Impurities or things the drugs
are “cut” or diluted with!– Quinine, starch, lactose,
procaine (novacaine) and mannitol
Heroin—A Narcotic Drug
Rachel Whitear - death with a syringe in her hands: When Rachel Whitear first used heroin she smoked it, soon after moving to injecting the drug she was discovered dead in rented accommodation in a house in Exmouth on
Friday 12th May 2000, aged 21
• Codeine is prepared synthetically from morphine
• Commonly used as a cough suppressant in prescription cough syrup
• Codeine is only one-sixth as potent as morphine– Causes it NOT to be abused as a
street drug often
Codeine—A Narcotic Drug
• In 1995, the FDA approved OxyContin as a painkiller.– The active ingredient is
oxycodone• Oxycodone is closely related to
morphine and heroin in chemical structure
• Oxycodone has “high” effects similar to heroin
• Prescribed to seven million patients for chronic pain
Opiates—A Narcotic DrugOpiates—not naturally derived from opium but have similar physiological effects as opium narcotics.
• OxyContin has a time-release formula added in to try to stop the abuse and addiction.
• It is estimated that a quarter of a million people abuse the drug.
• OxyContin is obtained by pharmacy robberies, forged prescriptions, theft from patients, and by visiting numerous doctors to obtain legitimate prescriptions.
OxyContin—A Narcotic Drug
• Methadone is a synthetic opiate• Methadone counteracts heroin or morphine
in doses of 80-120 mg per day– It eliminates the addict’s desire for heroin while
producing minimal side effects.– The result is methadone treatment programs
for addicts.– Critics say that the treatment programs are not
a good thing because you are basically substituting one opiate for another.
Methadone—A Narcotic Drug
• Physicians are increasingly prescribing methadone for pain relief.
• The wide availability of this drug for legitimate purposes makes it easier to divert it into the illicit drug market.
• Methadone is being abused increasingly and is causing an alarming number of overdoses and deaths.
Methadone—A Narcotic Drug
DRUGS THAT CAUSE MARKED ALTERATIONS IN MOOD, ATTITUDE,
THOUGHT PROCESSES, AND PERCEPTIONS.
MOST POPULAR AND CONTROVERSIAL: MARIJUANA
Hallucinogens
• Most widely used illicit drug in the U.S.• More than 43 million Americans have tried
the drug• Half this number are estimated to be
regular users• Marijuana is derived from the plant,
Cannabis sativa L.– Consists of crushed leaves, plant’s flower,
stems, and seeds
Marijuana—A Hallucinogen
• The plant secretes a sticky resin called hashish that can be extracted by soaking the plant in alcohol– Very potent– Usually seen in the form of
compressed vegetation
Marijuana—A Hallucinogen
• Sinsemilla– Potent form of marijuana that is made from
the unfertilized flowering tops of the Cannabis plant
– Must remove all male plants from the growing field at the first sign of their appearance
– High-maintenance form of marijuana– Grown in small plots because of the amount
of attention and care needed
Marijuana—A Hallucinogen
• Marijuana has been used legally and illegally for three thousand years– 2737 B.C.-Chinese emperor recommended it for
certain ailments• Hemp plant—major source of fiber for the production of
rope
– 1000 B.C.-Integral part of Hindu culture in India– 500 A.D.-drug moved westward into Persia and
Arabia– 19th century-brought to Europe by Napoleon as a
painkiller and mild sedative
History of Marijuana
• Marijuana was first introduced into the U.S. in 1920.– Smuggled by Mexican laborers across the Texas
border– Brought into the ports of Havana, Tampico, and
Veracruz• By 1937, 46 states and the federal
government had laws prohibiting the use or possession of marijuana.
History of Marijuana
• A weed that grows wild under most climatic conditions
• Grows to a height of 5-15 feet tall• Leaflet characteristics
– Odd number of leaflets, usually 5-9– Saw-toothed or serrated edge
• Hallucinogenic properties come from a chemical called tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC
Marijuana
• The content of THC in the plant determines the drug’s potency
• Different in various parts of the plant– Decreasing in the following sequence:
• Resin (highest)• Flowers• Leaves• Little THC is found in the stems, roots, or seeds
• The potency of the drug fluctuates depending on the proportions of the mixture– Usually from 3-12% potency
Tetrahydrocannabinol or THC
• Increased sense of well-being• Initial restlessness and hilarity • Dreamy, carefree sense of relaxation• Alteration of sensory perceptions
– Expansion of space and time– Vivid sense of touch, sight, smell, taste, sound– Feelings of hunger—often for sweets– Subtle changes in thought formation
• Distortion of body image, loss of personal identity, fantasies and hallucinations
Psychological Effects of THC
• Increased heart rate and dry mouth• Reddened eyes and impaired motor skills• Lack of concentration• Amotivational syndrome characterized by
apathy, impairment of appearance and the pursuit of goals.
• Potential medical uses—reduction of eye pressure in glaucoma patients, lessening of nausea by anticancer drugs, and as a muscle relaxant.
Physiological Effects of THC
• Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)– LSD is made from lysergic acid, a substance
that is derived from ergot, which is a type of fungus that attacks certain grasses and grains.
– Discovered when Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann after he accidentally ingested some of the material in his lab.
– Drug is very potent—as little as 25 micrograms is enough to start hallucinations that can last for 12 hours
Other Hallucinogens
• Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)– Physiological Changes:
• Changes in mood• Laughing or crying• Feelings of anxiety and tension• Flashbacks and psychotic reactions
Other Hallucinogens
• Phencyclidine (PCP)– Can be made by simple chemical processes
and is usually made in home labs
– PCP is often mixed with other drugs, such as LSD or amphetamine and is sold as a powder called “angel dust” or can be taken as a tablet, smoked, sniffed, or ingested.
Other Hallucinogens
• Characteristic feelings of PCP:• Feelings of strength and vulnerability• Dreamy sense of detachment• Sometimes becomes unresponsive, confused, or
agitated• Depression, irritability, isolation, audio/visual
hallucinations, and paranoia• Tendencies toward violence• Suicide• Long-term daily use—Schizophrenic behavior
Other Hallucinogens
A SUBSTANCE THAT DEPRESSES THE FUNCTIONS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM.
MOST COMMON: ALCOHOL
Depressants
• The most widely used and abused drug• How alcohol works in the body:
– Alcohol enters the bloodstream– The alcohol quickly travels to the brain– The alcohol suppresses the brain’s control of
thought processes and muscle coordination
Alcohol—Ethyl Alcohol
• Effects of low-doses of alcohol:– Inhibit the mental processes of judgment,
memory, and concentration– Personality becomes expansive and he/she
exudes confidence• Effects of moderate-doses of alcohol:
– Reduces coordination substantially– Inhibits orderly thought processes and speech– Slows down reaction times– Ability to walk or drive becomes impaired
Alcohol—Ethyl Alcohol
• Effects of high-doses of alcohol:– User becomes highly irritable and emotional– Displays of anger and sudden crying are not
uncommon– Can cause lapse into unconsciousness or a
comatose state that can cause breathing to cease
Alcohol—Ethyl Alcohol
• Commonly referred to as “downers”– Create a feeling of relaxation, well-being, and
sleep– Suppress the central nervous system– Derivatives of barbituric acid, which was
made by German chemist, Adolf Von Bayer, one-hundred years ago
– Used by medical applications:• Amobarbital, secobarbital, phenobarbital,
pentobarbital, and butabarbital
– Slang terms: barbs, yellow jackets, blue devils, and reds
Barbiturates
• Normal dose is 10-70 mg taken orally
• Drug enters the blood through the walls of the small intestine
• Some are slow and fast-acting– Fast-acting barbs are abused more
often• Secobarbital, pentobarbital, and
amobarbital
• Physical dependence can develop– Methaqualone (Quaaludes)
Barbiturates
• Tranquilizers differ from barbiturates – Central Nervous System is affected
by producing tranquility without impairing higher level thinking activities or inducing sleep
– Some have been used to reduce anxiety and tension in mental patients
– Some are used as anti-anxiety meds in normal people (valium)• Can cause dependence with repeated
usage
Tranquilizers
• Inhalation of products containing volatile solvents – Airplane glue, model cement, aerosol
propellants• Produce physiological effects (CNS
depressant)– Feelings of exhilaration and euphoria– Slurred speech– Impaired judgment– Double vision– Drowsiness and stupor
Glue Sniffing
• Dangerous Effects on the Body– Liver damage– Heart damage– Brain damage– Sniffing halogenated hydrocarbons could
cause instant death
Glue Sniffing
A SUBSTANCE THAT IS TAKEN TO INCREASE ALERTNESS OR
ACTIVITY.
AMPHETAMINES AND COCAINE
Stimulants
• Synthetic drugs that stimulate the CNS• Commonly referred to as “uppers” or “speed”• Once the stimulant effect wears off,
depression often sets in• Methamphetamine is a derivative of
amphetamine and is the most often abused– IV administration causes a “flash” or “rush”
followed by an intense feeling of pleasure– Euphoria is experienced followed by hyperactivity– Feelings of clarity and hallucinations
Amphetamines
• When the feeling wears off, a person can lapse into a period of exhaustion and may sleep for 1-2 days
• After the sleep, users often experience severe depression, lasting from days to weeks
Amphetamines
• ICE: Smokable form of methamphetamine• Made by evaporation of meth solution to
produce large rocks• Effects are longer-lasting than that of rock
cocaine• Chronic users can exhibit violent,
destructive behavior and acute psychosis similar to paranoid schizophrenia
• Leads to strong psychological dependency
Amphetamines
• Sigmund Freud created a sensation in European medical circles by describing experiments with a new drug in 1887.
• He described the effects of the drug:– “Exhilarating and lasting
euphoria;”– “Extensive mental or physical
work to be performed without fatigue;”
– “The need for food and sleep was completely banished”
Cocaine
• A drug stimulant extracted from the leaves of Erythroxylon coca, a plant grown in tropical Asia and the Andes mountains of South America.
• Started with medical application: Local painkiller or anesthetic but has now been replaced with lidocaine
Cocaine
• Powerful stimulant to the CNS– Increased alertness and
vigor– Suppression of hunger,
fatigue, boredom
• Most commonly sniffed or snorted– Absorbed into the body
through the mucus membranes in the body
Cocaine
• Different from powdered cocaine because it is in “rock” form– Baking soda and water is added to cocaine to
make the “rock,” then broken into chunks– Often smoked in glass pipes
• Creates a feeling of euphoria• Increased energy• Mental alertness
Crack Cocaine
SYNTHETIC DRUGS THAT ARE USED AT NIGHTCLUBS, BARS,
AND RAVES.
Club DrugsGHB
Ecstacy
Roofies
Ketamine
Crystal
Meth
• GHB (gammahydroxybutyrate) and Rohypnol (roofies) are central nervous system depressants
• Often connected with drug-facilitated sexual assault, rape, and robbery.
• Effects of GHB:– Dizziness, sedation, headache, nausea,
euphoria, relaxation, disinhibition, increased libido
Club Drugs
• Effects of Rohypnol (roofies):– Muscle relaxation, loss of
consciousness, and an inability to remember events around the time of ingestion of the drug
– Increased effects if added with alcohol
• Both GHB and Rohypnol are dangerous because they are odorless, colorless, and tasteless and will remain undetected.
Club Drugs
• Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy)– Most popular club drug– Synthetic, mind-altering drug that
exhibits hallucinogenic and amphetamine-like effects.
• Psychological effects of Ecstacy:– Enhances self-awareness and
decreases inhibitions
Club Drugs
• Dangers of Ecstacy:– Seizures, muscle breakdown,
stroke, kidney failure, cardiovascular system failure, damage to the parts of the brain responsible for thought and memory, increases blood pressure, muscle tension, teeth grinding, anxiety, and paranoia episodes.
Club Drugs
Leah died in 1995 after taking Ecstasy at her 18th birthday party.
• Ketamine (Special K)– Primary use is in
veterinary medicine as an animal anesthetic
– When used by humans, it can cause euphoria and feelings of unreality with visual hallucinations
– Can also cause impaired motor function, high blood pressure, amnesia, and slowing respiratory functions.
Club Drugs
• Synthetic compounds that are chemically related to the male sex hormone testosterone.– Promotes secondary male characteristics and
accelerates muscle growth• Steroid abuse first received attention
through professional and amateur athletes using them to increase their performance.– Current research finds that there is no
significant increase in strength or performance.
Anabolic Steroids
• In 1991, anabolic steroids were classified as controlled dangerous substances by the DEA, which prevents their use and distribution.
• Harmful medical side effects:– Liver cancers and liver malfunctions– Masculinizing effects in females– Infertility and diminished sex drive– In teenagers, halting of bone growth– Unpredictable effects of mood and personality– Depression
Anabolic Steroids
• Legal provisions may dictate analytical tests– Punishments may differ depending on:
• Weight of the product• Concentration of the drug in a mixture
• Major Drug Control Law– Controlled Substances Act
• Federal law that some states mimic• Establishes FIVE schedules of classification• Penalties are based upon the classification schedule
Drug Control Laws
• Controlled Substances Act– Schedule I Drugs:
• High potential for abuse• No current accepted medical use or are not safe
under medical supervision• Examples:
– Heroin, marijuana, methaqualone, and LSD
– First offense:• 0-20 years and up to $1 million in fines
Drug Control Laws
• Controlled Substances Act– Schedule II Drugs:
• High potential for abuse• Currently accepted medical use with severe
restrictions• Potential for severe physiological and psychological
dependence• Examples:
– Cocaine, methadone, PCP, some barbiturates, and Dronabinol (a synthetic THC derivative) for glaucoma patients
– First offense:• 0-20 years and up to $1 million in fines
Drug Control Laws
• Controlled Substances Act– Schedule III Drugs:
• Less potential for abuse• Widely accepted medical uses• Low to moderate physical or high psychological
dependence• Examples:
– All barbiturates not included in Schedule II, codeine preparations, anabolic steroids
– First Offense:• 0-5 years in prison and up to $250,000 in fines
Drug Control Laws
• Controlled Substances Act– Schedule IV Drugs:
• Low potential for abuse relative to Schedule III• Current medical use• Abuse may lead to limited dependence• Examples:
– Some tranquilizers, phenobarbital, and Valium
– First offense:• 0-3 years and up to $250,000 in fines
Drug Control Laws
• Controlled Substances Act– Schedule V Drugs:
• Low potential for abuse• Current medical use• Less dependence than Schedule IV drugs• Examples:
– Certain opiate drug mixtures that contain non-narcotic ingredients
– First offense:• 0-1 year in prison and $100,000 in fines
Drug Control Laws
• Designer drugs are drugs that are chemically similar to controlled substances and are very potent.– Made in clandestine laboratories– Dangerous because they are made with
different materials and procedures– Responsible for numerous overdoses
• Penalties for designer drugs are similar to the drug that the chemist has mimicked. – Scheduled drug offenses
Designer Drugs
• Completed by a Forensic Chemist– Analytical tests with many steps and
procedures– No room for error– Results of tests will have a direct bearing on
the guilt/innocence of the suspect– Must be prepared to support and defend the
validity of the tests in court– No middle ground in drug identification—
either it is the drug or it’s not the drug
Drug Identification
• The challenge is selecting procedures that will ensure a specific identification of a drug.
• Two phases of drug identification:– First phase:
• Screening tests: reduce possibilities of what the drug can be
– Subjecting the material to a series of color tests for known illicit drugs
– The value of the screening test lies in having certain drugs excluded from further considerations.
Drug Identification
• Second phase of drug identification:– Confirmation: devoted to pinpointing and
confirming the drug’s identity• A single test that identifies a substance
– Color test– Microcrystalline test– Chromatography– Spectrophotometry– Mass spectrometry
Drug Identification
• Color Tests:– Chemical additives turn
particular colors when in contact with an illicit drug
• Marquis Test: – Turns purple in contact
with heroin, morphine, or opium derivatives
– Turns orange when in contact with amphetamines (meth)
Types of Confirmatory Tests
• More Color Tests:• Dillie-Koppanyi Test:
– Turns violet-blue when in contact with barbiturates
• Duquenois-Levine Test:– Turns purple when in contact with marijuana
• Van Urk Test: – Turns purplish-blue in the presence of LSD
• Scott Test:– Turns blue, then pink, then blue again with different
reagents in the presence of cocaine
Types of Confirmatory Tests
• Microcrystalline Test:– More specific than color tests– A small drop of chemical reagent is placed on
the drug on a microscopic slide.– After a short time, precipitation begins through
a chemical reaction.– The size and the shape of the crystals are
characteristic of the drug.
Types of Confirmatory Tests
• Microcrystalline Test:
This is a photomicrograph (a picture) of the results of a
microcrystalline test of cocaine being reacted with gold chloride.
Types of Confirmatory Tests
• Chromatography– Separates the drug
from the things that dilute the drug• Gives a tentative
identification of the drug based upon how fast a substance travels up a piece of paper and by the colors produced
Types of Confirmatory Tests
• Spectrophotometry:– Absorption of light
(ultraviolet and infrared) by drugs• Can SPECIFICALLY
identify a substance• Makes a “chemical
fingerprint” of the drug
Types of Confirmatory Tests
• Mass Spectrometry:– Readily separates illicit drugs from other
additives• Sample is exposed to high-energy electrons, which
cause sample to break apart• No two substances fragment in the same fashion• The fragmentation of the parts of the chemical
compounds prints out as a “chemical fingerprint”
Types of Confirmatory Tests
Types of Confirmatory Tests
GCMS of Amphetamines—A Chemical Fingerprint
• There are many different packaging protocols, depending on the type of drug
• Common-sense is the best guide– Keep in mind that the packaging must:
• Prevent the loss of evidence• Prevent cross-contamination
– In glue-sniffing cases, evidence must be packaged in air-tight container to prevent evaporation
Collection & Preservation of Drugs
• All packages must be labeled with the following:– Identification of the officer– Background information of the seizure (may
aid cutting time for analyzing the drug)– Results of field drug-screening tests – Chain of custody documents
Collection & Preservation of Drugs