Feeling Asian Modernitie s Transnational Consumption of Japanese TV Dramas

Edited by

Koiehi Iwabuch i

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Contents

Acknowledgements IX

Contributors XI

Note on Japanese Name s xvn

Introduction: Cultura l Globalizatio n an d Asian Medi a Connections

Koiehi IWABUCHI

I ENCODIN G JAPANESE (POST-)TRENDY DRAMA S 23

1. Th e Representation o f Femininity in Japanese Television Dramas of the 1990 s

ITO Mamoru

25

v i Content s

2. Empowerin g Love: The Intertextual Author o f 4 3 Ren'ai Doram a

Eva TSAI

3. Producin g (Post-)Trend y Japanese TV Dramas 6 9

OTA Torn

IE TRANSLOCA L READINGS IN EAST/SOUTHEAST ASIA 8 7

4. Ganbaru and Its Transcultural Audience: Imaginary 8 9 and Realit y of Japanese TV Dramas in Hong Kon g

Lisa Yuk-ming LEUNG

5. Th e Desired Form: Japanese Ido l Dramas in Taiwan 10 7

Yu-fen Ko

6. Travelin g With Japanese TV Dramas: 12 9 Cross-cultural Orientatio n and Flowing Identificatio n of Contemporary Taiwanes e Youth

Ming-tsung LEE

7. Definin g Asia n Femininity: Chines e Viewers of Japanese 15 5 TV Dramas in Singapore

Elizabeth MACLACHLAN & Geok-lian CHUA

8. Popula r Cultur e and Youth Consumption : 17 7 Modernity, Identity and Social Transformatio n

Ubonrat SIRIYUVASAK

III VCD : ASIA N TRANSNATIONAL CULTURAL TECHNOLOGY 20 3

9. Chines e Re-makings of Pirated VCDs of Japanese 20 5 TV Dramas

Kelly Hu

Contents v| i

10. VC D as Programmatic Technology : 22 7 Japanese Televisio n Drama i n Hong Kon g

Darrell William DAVIS & Emilie Yueh-yu YEH

IV KOREA N NEGOTIATION S WIT H JAPA N 24 9

11. Cultura l Contac t With Japanese T V Dramas: 25 1 Modes of Reception an d Narrative Transparenc y

Dong-Hoo LEE

12. Korea n American Youths' Consumption o f Korean 27 5 and Japanese TV Dramas and It s Implication s

Jung-Sun PARK

V AFTERWOR D 30 1

The Cultura l Intimacy of TV Drama 30 3

lenANG

Index 311

Contributors

len AN G i s Professo r o f Cultura l Studie s an d Directo r o f th e Cente r for Cultura l Researc h a t th e Universit y o f Western Sydney , Australia . She ha s publishe d widel y i n th e area s o f television , popula r cultur e and cross-cultura l relations . He r globall y influentia l book s includ e Watching Dallas (1985), Living Room Wars (1996), and On Not Speaking Chinese (2001) .

Geok-lian CHU A complete d he r Master' s Degre e i n Japanese Studie s at th e Nationa l Universit y o f Singapor e i n 2002 . Sh e i s currentl y employed a t Mitsu i Pheno l Singapor e an d reside s i n Singapore .

Darrell William DAVIS lectures on film history at the University of New South Wales , Sydney . H e i s th e autho r o f Picturing Japaneseness: Monumental Style, National Identity, Japanese Film (Columbia Universit y Press, 1996) . His essays have been published i n Cinema Journal, Wide Angle, East-West Film Journal, Post Script, Film Quarterly, and Positions East Asia Cultures Critique.

L xii Contributor s

Kelly Hu i s Assistant Professo r i n th e Department o f Communicatio n and Institut e o f Telecommunication s a t Nationa l Chun g Chen g University, Taiwan . Sh e receive d he r Ph.D . i n Cultura l Studie s an d Sociology fro m th e Universit y o f Birmingha m i n 2001 . I n he r dissertation, sh e explore d th e meaning s o f VCD s a s a n Asia n technology i n relatio n t o Chines e transnationalism , Asia n styl e o f techno-globalization an d pirate modernity. Sh e has recently researche d on th e significanc e o f moder n reflexivit y an d self-expressio n i n Japanese T V drama .

ITO Mamor u lecture s o n sociolog y an d medi a an d cultura l studie s i n the Departmen t o f Education a t Waseda University , Tokyo . His majo r publications includ e "Japa n Televisio n an d Violenc e i n th e Econom y of Memory " i n International Journal of Japanese Sociology (No . 11 , November 2002 , pp . 19-34 ) an d Television Polyphony: Analysis of Television Texts and Audiences (co-edite d wit h Fujit a Mafumi , Sekaishisosha, 1999) .

Koiehi IWABUCH I teache s medi a an d cultura l studie s a t th e Schoo l o f International Libera l Studie s a t Waseda University , Tokyo . Previousl y he taugh t a t th e Internationa l Christia n Universit y H e receive d hi s Ph.D. at University o f Western Sydney , Australia. His doctorate thesis , which multilaterall y analyze s Japan's "retur n t o Asia" i n th e 1990 s i n terms o f popula r cultura l flow s tha t hav e bee n activate d unde r globalizing forces , was awarded th e best Ph.D. dissertation priz e fro m the Australia n Associatio n o f Asia n Studies . H e ha s publishe d man y articles o n cultura l globalizatio n an d transnationalis m bot h i n English an d Japanese, an d i s th e autho r o f Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism (Duk e University Press , 2002).

Yu-fen K o receive d he r Ph.D . i n Communicatio n Art s fro m th e University o f Wisconsin-Madiso n i n 1999 . Sh e i s no w Assistan t Professor o f the Communicatio n a t the National Chengch i University , Taiwan. She has published severa l papers on cultural consumption an d television dramas. Her ongoing research project i s the social discourse s on th e phenomena o f "Japanes e fever " an d "Korea n fever " i n Taiwan .

Pi r ; ; ;

Contributors xii L

Dong-Hoo LE E i s Associat e Professo r o f th e Departmen t o f Mas s Communication a t the University of Incheon in Korea. She has written several article s o n th e hybri d natur e o f medi a cultur e i n Korea . He r research interest s includ e mediu m theor y an d loca l medi a culture .

Ming-tsung LE E i s a Ph.D . candidat e i n socia l anthropolog y a t th e King's College , Universit y o f Cambridge , an d currentl y hold s a fellowship fo r doctora l stud y a t th e Institut e o f Ethnology , Academi a Sinica. He received hi s M.A. in sociology from th e National Tsin g Hua University, Taiwan and obtained th e Award of Best Master Thesis 199 7 from th e Taiwanese Sociological Association. He has done ethnographi c fieldwork fo r hi s doctoral thesi s that explored the transnational medi a and cross-cultura l consumptio n betwee n Taiwa n an d Japan .

Lisa Yuk-min g LEUN G i s Assistan t Professo r a t th e Departmen t o f Cultural Studies in Lingnan University, Hong Kong. She has publishe d articles o n th e localizatio n o f internationa l women' s magazines , an d the globalization o f Chines e satellit e TV channels. He r recen t article s focus on the flow of media and cultura l products across Asia, including audience studie s o f Japanese an d Korea n trend y televisio n drama s i n Hong Kong , i n whic h sh e employ s bot h gende r an d cross-cultura l approaches. He r forthcomin g boo k discusse s th e dynamic s an d challenges o f glocalizatio n i n th e loca l edition s o f internationa l women's magazines .

Elizabeth Naok o MACLACHLA N i s Assistant Professo r i n th e Japanese Studies Departmen t o f th e Nationa l Universit y o f Singapore . Sh e received her Ph.D. in Anthropology from Columbi a University in 2000. She ha s publishe d i n th e area s o f Japanese televisio n new s an d th e migration o f Japanes e wome n t o Southeas t Asia , an d i s assistan t producer o f th e documentar y fil m Under Another Sun: Japanese in Singapore. Her research interest s include transnationa l cultura l flows , media production, and technology-mediated communit y building. She is currentl y conductin g researc h o n cospla y an d relate d form s o f Japanese popula r cultur e fando m i n Singapore .

xiv Contributor s

NASU Mador i receive d he r M.A . i n Are a Studie s (Contemporar y Spanish Culture ) fro m th e Universit y o f Toky o an d teache s Spanis h language a t Internationa l Christia n Universit y

Jung-Sun PAR K i s Assistan t Professo r o f th e Asia n Pacifi c Studie s Program a t Californi a Stat e University, Dominguez Hills . Her researc h interests includ e transnationalism , (im)migration , race/ethnicity , citizenship, identity , transnationa l business , and popula r culture . He r book o n Chicag o Korea n Americans ' community an d identity politic s will be published by Routledge (forthcomin g i n 2004). She is currently co-editing a n antholog y entitle d "Th e Border s i n Al l o f Us: A Globa l Approach t o Thre e Diaspori c Societies " (wit h William Littl e an d Ev a Valle) an d i s writin g a book o n transnationa l flow s o f Korean/Asia n popular cultur e acros s th e Pacific .

Ubonrat SiRlYUVASAK is Associate Professor o f Mass Communication a t the Facult y o f Communicatio n Arts , Chulalongkor n Universit y i n Bangkok. Sh e is interested i n th e structure o f the media industry an d popular culture . She is involved with the Campaign for Popular Media Reform (CPMR) , a non-governmenta l organizatio n aimin g a t democratizing the media industry and mass communication as a whole.

OTA Tor u i s supervisin g directo r o f Fuj i Televisio n Network , Japan . He ha s produce d man y phenomenall y popula r T V drama s sinc e th e late 1980 s such a s Tokyo Love Story, The 101st Proposal, an d All Under One Roof I n 2001 , he also produced a love story film, Reisei Tojonetsu no Aida (Calm i Cuor i Appassionati) , which wa s a success i n Japan.

Eva TSA I receive d he r Ph.D . i n Mas s Communication s fro m th e University o f Iow a i n 200 2 an d i s no w Assistan t Professo r a t th e Graduate Institut e o f Mass Communication , Nationa l Taiwa n Norma l University. He r dissertatio n examine s th e productiv e correlation s between scriptwriters, genres and the culture industry in contemporar y Japan. He r researc h interest s includ e critica l an d cul tura l communication studies , televisio n cultur e an d globalization . Sh e i s researching o n transnationa l po p idol s an d co-editin g a n antholog y about Japanese television .

j

Contributors xv .

TSURUMOTO Kaori receive d he r Ph.D . i n Sociolog y fro m Goldsmith s College, Universit y o f Londo n an d i s a part-tim e lecture r a t Kei o University.

Emilie Yueh-y u YE H teache s i n th e Departmen t o f Cinem a an d Television, Hong Kong Baptist University. She is the author o f Phantom of the Music: Song Narration and Chinese-language Cinema (Yuan-li u Publishing Company , 2000) . He r English-languag e article s hav e appeared i n Post Script, Film Quarterly, Cinema Journal, an d Historical Journal of Film, Television and Radio. She has also published Chinese -language articles in Film Appreciation, Chung-wai Literary Monthly, an d Mass Communication Research.

Introduction: Cultural Globalizatio n

and Asia n Medi a Connections

Koiehi IWABUCH I

In the latter decades of the twentieth century , the drastic developmen t of communicatio n technologie s an d th e concurren t emergenc e o f global medi a corporation s hav e facilitate d th e s imultaneou s transnational circulatio n o f information, images , and text s on a global scale. Variou s (national ) medi a market s hav e bee n penetrate d an d integrated b y th e powerfu l missionarie s o f globa l consume r cultur e such as News Corp. , Disney an d Sony. However, cultura l globalizatio n does not just mean th e spread o f the same products of Western (mostl y American) origi n al l ove r th e worl d throug h thes e medi a conglomerates. Th e developmen t o f ne w pattern s o f regiona l medi a consumption ha s becom e n o les s conspicuous . Lookin g a t East / Southeast Asia , man y youn g peopl e ar e kee n t o consum e globally -circulated, fashionabl e cultura l product s an d d o no t car e abou t th e origin of those consumer items or media products. Nevertheless, som e preferred cultura l product s ar e no t withou t "Asia n flavor. " Youth s i n East/Southeast Asia , for example , might love Titanic, Harry Potte r an d Eminem, but are likely to be even more addicted t o the latest product s

L 2 Koieh i IWABUCH I

of Asia n popula r cultur e suc h a s Korea n actio n films , Japanes e romances, an d Cantones e pop-music . Cultura l globalizatio n ha s accompanied th e activatio n o f intra-regiona l cultura l flows .

While th e cultura l flow s i n East/Southeas t Asi a ar e multilateral , the circulatio n o f Japanese popula r cultur e ha s becom e particularl y prevalent. A wid e variet y o f Japanes e popula r cultur e products , including animation , comics , cartoo n characters , compute r games , fashion, po p music , and T V dramas, have been well received in man y parts o f Eas t an d Southeas t Asia . Japan, a s a forme r imperia l power , has lon g bee n exertin g cultura l influenc e i n Eas t an d Southeas t Asi a and, since at least th e late 1970s , products o f its popular culture , suc h as animatio n an d po p idols , have bee n circulate d i n th e tw o regions . The recen t sprea d o f Japanese popula r culture , however , take s thi s phenomenon a ste p further . Japanes e an d othe r medi a industrie s i n Asia are collaboratively promoting a wider range of items from Japanese popular cultur e i n variou s market s fo r th e routin e consumptio n o f youth. Japan' s popula r cultura l presenc e n o longe r seem s t o b e something spectacula r o r anomalou s but , instead , seem s t o hav e become rather mundane in the urban landscape of East/Southeast Asia.

The authors o f this book aim to shed fresh ligh t on th e discussio n of transnationa l cultura l flow s an d th e emergin g regiona l cultura l connections in East/Southeast Asia through a multifaceted examinatio n of one o f th e most popularl y consume d medi a products : Japanese T V dramas fo r th e young. Th e recen t transnationa l reac h o f Japanese T V dramas i n Eas t an d Southeas t Asi a i s unprecedented, an d no t simpl y in term s o f th e rang e an d scal e o f diffusion . Thi s reac h i s als o significant i n term s o f th e intens e sympath y man y youn g East / Southeast Asian s hav e com e t o fee l towar d th e character s i n Japanese dramas, an d th e way the y have learne d t o cope with th e meanings o f their ow n moder n experience s throug h th e urba n live s depicte d i n Japanese T V dramas . Non-Wester n countrie s hav e tende d t o loo k t o the West t o interpre t thei r ow n moder n experience s i n term s o f thei r distance fro m Wester n modernity . Th e encounte r ha s bee n mostl y based upo n th e (Orientalist ) conceptio n o f cultura l differenc e an d developmental tempora l lag . However , th e unambiguousl y dominan t Western cultura l political , economic , and military power has not onl y constructed a moder n world-syste m coverin g th e whol e glob e

Introduction i 3

(Wallerstein 1991) , th e experienc e o f "th e force d appropriatio n o f modernity" i n th e non-Wes t ha s als o produce d polymorphi c indigenized modernitie s an d thu s ha s destabilize d th e exclusiv e equation o f modernity with the Western world (An g & Stratto n 1996) . Accordingly, people in the non-West have become disposed to mutually recognize an d appreciat e (dis)simila r non-Wester n experience s o f urbanization, modernization , an d globalization . I n thi s context , Japanese TV drama a s a modern popula r cultura l form , thoug h highl y commercialized, pleasurabl y evoke s th e juxtapose d similarit y an d difference amon g contemporaneou s "Asian " modernities , somethin g that American popula r cultur e canno t achieve .

Through th e empirical analysis of how Japanese youth dramas are (re)produced, circulated , regulated , an d consume d i n Eas t an d Southeast Asia, each chapter in this volume variously explores the ways in which intra-Asian cultura l flows newly highlight cultura l resonanc e and asymmetr y i n th e regio n unde r th e decenterin g processe s o f globalization. Ke y question s include : What i s th e natur e o f Japanese cultural powe r an d influenc e i n th e regio n an d ho w i s i t historicall y overdetermined? Ho w i s i t simila r t o an d differen t fro m "Americanization" an d othe r Asia n cultura l sub-centers ? Wha t kind s of image s an d sens e o f intimac y an d distanc e ar e perceive d throug h the receptio n o f Japanese yout h dramas ? D o Japanese yout h drama s cultivate some kind of transnational imagination and self-reflexive vie w towards one' s ow n cultur e an d society ?

Engaging thes e question s woul d mak e a significant contributio n to th e stud y o f T V dram a i n Asia , whic h ha s bee n underexplore d compared t o othe r popula r cultura l forms , suc h a s fil m an d popula r music, and to the studies of cultural globalization tha t have been highly biased, wit h som e exception s (e.g. , Sinclair , Jacka, & Cunningha m 1996), toward s th e ubiquit y o f Wester n medi a an d popula r culture . While ther e hav e bee n fascinatin g analyse s o f th e global-loca l in terpenet ra t ion tha t refut e th e sweepin g vie w o f globa l homogenization throug h the examination o f local practices o f cultura l translation, hybridization , an d creolizatio n (e.g. , Miller 1992 ; 1995) , the argument s hav e nevertheles s tende d no t t o transcen d th e West -Rest paradig m i n a satisfactor y manner . "Global " i s stil l ap t t o b e exclusively associated with th e West, and global-loca l interactions ar e

t I % Koieh i IWABUCH I

mostly considere d i n term s o f how th e non-West respond s to , resists, imitates, or appropriates the West. The studies of dynamic interaction s in th e East/Southeas t Asia n cultura l flow s examine d i n thi s book wil l productively fil l th e lacun a i n th e West-centered analyse s o f cultura l globalization b y elucidatin g ho w "th e decenterin g o f capitalis m fro m the West " (Tomlinso n 1997 ) operate s no t jus t b y offerin g empirica l evidence t o counte r th e (American ) media/cultura l imperialis m thesi s but, more importantly, by attending to ways in which the intra-regiona l cultural flow s forg e transnationa l connection s bot h dialogicall y an d asymmetrically i n term s o f production , representation , distribution , and consumption .

In th e followin g pages , a s a way t o ma p ou t th e structur e o f thi s volume, I will briefly introduce th e main theoretica l issues in the stud y of cultura l transaationalis m t o which eac h chapte r variousl y attend s — th e transnationa l industr y alliance , representatio n o f "Asian " cultural modernity , th e entangle d perceptio n o f cultura l distance , postcolonial questions , an d th e (im)possibilit y o f cultura l dialogue .

Decenter ing Globalizatio n an d Transnationa l Corporat e All iance

A serie s o f event s sinc e 1 1 Septembe r 200 1 ha s re-highlighte d American economi c an d militar y supremacy , s o muc h s o tha t on e i s apt t o conclud e wit h goo d reaso n tha t globalizatio n is , afte r all , Americanization. However , i n analyzin g cultura l globalization , ther e are stil l equall y good argument s fo r complicatin g th e straightforwar d idea o f America n mas s culture' s homogenizatio n o f th e world . Tomlinson (1997 ) enumerate s thre e interrelate d reason s wh y w e should refram e th e issue s pose d b y th e "cultura l imperialism " thesi s with the decentering perspective of cultural globalization. They are the question o f the impac t an d th e ubiquity o f Western cultura l product s in th e world; th e dialectic nexus between globa l and loca l in term s o f ongoing cultura l hybridizatio n an d appropriation ; an d th e relativ e decline o f Wester n cultura l hegemony . Whil e th e circulatio n o f American medi a an d consume r cultur e migh t b e trul y global , locall y produced, non-Wester n cultura l product s typicall y excee d America n

Introduction [ 5

counterparts i n popularit y domestically , an d i n som e case s eve n internationally. Intensifyin g transnationa l cultura l flow s have vitalized local practices o f appropriation o f foreign (mostl y American) cultura l products an d imaginaries , whic h hav e give n birt h t o ne w cultura l meanings a t th e sit e o f production an d consumption .

American cultura l imaginaries are undoubtedly stil l by far the most influential i n th e world, but th e process o f globalization has made th e conception o f rigidl y demarcate d nationa l an d cultura l boundarie s implausible and tenuous in a way in which it has come to be untenabl e to single ou t th e absolute symboli c cente r tha t belongs t o a particula r country o r region . Theoretica l reformulatio n i s imperative i n orde r t o grasp th e gis t o f th e decenterin g force s o f globalizatio n tha t mak e transnational cultura l flow s an d powe r relation s muc h mor e disjunctive, non-isomorphic , an d comple x tha n ca n be understood i n terms o f a center-periphery paradig m (e.g. , Appadurai 1996 ; Hanner z 1996).

Here, it cannot be emphasized to o much tha t while problematizin g a center-peripher y perspectiv e o f th e "Americanization " thesis , th e decentering process does not eradicate (stil l West/America-dominated ) transnational cultura l powe r bu t rathe r newl y highlight s it . Th e diffusion o f America n popula r cultur e ha s no t straightforwardl y homogenized th e worl d bu t ha s give n birt h t o a serie s o f cultura l "formats," base d o n whic h variou s difference s o f th e worl d ca n b e expressed an d elucidated . A s Hal l (1991 , p . 28 ) point s out , thi s i s a "peculiar for m o f homogenization" whic h does not destroy but rathe r "recognize[s] an d absorb[s ] thos e difference s withi n th e larger , overarching framework o f what is essentially an American conceptio n of the world." Rathe r than simply replicating uniformity, transnationa l cultural power has become deeply intermingled with local indigenizing processes i n a wa y i n whic h cultura l diversit y i s organize d throug h globally shared cultural formats (Hanner z 1996 ; Wilk 1995) . The world is standardize d throug h diversificatio n an d diversifie d throug h standardization. Th e operatio n o f globa l cultura l powe r ca n onl y b e found i n loca l practice whil e cultura l reworking an d appropriatio n a t the loca l leve l necessaril y take s plac e withi n th e matri x o f globa l homogenizing forces .

This proliferatio n o f consumabl e cultura l differenc e goe s b y th e

Koiehi IWABUCH I

logic o f capita l an d i s activel y promote d b y transnationa l medi a an d cultural industries . Fo r transnationa l corporation s t o simultaneousl y enter various markets such as global, supra-national regional , national , and local , the imperatives are to establish a business tie-up with other s at eac h level , whether i n th e for m o f buyout o r collaboration , an d t o select ne w cultura l product s wit h a n internationa l appea l fro m man y parts o f th e world an d adap t — o r "glocalize, " i f you lik e — the m t o various loca l marke t conditions . Throug h increasin g transnationa l integration, networking , an d cooperatio n amon g worldwid e cultura l indust r ies , includin g non-Wester n players , th e s t ructur e o f transnational cultura l power ha s been dispersed , but ha s also becom e more soli d an d ubiquitous .

In thi s sense , th e ris e o f Japanese cultura l export s ca n be read a s a symptom o f the shifting natur e o f transnational cultura l power. Th e collaborative rol e in which Japanese medi a industrie s play in cultura l globalization articulate s a ne w phas e o f transnationa l cultura l flow s dominated b y a smal l numbe r o f transnationa l corporation s (Akso y & Robin s 1992) . It is important, fo r example , to place the significanc e of Sony's inroads into Hollywood as well as the international popularit y of Japanese animatio n an d compute r game s within a wider pictur e o f the increasin g interconnectednes s o f transnationa l medi a industries . This developmen t testifie s t o th e growin g tren d o f globa l medi a mergers which aim to offer a "total cultural package" o f various medi a products unde r a singl e medi a conglomerat e (Schille r 1991) . I n thi s process, Japanes e companie s tr y no t t o replac e bu t t o strengthe n American cultura l hegemon y b y investin g i n th e productio n o f Hollywood films and by facilitating thei r distribution al l over the globe. Conversely, findin g a local partner i s much mor e imperativ e fo r non -Western cultura l industrie s an d product s t o penetrat e globa l (i.e. , including Western) markets . Japanese cultura l industries and Japanese media product s canno t successfull y becom e globa l player s withou t Western partners . Th e adven t o f Japanese animatio n an d character s such as Pokemon clearl y show that it can become a global culture only by relying on partnership s wit h Western medi a industrie s i n term s of promotion, distribution , and even localization of the content — to hide its "Japaneseness " — a s globa l marketin g strateg y (Iwabuch i forthcoming).

Introduction f Z

In a similar vein, the recent spread of Japanese TV dramas in Asian markets als o owe s much t o transnationa l collaboratio n amon g medi a industries in the region throug h which th e appeal of Japanese popula r culture ha s bee n highlighte d an d it s promotio n synchronize d wit h trends i n th e Japanes e market . Thi s increasin g affiliatio n betwee n Japanese and othe r Asian media industries is not the outcome of a well-calculated strategy by the Japanese media industries. While there hav e been som e promotiona l effort s o n th e Japanes e side , th e loca l partnership and initiative in promoting Japanese cultural products hav e been mor e intens e an d effectiv e i n facilitatin g th e circulatio n o f Japanese T V dramas in Asian markets. The Japanese cultura l presenc e became conspicuou s a s loca l industrie s i n East/Southeas t Asi a foun d its promotion value for the rapidly expanding media markets (Iwabuch i 2002). A prominent exampl e i s Star TV, which ha s fro m it s inceptio n always broadcaste d Japanes e T V programs , particularl y dramas , i n prime time . Accordin g t o m y intervie w wit h a manage r o f th e STA R TV Chines e Channel , Japanese program s hav e been indispensabl e t o STAR TVs strategy of localization fo r Chines e language markets in East Asia. I n Taiwan , th e rapidl y developin g Taiwanes e cabl e T V marke t has take n th e stronges t initiativ e i n promotin g Japanese T V drama s (STAR T V i s als o watche d o n cable) . Th e abundanc e o f cabl e T V channels for a relatively inexpensive subscription fee has brought abou t a ne w patter n o f T V viewin g fo r mor e narrowl y focuse d targe t audiences, an d thi s ha s le d t o th e circulatio n o f Japanese T V drama s as profitabl e medi a product s i n Taiwan . I n turn , thi s loca l initiativ e has given Japanese TV industries more confidence i n the exportabilit y of Japanese T V programs an d incentive s fo r forgin g busines s tie-up s with Taiwanes e medi a industrie s fo r th e programs ' promotion .

Furthermore, th e comprehensiv e pictur e o f th e transnationa l alliance i n th e promotio n o f Japanese T V drama s i n Asia n market s cannot b e capture d solel y by th e examinatio n o f th e forma l busines s and distributiona l route . Th e undergroun d marke t rout e o f pirate d software ha s playe d a n eve n mor e significan t rol e i n transnationall y popularizing Japanese TV dramas. Particularly vita l in thi s process is , as the chapter s o f Hu, Davi s and Ye h of Par t 3 show, the spread o f a n "Asian" consume r technology , th e VCD (vide o compac t disc) . Thes e two chapter s giv e u s grea t insight s int o th e undergroun d politica l

8 Koieh i IWABUCH I

economy o f th e VCD , th e ne w wa y o f consumin g T V drama s engendered b y it, and th e process in which Japanese media industrie s are completel y lef t ou t o f th e transnationalizatio n o f Japanese T V dramas

While this consumer technolog y has been developed and markete d by prominen t manufacturer s suc h a s Son y an d Panasonic , VCD s ar e not availabl e i n Japa n an d VCD s o f Japanes e drama s ar e largel y unlicensed, pirate d disc s manufacture d outsid e o f Japan. Whil e i t i s difficult t o kno w exactl y ho w thi s undergroun d industr y conduct s business, i t seem s tha t group s i n Hon g Kon g an d Taiwa n tak e th e initiative i n manufacturin g VC D titles , wit h operation s disperse d i n East an d Southeas t Asia . Made-in-Japa n T V drama s ar e repackaged , complete wit h Chines e subtitle s an d attractiv e packaging , fo r transnational circulatio n i n Asi a an d beyond , bu t wit h th e notabl e exception of Japan. The pirated VCD's audiovisual quality is lower tha n DVDs, an d eve n wors e tha n license d VH S copies , bu t th e flexibilit y and cheapnes s o f th e mediu m i s precisel y it s strength . Throug h surprisingly swif t additio n o f subtitling , Chinese-languag e audience s can purchase a t cut-rat e prices nearly ever y Japanese T V drama just a few day s t o a wee k afte r the y ar e firs t broadcas t i n Japan . Th e ownership o f chea p VC D copie s ha s brough t abou t a new patter n o f media consumptio n b y enablin g audience s t o watc h thei r favorit e scenes o f th e drama s repeatedl y an d intensively . Throug h th e illegitimate East Asian trade in VCDs, Japanese TV dramas have gained new transnationa l cultura l meaning s an d connection s outsid e Japan .

Articulating th e Globa l an d th e Loca l i n Japanes e (Post- )Trendy Drama s

While the transnational alliance between (underground ) industrie s an d markets play s a n importan t rol e in th e disseminatio n o f Japanese T V dramas, i t canno t full y explai n how an d why Japanese T V dramas ar e favorably receive d i n Asia n countries . I n unders tandin g th e transnational reach of Japanese TV dramas in Asian regions, we shoul d also direct ou r attentio n t o the textual and symboli c appeal embodie d in and identified throug h them . Through such inquiries we can explai n

Introduction Si

the ways in which th e globally diffused image s of "modern" livin g are dynamically re-worke d an d it s meaning s ar e re-situate d i n a specifi c local contex t a t th e sit e o f product ion , representat ion , an d consumption.

Looking at the encoding side , there was an epoch-making chang e in th e sophisticatio n o f Japanese T V dram a productio n i n th e earl y 1990s. Th e bette r organizatio n o f plots , subtl e us e o f music , an d sympathetic representatio n o f urba n youth' s experience s hav e drastically increased the number o f young viewers, particularly women , in Japan. I t i s necessar y t o clarif y a t thi s poin t i n th e discussio n th e kind o f Japanes e T V drama s tha t ar e analyze d i n thi s book . Th e Japanese TV industry produces various kinds of dramas, such as period dramas, samurai dramas , home dramas , detective dramas , soap operas , and situatio n comedies , bu t th e typ e o f Japanese dram a tha t i s mos t well-received i n Eas t and Southeas t Asia a s well as in Japan, an d thu s mainly concerns thi s book, i s the one tha t depict s youths' love affairs , friendship, an d working life in urban setting s (i.e. , Tokyo). While thi s kind o f dram a ha s bee n widel y know n i n Chinese-speakin g region s such a s Hon g Kon g an d Taiwa n a s "Japanes e ido l dramas, " a ter m coined b y Sta r TV , "trend y dramas " i s th e ter m commonl y use d i n Japan. However , as several chapters in this volume make it clear, trend y dramas are , strictly speaking , thos e produce d fro m th e lat e 1980 s u p to th e earl y 1990s . Th e eye-catchin g feature s o f trend y drama s wer e their depiction s o f stylis h urba n lifestyle s an d trend y nightspot s abundant with extravagan t designe r clothe s and accessories , sets with chic interio r designs , an d th e lates t po p music , al l o f whic h clearl y reflected th e then prevailing highly materialistic consumerism Japanese young peopl e enjoye d unde r th e so-calle d bubble-econom y A s Ot a Toru, a prominen t Fuj i T V dram a producer , reflecte d i n hi s speec h included i n thi s volume on th e development o f youth-oriented dram a production sinc e the late 1980s , the makers o f trendy dramas di d no t spend muc h tim e o n narrativ e sophisticatio n an d developin g th e themes o f thei r dramas , but devote d themselve s t o stylishly depictin g various kinds of consumerist trend s in order t o attract a large number s of young viewer s wh o hithert o ha d no t watche d T V dramas .

However, a highly popula r an d influentia l T V drama, Tokyo Love Story, whic h aire d fro m Januar y throug h Marc h 1991 , furthe r

4 0 Koieh i IWABUCH i

significantly improve d upon th e production values of "trendy dramas. " Since then , popula r yout h drama s hav e become mor e story-oriented , sympathetically depicting young people's yearnings for love, friendship , work, an d dreams , eve n thoug h i n Tokyo Love Story popula r idols , consumer trends , an d th e Toky o settin g wer e stil l vita l factor s i n th e drama's production . I n thi s sense, the youth-oriented popula r drama s dealt with in thi s volume, such as Tokyo Love Story, Long Vacation, Love Generation, Over Time, an d Yamatonadeshiko (Th e Idea l Japanes e Woman), are actually "post-trend y dramas, " even though suc h drama s are stil l calle d "trend y dramas " i n Japan an d th e tw o term s ar e use d interchangeably i n som e chapter s o f thi s volume .

Three chapter s o f Par t 1 loo k a t development s an d change s i n Japanese T V dram a productio n an d it s representationa l styl e i n th e 1990. Tsai looks at the development o f the genrification o f love storie s through th e ris e o f women scenari o writers . With particula r focu s o n Kitagawa Erik o wh o ha s writte n phenomenall y popula r lov e storie s such a s Long Vacation, Tsa i analyze s Kitagawa' s narrative s tha t ar e "attentive t o love' s nuanced emotionality, " an d examine s th e positio n of female authorshi p i n th e production o f a love story by considerin g a wider pictur e o f male-dominated Japanese T V drama productio n a s well a s Kitagawa' s inter-textua l strateg y t o mak e he r ow n work s an d herself prominent . Reflectin g o n hi s ow n experienc e o f makin g numerous popula r T V dramas, such as Tokyo Love Story an d The 101st Proposal, Ota Toru of Fuji T V tells us from th e producer's point o f view how h e initiate d a ne w er a o f Japanese T V dram a productio n i n th e late 1980 s (trendy dramas) an d in the early 1990s (post-trendy dramas ) to attrac t youn g audiences . Ota' s fran k reflectio n enhance s ou r understanding o f a successful produce r knac k fo r producin g popula r love stories in terms of the representation o f certain kinds of femininit y and how Japanese TV drama producers are exclusively concerned wit h the Japanes e domesti c market , withou t a though t fo r othe r Asia n markets.

Needless t o say , th e producer' s tal e doe s no t necessaril y matc h researchers' critica l accounts . Ito' s chapte r constructivel y critique s Japanese yout h drama s i n term s o f thei r continuit y an d discontinuit y in th e representation o f gender . As Ito contends , Japanese T V drama s successfully provok e intense identification o f the youth by employin g

r. r C i

Introduction 4ii _

the ne w representationa l styl e o f a "smal l universe " withi n whic h young people' s live s ar e self-containe d wit h littl e referenc e t o famil y relationships. Whil e thi s dram a forma t wa s innovative , th e narrativ e of the dramas could hardly be described as such. Based on comparativ e textual analysis of three representative post-trendy dramas since 199 1 — Tokyo Love Story, Long Vacation, and Yamatonadeshiko — It o argue s that thes e drama s represen t a ne w attractiv e femininit y bu t barel y transcend th e familia r narrative ; femininit y tha t i s no t submissiv e t o men bu t independentl y an d activel y seekin g lov e an d work , yet , i n the fina l instance , no t quit e disobedien t t o men. Japanese T V drama s represent youths ' concern s i n a n appealin g manner , which seemingl y reflects th e drastic changes and th e increasing sense of uncertainty i n contemporary Japanes e society , b y providin g certai n pattern s — moderate alternative s tha t subtl y combin e th e emergen t an d th e residual — of love affairs, wor k situations , and personal anguish, wit h whose meaning s viewer s can , i n thei r ow n way , pleasurably relat e t o when livin g thei r ow n lives .

Entangled Percept io n o f Cultura l Distanc e

Admittedly, th e representationa l styl e o f youn g peoples ' live s i n Japanese drama s i s no t substantiall y differen t fro m Hollywoo d aesthetics. On the contrary , as discussed earlier , it is a kind o f popula r cultural for m tha t i s deepl y imbricate d i n U S cultura l imaginaries . However, a s An g argue s i n Afterword , thi s shoul d no t lea d t o th e disregard of culturally specific meanings and feelings tha t young people in Asi a sympatheticall y fin d throug h non-Wester n popula r cultur e because the y canno t b e subsume d unde r som e generi c "globalize d image" that is often equate d with American o r Western culture . While the distinctiv e appea l o f Japanese yout h drama s ca n b e apparentl y displayed only by founding itsel f on a globally diffused cultura l format , youth's anguish , dreams , an d romanc e tha t ar e represente d throug h Japanese T V dramas hav e muc h t o d o wit h thei r specifi c mode s an d meanings o f moder n livin g tha t lucidl y articulat e th e intertwine d composition o f globa l homogenizatio n an d heteregenizatio n i n th e Japanese context .

\% Koieh i IWABUCH I

In thi s sense , th e specifi c meanin g audience s favorabl y perceiv e through Japanese yout h dram a shoul d no t b e regarde d a s somethin g that i s "Japanese " o r "Asian " i n an y essentialis t meaning , an y mor e than a s a mer e duplicatio n o f Western modernity . I t i s ofte n pointe d out tha t Japanese T V drama s tast e an d smel l lik e dim sum (Chines e snacks) an d kimchi (Korea n spic y pickles ) t o consumer s i n Eas t Asi a (Newsweek Asia 8 November 1999) , but thi s kind of expression shoul d not b e automaticall y interprete d a s evidenc e tha t th e popularit y o f Japanese TV dramas is driven by the perception of "cultural proximity" in a primordia l sens e (cf . Straubhaa r 1991) . Elsewher e I argued tha t the perceptio n o f cultura l proximit y a s such need s t o b e understoo d less a s th e manifestatio n o f give n cultura l attribute s an d value s tha n the dynamic process of "becoming" (Iwabuch i 2002) . Japan and othe r nations migh t shar e certai n cultura l value s an d Asia n viewer s ofte n refer to this cultural affinity a s a reason for thei r preference fo r Japanese TV dramas. However , th e perception o f cultural proximit y i s a matte r of tim e a s well a s o f space . The emergin g sens e o f cultura l similarit y between Japan an d othe r Asia n nations experience d a s such seem s t o be base d upo n a consciousnes s tha t bot h liv e i n th e sam e moder n temporality. I t i s importan t t o stres s her e agai n tha t wha t ha s substantiated the cultural geography of "Asia" in the 1990s is less some essential and distinct "Asian values" than the advent of global capitalism and modernity (Dirli k 1994) . The latter has brought about convergin g situations in which cultural specificities are brought into relief in Asian contexts, suc h a s th e developmen t o f urba n consumerism , th e expansion o f middle class , changes i n gender/sexuality relationships , and th e ordinarines s o f (simultaneous ) t ransnationa l medi a consumption. Under the forces of modernization, Americanization, an d globalization, thos e element s complicatedl y interac t t o articulat e th e cultural resonance of Japanese TV dramas for viewers in East/Southeas t Asia, who synchronousl y an d contemporaneously experienc e an d fee l "Asian modernity " throug h them .

At the same time , th e othe r sid e o f intimate similarit y i s pleasan t distance. As a corollary o f on-going asymmetrica l cultura l encounter s in th e cours e o f th e sprea d o f Wester n modernit y An g an d Stratto n (1996, p . 22-4 ) argue , w e hav e com e t o liv e i n " a worl d wher e al l cultures ar e bot h (like ) 'us ' an d (no t like ) 'us,' " on e wher e familia r

p Introduction 4

difference an d bizarr e samenes s ar e simultaneousl y articulate d i n multiple way s throug h th e unpredictabl e dynami c o f uneve n globa l cultural encounters . Th e sens e o f cultura l similarit y i s thu s closel y interconnected wit h th e sens e o f difference . Th e dynami c contex t o f the 1990 s ha s promote d th e intra-regiona l cultura l resonanc e amon g the yout h i n Eas t an d Southeas t Asia , wh o mee t cultura l neighbor s vis-a-vis a common but differen t experienc e of indigenizing modernity . The entangle d perceptio n o f cultura l distance/closenes s i s constantl y reformulated unde r globalizatio n an d differentl y articulate d i n eac h locality. Simila r an d dissimilar , differen t an d same , clos e an d distant , fantasizing an d realistic , al l o f thes e intertwine d perception s subtl y intersect so as to arouse the sense of cultural identification, relatedness , and empowermen t i n th e eye s of young people i n Eas t and Southeas t Asia.

In Par t 2 , fiv e chapter s elucidat e variou s way s i n whic h th e encoding o f Japanese yout h drama s tha t represen t youn g peopl e wh o strive fo r lov e an d wor k i n th e settin g o f meg a cit y Toky o meet s translocal decoding s in East/Southeast Asian urban spac e with intens e emotional attachmen t t o th e storie s an d character s o f thes e dramas . As many region s ar e exclude d i n th e analyse s — notabl y urba n area s of China where Japanese TV dramas are also becoming sympatheticall y received b y th e youth s — thi s par t doe s no t preten d t o thoroughl y cover East/Southeas t Asia . The dramas analyzed ar e not wide-rangin g either. Neithe r shoul d th e finding s i n th e chapter s b e considere d t o be generalizable i n each society or nation analyzed . Rather , a s Ko an d Leung suggest in thei r chapters , such a conception o f "local = national audiences" a s a coheren t entit y constitutin g a clearl y demarcate d locality itself needs to be critically interrogated i n the first place . Eac h chapter instea d trie s t o atten d t o contextualize d reading s — henc e "translocal" rathe r tha n "transnational " — throug h whic h audience s emotionally engage in particular Japanese TV dramas so as to negotiate with an d reflec t o n th e meanings o f modern livin g in a specific socio -historical conjunctur e o f eac h urba n area : Taipei , Hon g Kong , Singapore, an d Bangkok .

For Taiwan viewers, Ko contends, Japanese TV dramas conjure u p an intertwine d perceptio n o f th e "dream " an d "reality " o f urba n modernity Th e Tokyo depicted in the Japanese dramas signifies a space

44 Koieh i IWABUCHI

of "real imaginary" where youth in Taipei feel dreams would com e tru e in th e visualized "there. " And such a consumerist desir e for foundin g Taiwan's present/futur e o n Japan' s urba n modernity , K o forcefull y argues, cannot be dissociated from th e history of Japanese colonialism , the importan t poin t I wil l retur n t o shortly . Lee' s chapte r attend s t o the developmen t o f Taiwanes e touris m t o Japan tha t th e prevalenc e of Japanes e T V drama s ha s generated . H e analyze s ho w youn g Taiwanese ar e motivate d t o se e th e "real " Japa n throug h th e consumption o f "post-text " travelogue s an d ho w the y actuall y experience i t i n thei r journeys. Le e shows various ways in whic h th e imagining o f th e "dreamworld " Japan meet s th e actua l experienc e o f Japan vi a drama-tours , an d th e way s i n whic h th e actua l encounte r discourages, confirms , o r strengthens Taiwanese young people's sens e of identification wit h Japan. Leung's chapter concern s th e Hong Kon g consumption o f Japanese T V dramas. Referring t o the three groups o f Hong Kong viewers' — tw o age groups of Hong Kong natives and on e group o f Japanes e "diasporas " — positiv e identificatio n an d appropriation o f a Japanese idea , ganbaru (holdin g ou t an d strivin g to achiev e something) , sh e elucidate s ho w viewer s i n Hon g Kon g derive different empowerin g messages, according to their life situations , by watching Japanese TV dramas such as Long Vacation and Beach Boys.

In Singapor e an d Bangkok , wher e loca l drama s tha t sympathetically depic t young people's concerns in life are still relatively uncommon, Japanese yout h drama s t o som e exten t appea r liberatin g and emancipating . MacLachla n an d Chua' s chapte r elucidate s ho w young wome n i n Singapor e eagerl y watch th e Japanese youth drama , Over Time, whic h i s perceive d a s representin g women' s sexualit y i n an "open " manne r tha t counter s th e state-driven , rigi d contro l o f sexuality in Singapore. Their chapter enriches the discussion of cultura l proximity. The y fin d tha t th e depictio n o f women' s sexualit y i n Japanese drama s i s see n b y Singaporea n (ethnicall y Chinese ) youn g women a s more acceptabl e tha n it s depictio n i n American programs , and it s "Asianness " i s usefull y enunciate d t o counte r th e state' s intervention i n privat e matters . However , Singaporea n wome n als o consider i t unrealisti c an d unfavorabl e t o pu t th e sexualit y depicte d in Japanes e drama s int o practice . Siriyuvasa k als o point s ou t th e discrepancy betwee n feeling s an d actua l practice , bu t i n a mor e

Introduction 4|5 _

pessimistic manner. Siriyuvasak argues that Thai youths find Japanese TV drama s an d popula r musi c expressiv e o f thei r deep-seate d dissatisfaction wit h the authoritarian Tha i government. Comparin g th e current consumptio n o f Japanese popula r cultur e with th e politicall y motivating consumption o f American counter-culture in the 1960 s and 1970s, sh e hold s reservation s abou t whethe r transien t semioti c empowerment coul d lea d t o actua l socia l change .

Postcolonial Trajectorie s

While th e popularit y o f Japanese post-trend y drama s i n man y part s of Asi a i s a recen t phenomenon , i t ha s no t occurre d i n a historica l vacuum. I t i s alread y interwove n wit h th e powe r relation s an d geopolitics embedde d i n th e histor y o f Japanese imperialis m an d colonialism. I n th e Japanese context , th e phenomeno n ha s strongl y stimulated th e recuperatio n o f Japan's transnationa l desir e fo r Asia . Japan's historicall y constitute d Orientalis t conceptio n o f Asia a s wel l as it s desir e fo r connectin g — an d connectin g wit h — Asi a hav e resurfaced wit h the rise of Asian economies and the transnational reac h of Japanese popula r cultur e i n th e regio n sinc e th e 1990 s (Iwabuch i 2002). No w i s a tim e whe n Japan i s beginning t o re-asser t it s Asia n identity, whe n th e cultura l geograph y o f Asi a ha s recurre d t o th e Japanese nationa l imaginar y a s Japa n face s th e challeng e o f (re)constructing its national/cultural identity in the era of globalization . While Japanese popular culture' s encounter with other Asian countrie s in th e 1990 s is more multifaceted, contradictory , an d ambivalen t tha n a totalizing and cavalier Japanese Orientalis t conception would suggest , Japan's condescendin g sens e o f bein g th e leade r o f Asi a an d th e asymmetrical powe r relationshi p betwee n Japan an d th e res t o f Asi a are still intact. Japan's cultural nationalist project has been reconfigure d within a transnationa l an d postcolonia l framework .

Obviously, the transnationalization o f Japanese popular cultur e fa r more seriousl y concern s othe r Asia n nations , particularl y th e tw o former colonies . Du e t o not-yet-resolve d historica l problem s o f Japanese imperialis m an d colonialism , th e expor t o f meaning s fro m Japan inevitabl y ha s revitalize d excessiv e reaction s i n Taiwa n an d

f 146 Koieh i IWABUCHI

Korea. As Ko's chapter elucidates , in Taiwan, young people's embracin g of Japanese cultur e ha s induce d muc h criticis m an d a deep-seate d ambivalence o f "desire and anxiety fo r modernity, " a s it is regarded a s an undesirabl e remnan t o f colonia l mimicr y o r anothe r cultura l invasion. K o suggest s tha t thi s i s a kind o f nationalis t discours e tha t fails t o d o justic e t o th e contradictory , uneven , an d disjunctiv e transnational cultura l flows , bein g to o obsesse d wit h interpretin g intensified transnationa l flow s exclusivel y in term s of a dichotomize d framework suc h a s local-global o r national-foreign. Nevertheless , i t is precisely thi s intertwine d comple x o f historicall y over-determine d anxiety and consumerist-driven desir e for modernity tha t describes th e Taiwan's postcolonia l cultura l contex t i n whic h Japanese T V drama s are mos t intensivel y receive d i n Asia .

The other former colony , Korea, has a rather differen t postcolonia l trajectory. Th e inflow o f Japanese popular cultur e is still partly banned (notably TV programs and popular music) , although it is expected tha t the polic y wil l soo n b e entirel y abolished . Tw o chapter s o f Par t 4 explore Korea' s somewha t obscure d transnationa l connection s wit h Japanese popular cultura l imaginary Park' s chapter offer s a n intriguin g dimension t o th e transloca l consumptio n o f Japanese T V dramas . Despite th e officia l prohibitio n o f th e inflo w o f element s o f Japanese popular culture , som e Korea n audience s watc h Japanese T V drama s through pirated videos and the internet, both inside and outside Korea. Park's examination o f Korean-American audiences ' viewing of Japanese and Korea n T V drama s tell s u s th e wa y i n whic h thos e Asia n T V dramas hav e differen t resonanc e an d meaning s t o Korea n diaspora s in Los Angeles. Residence in the US offers no t just a context in whic h Korean-American youth s routinel y mee t bot h peopl e fro m Japa n i n everyday life and th e culture o f Japan throug h th e consumption o f TV dramas tha t are not permitted i n Korea. The consumption o f Japanese TV dramas is also situated i n a context in which a global city in Nort h America position s Korea n an d Japanese diaspora s togethe r a s ethni c minorities, thu s generating a sense o f solidarity a s "Asia n American. "

Lee's chapte r analyze s Korea n producers ' reworkin g o f Japanes e youth dramas . Whil e Korea n audience s canno t regularl y watc h Japanese T V drama s withi n Korea , Korea n T V producer s hav e constantly watched the m and , overtl y o r covertly , taken o n thei r styl e

Introduction Î Z

in term s o f story , settings , an d propertie s fo r thei r ow n dram a productions. I n developin g yout h dram a format s tha t ar e seemingl y similar t o thei r Japanese counterpart s i n earl y 1990s , th e Korea n T V industry has been a target of strong criticism for allegedly disgracefull y imitating th e cultur e o f it s forme r colonizer . However , Lee' s chapte r elucidates ho w Korea n T V producers hav e no t just imitate d bu t als o creatively appropriated and transformed Japanese TV dramas into thei r own productions , s o muc h s o tha t Korea n yout h drama s no w swee p over East-Asia n markets , includin g Japan, i n wha t i s no w th e well -known phenomenon o f Hanliu (Korea n Wave). The number o f Korean titles is small compared to their Japanese counterparts, but thei r ratings are eve n highe r tha n Japanese drama s i n Eas t Asian markets . Korea n popular drama s als o depic t youths ' live s i n urba n settings , bu t i n contrast t o th e "smal l universe " o f youth s depicte d i n Japanese T V dramas, whose isolation fro m th e complexit y o f the real world make s young audiences emotionally involved in the dramatized reality , famil y relationships ar e a n integra l par t o f Korea n dram a texts . Thi s featur e does not just enable the dramas to successfully captur e a broader rang e in th e ages of viewers, but als o makes young viewers o f East Asia fee l Korean drama s ar e more "realistic " tha n Japanese dramas . Accordin g to m y brie f interview s conducte d i n Taipe i i n Marc h 2002 , youn g viewers greatly sympathized wit h Korea n drama s because th e youths ' lives intertwined wit h famil y relationship s see m mor e simila r t o rea l Taiwanese situations, and thus Korean dramas more appealingly depic t the meaning s o f livin g moder n lif e tha n th e self-containe d yout h communicative spac e o f Japanese yout h dramas .

Another interestin g exampl e o f creativ e localizatio n o f Japanes e cultural influenc e i s Taiwan' s Liuxing huayuan (Meteo r Garden) . I t i s a drama based on the Japanese comic series about high school students ' lives, Hanayori dango. There i s no origina l Japanese dram a base d o n the comi c series , but Taiwan' s T V producers skillfull y adopte d i t t o a drama form o n their own initiative. While the drama takes up Japanese character name s a s the y are , th e stor y i s reconstructed i n Taiwanes e high schoo l settings , featurin g th e Taiwanes e ido l group , F4 , an d original them e songs . Th e progra m ha s bee n phenomenall y popula r not jus t i n Taiwa n bu t als o i n Singapore , Indonesi a an d China . Th e latter developmen t ha s occurre d despit e th e ba n o f it s broadcas t a s

48 Koieh i IWABUCH I

Chinese authoritie s dee m tha t lov e affair s an d violenc e i n th e hig h school depicted in th e drama wil l have a bad influence o n the though t and behavior o f their youth (Asahi Shinbun 1 2 July 2002) . The hybri d composition o f Japanese an d Taiwanes e cultura l imagination s ha s brought about a new East Asian youth culture tha t resists rigid politica l regulations.

These development s testif y tha t despit e historicall y deep-seate d anxiety show n i n socia l discourses , thes e tw o countrie s d o no t jus t imitate Japanese yout h dramas . Negotiatin g wit h Japanese influenc e of dram a productio n styles , Korea n an d Taiwa n T V industrie s hav e developed thei r ow n youth dramas whose representation o f "her e an d now" i n Asian urban context s ha s transnationa l appeal s in a differen t way fro m thos e o f Japanese dramas . I t i s ofte n argue d i n Japan tha t the appea l o f Japanese popula r cultur e ca n b e attribute d t o Japan' s extraordinary skill s o f indigenizing America n popula r imaginatio n i n Asian contexts , th e assumption tha t i s analogical t o the ideology tha t has bee n develope d i n th e cours e o f Japanese imperia l expansio n t o claim it s civilizationa l superiorit y (Iwabuch i 1998) . However , th e growing regiona l flow s hav e highlighte d th e fac t tha t suc h a practic e is quit e commo n an d mundan e i n othe r part s o f Asi a an d thu s displaced th e Japanese colonialis t imagination .

Whither Popula r Cultura l Dialogue ?

Finally, i t seem s necessar y t o direc t ou r attentio n t o on e imperativ e issue tha t canno t b e full y addresse d i n thi s volume , tha t is , how w e can mak e a n effectiv e critiqu e o f globall y diffuse d consumeris m o n which uneve n intra-regiona l cultura l flow s ar e founde d an d throug h which inequalitie s an d discrimination s i n term s o f race , ethnicity , gender, sexuality, class, and immigration are institutionalized nationall y and transnationally I n one point, Siriyuvasak' s chapter , which situate s the recen t influ x o f Japanese popula r cultur e i n th e developmen t o f middle-class consumeris m i n Thailand , i s a n importan t reminder . While th e positive and subversive aspec t o f youths' active negotiatio n with transnationa l popula r cultur e shoul d no t b e easil y dismissed , whether an d ho w suc h consumptio n wil l lea d t o makin g a real

Introduction 4§_

difference fo r th e betterment o f social i s dubious. People' s freedom o f negotiation an d imaginatio n a t th e receivin g en d o f transnationa l cultural flo w operate s unde r th e syste m o f globa l capitalism , ou t o f which n o on e ca n stand .

This issue also poses a highly arguable question a s to whether an d how the emerging connections forged throug h commercialize d popula r cultures lea d t o nurturin g transnationa l dialogue . I n Japan, ther e ha s been a stron g interes t i n th e potentia l o f popula r cultur e facilitatin g cultural dialogue, particularly in terms of its capacity to improve Japan's reputation an d t o transcen d th e historicall y constitute d Japan' s problematic relation s wit h othe r Eas t an d Southeas t Asia n countries . It migh t b e tru e tha t th e disseminatio n o f enjoyabl e Japanes e contemporary cultur e ha s introduce d th e issue s an d concern s youn g people in the regions share. As the popular cultura l flows are becoming more multilatera l an d regular , the y might have also activated cultura l exchange an d mutua l understandin g amon g youths i n East/Southeas t Asia o n a large scal e tha t ha s neve r bee n observed .

However, thi s optimistic view should not be uncritically embrace d in exchang e fo r inattentio n t o th e fac t tha t increasin g intra-Asia n cultural flows newly highlight structural asymmetry and uneven powe r relations in th e region. As suggested earlier , there is much imbalance d difference, no t jus t i n th e quantit y an d th e vecto r o f th e flows , bu t also i n term s o f th e perceptio n an d appreciatio n o f spatio-tempora l distance/proximity vis-a-vi s othe r Asia n modernitie s tha t ar e represented in popular cultura l text s (Iwabuch i 2002) . We should als o remember tha t while the main corporate actors of cultural globalizatio n disregard th e rigi d boundarie s o f nation-states , thei r "origins " an d demarcation o f border s o f cultura l resonanc e ar e limite d t o a smal l number o f powerful nation s tha t exclude so many people and regions . More precisely , emergin g transnationa l connection s throug h popula r culture ar e predominantl y one s amon g relativel y affluen t yout h (an d mostly wome n wit h th e cas e o f T V dramas ) an d amon g medi a an d cultural industrie s i n urba n area s o f develope d countries . A t th e beginning of the twenty-first century , we are compelled t o re-recognize, through th e sudden, massive media attention t o the hitherto forgotte n nation o f Afghanistan , ho w th e disparit y i n economi c an d cultura l power between the haves and have-nots has been despairingly widene d

L 20 Koieh i IWABUCH I

and how the disparity itself has been left ou t of commentaries on globa l media communications . I f popula r cultura l connection s d o no t cultivate socia l imaginatio n tha t woul d encourag e people' s mutua l engagement wit h thos e socia l an d cultura l issue s tha t interpenetrat e "here" an d "there, " trans-nationa l issue s tha t hav e bee n historicall y constructed bu t aggravated under globalization , i t would be still a long way fro m th e creatio n o f transnationa l dialogue .

This is not t o deny th e possibility tha t th e mediated transnationa l encounters migh t promot e suc h dialogica l an d self-critica l view s (cf . Appadurai 1996) . O n th e contrary , precisel y i n orde r t o foste r suc h dialogic potential , criticall y attendin g t o ho w medi a industrie s an d products o f Asia n region s ar e collusiv e i n reproducin g cultura l asymmetry an d indifferenc e o n a globa l scal e ha s becom e mor e imperative than before. Popula r cultura l encounter wil l keep on feedin g new modes of transnational asymmetry and imagination among people in East and Southeast Asian nations. Nothing guarantees any promising future. I f w e ar e t o avoi d harborin g to o excessiv e expectatio n o f transnational popula r cultura l flow s — be it optimistic o r pessimisti c — an y discussio n need s t o tak e popula r cultur e mor e seriously , t o analyze the complication o f transnational production, distribution , an d consumption o f i t criticall y an d rigorously . Popula r cultur e doe s connect peopl e i n th e distanc e crisscrossin g th e world , evenl y an d unevenly, intimatel y an d indifferently , friendl y an d discordantly . I t i s only throug h a well-attende d empirica l analysi s o f comparativ e co -project amon g researchers o f East and Southeast countrie s tha t we ca n grasp how thes e contradictions an d ambivalence are disentangled an d how cultura l unevennes s a s wel l a s dialogu e i s newl y articulate d through transnationa l flows o f popular culture . We hope this collectio n at leas t wil l mak e som e contributio n t o th e generatin g o f furthe r comparative an d collaborativ e researc h project s i n th e future .

References

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Introduction Z±

Ang, le n an d Stratton , Jon . "Asianizin g Australia : Note s towar d a critica l transnationalism i n cultura l studies. " Cultural Studies 10 , 1(1996) : 16 -36.

Appadurai, Arjun . Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of globalization. Minneapolis: Universit y o f Minnesota Press , 1996 .

Dirlik, Arlif . After the Revolution: Waking to Global Capitalism. Hanover : Wesleyan Universit y Press , 1994 .

Hall, Stuart . "Th e Loca l an d th e Global : Globalizatio n an d Ethnicity. " I n Culture, Globalization, and the World-System, edite d b y A. King, pp . 19 -39. London : Macmillan , 1991 .

Hannerz, Ulf . Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places. London : Routledge, 1996 .

Iwabuchi, Koiehi . "Pur e Impurity : Japan's Geniu s fo r Hybridism. " Communal Plural: Journal of Transnational & Crosscultural Studies 6 , 1(1998) : 7 1 -86.

. Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism. Durham : Duk e Universit y Press , 2002 .

. "Ho w Japanese i s Pokemon?" I n Pikachu's Global Adventure: Making Sense of the Rise and Fall of Pokemon, edite d b y J. Tobin . Durham : Duk e University Press , (forthcoming) .

Miller, Daniel . "Th e Young and Restles s in Trinidad : A Case of the Loca l an d Global i n Mas s Consumption. " I n Consuming Technologies: Media and Information in Domestic Spaces, edite d b y R . Silverston e an d E . Hirsch , pp. 163-82 . London : Routledge , 1992 .

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Schiller, Herbert . "No t Ye t the Post-Imperialis t Era. " Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 8(1991) : 13-28 .

Sinclair, John, Jacka, Elizabeth , an d Cunningham , Stuart , eds . Ne w Patterns in Global Television: Peripheral Vision. Oxford : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1996.

Straubhaar, J. "Beyon d Media Imperialism: Asymmetrical Interdependence an d Cultural Proximity. " Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 8 , 1(1991) : 39-59.

Tomlinson, John . "Cultura l Globalizatio n an d Cultura l Imperialism. " I n International Communication and Globalization: A critical introduction, edited b y A. Mohammadi, pp . 170-90 . London : Sage : 1997 .

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22 Koieh i IWABUCH I

Wilk, Richard . (1995 ) "Learnin g t o b e loca l i n Belize : Globa l system s o f common difference. " I n Worlds Apart: Modernity through the prism of the local, edite d b y D . Miller , pp . 110-33 . London: Routledge , 1995 .

101st Proposal, The 10 , 7 4

A-Tong 139 , 14 0 Abercrombie, N . an d Longhurst , B .

141 Aishite iru to itte kure 49 , 5 4 Afeai/"Red" serie s 6 3

Akai giwaku 51 , 63 Aksoy A . an d Robins , K . 6 All Under One Roof 7 4 Ally McBeal 143 , 307-30 8 Altman, R . 44 , 61 , 255, 25 7 Americanization 3 , 4, 12 , 27 7

American cultura l hegemon y 6 American cultura l imperialis m

304 of Taiwanes e culture s 11 9 of Tha i yout h 17 9

t h e s i s , c e n t e r - p e r i p h e r y perspective o f 5

See also cultura l imperialis m Anchor Woman 18 9 Anderson, B . 149 , 241 , 276 Ang, I . 96 , 115 , 117 , 156 , 197 ,

201, 284 , 30 4 Ang, I . an d Stratton , J. 3 , 12 , 30 5 anti-imperialism campaig n 18 1

cultural politic s 17 8 ideology 18 1 songs 18 2

anti-Japanese goods campaign 180 , 184

Appadurai, A. 5 , 20, 104, 113, 135, 149, 150 , 208 , 275 , 27 6

Arita, S . 25 6 articulation 31 , 41

L342 Inde x

Asahi Shinbun 1 8 Asian cultur e i n th e Wes t 27 7 Asian identit y 1 5 Asian modernities 3 , 4, 12 , 19, 307

as a wa y o f lif e 30 6 Asian technolog y 205 , 24 1 Asian value s 12 , 161 , 17 3 Asian/Asian America n cul ture ,

construction o f 29 3 Asian/Asian America n identi t y

15, 289 , 29 2 Asians/Asian American s 16 , 289 ,

291, 29 2 limited cultura l citizenshi p o f

293 men, imag e o f 29 1 presence of , i n th e medi a 29 0 stereotypical portraya l o f 282 ,

290, 29 1 racialization an d marginalizatio n

of 29 2 "Asianization" o f Asi a 30 6 Asunaro hakusho 49 , 54 , 5 9 asymmetry an d uneve n powe r

relations 1 9 audience

"active audience " theor y 9 6 diasporic Chines e 22 3 diasporic Japanese 93 , 96-10 0 cross-cultural 10 3 "local=national" 1 3 resistance an d politica l econom y

112 author an d authorshi p 4 8

and genrificatio n 6 2

Baek, W. 26 1 Bakhtin, M . 4 8 Barker, C . 25 4

Barthes, R . 48 , 13 9 Baudrillard, J. 21 1 Beach Boys 14 , 95 , 9 7 Beautiful Life 49 , 22 9 Benjamin, W . 11 6 Berger, A . 25 5 bubble econom y 46 , 7 0

collapse o f 4 6

cable televisio n 131 , 212 Campbell, C . 22 9 capitalism, decenterin g o f 4 Cater, E . 13 5 Chage an d Ask a 5 8 Chan, J. M . 23 8 Chan, Q . 237 , 23 9 Chang, Y . C. 14 1 Chen, Kell y 7 8 Chen, K.-H . 11 4 Cheng, C.- Y 11 0 Chetha Puangha t 18 5 Chi, H.-C . 111,13 4 China Times 13 3 Ching, L . 20 8 Chiou, S.-W . 110 , 11 9 Chiisana koi no merodi/S.WA.L.K.

51 Chongchun 26 4 Chow, R . 11 7 Chua B . H. 161 , 162 , 30 6 Cinderella's Tour in Tokyo 136 , 14 0 colonialism 10 8 commonality i n cultural experience s

40 consumer cultur e 27 1 consumerism 9 , 18 , 177 , 30 7 consumerist-driven desir e 1 6 consumption 24 1 contemporary societ y 2 7

Corner, J. 4 4 Crown VC D 213-21 4 cultural appropriatio n 10 4 cultural asymmetr y 2 0 cultural borrowin g 25 6 cultural citizenshi p 29 0 cultural dialogu e 1 9

(im)possibility o f 4 cultural differenc e 2 , 5 , 102 , 10 3 cultural discoun t 25 3 cultural distance/similarit y 4 , 12 -

13, 101 , 103 , 30 7 and closenes s 13 , 28 9 between Australia and Asia 30 5

cultural encounter s 1 2 cultural flow s

from Asi a t o th e U S 27 8 in East/Southeas t Asi a 2 intra-Asian 3 , 1 9 intra-regional 2 , 4 , 1 8

cultural format s 5 , 1 1 as a wa y t o organiz e cultura l

diversity 5 cultural globalizatio n 1 , 2, 3, 4, 6 ,

19 decentering perspectiv e o f 4 disregard fo r boundar ie s o f

nation-states 1 9 cultural hybridit y 14 7 cultural hybridization 252 , 254, 255,

272, 273 , 27 5 and appropriatio n 4

cultural identificatio n 149 , 15 0 cultural identit y 11 1 cultural imperialis m 89 , 104 , 108 ,

111, 219 , 220 , 224 , 228 , 25 3 thesis 4 See also Americanizatio n

cultural modernity , Eas t Asian 30 7

Index 34B J

cultural powe r 27 8 cultural proximit y 12 , 14 , 102 ,

103, 119 , 155 , 156 , 172 , 240 , 253, 287, 288, 289, 304, 306, 307 and distanc e 28 7

cultural resonanc e an d asymmetr y 3

cul tural t ransformation , fro m "traditional" t o "postmodern " 307

cultural transnationalis m 4 cultural unevennes s 2 0 culturally specifi c meaning s an d

feelings 1 1 culture, intimat e similarit y o f 1 2

dak-yi/kawaVi (cut e o r adorable ) 228

Dakishimetai 7 2 Dallas 303 , 30 4 Davis, D . 22 9 Davis, D . an d Ye h Y.-Y. 22 9 Dear Sister 7 4 developmental tempora l la g 2 diasporic readin g 96 , 9 9 Dirlik, A . 1 2 discrepancy betwee n feeling s an d

actual practic e 1 4 Dissanayake, W . 24 1 diversification 5 Dorfman, A . an d Matterlart , A .

253, 27 6 du Gay , P . 22 5

emotional realis m 120 , 12 1 encoding proces s 27 , 2 8 ER 14 3

family relationship s 11 , 17

I ] 344 Inde x

fantasy, an d realit y 89 , 96 , 10 1 female sex . See woman/wome n female writers/scriptwriter s 4 6

scenario writer s 1 0 femi-scape 10 4 feminine sexualit y 17 3

media censorshi p o f 16 1 femininity 11 , 156 , 15 7

contemporary idea l o f 3 0 traditional, domesti c role s o f

93 Feng, C . S . 13 1 Flores, W. and Benmayor , R . 29 0 foreign othe r versu s th e local , th e

111 Frith, S . 141 , 187 , 194 , 19 6 Fuji Televisio n 9 , 10 , 32 , 45 , 46 ,

47, 21 8 Fung, A . 22 8 Furuhata ninzaburo 8 0

ganbaru (holdin g out and striving t o achieve something) 14 , 89-10 4 passim transnational readings of 93-9 5

passim Garcia Canclini , N . 15 0 gender an d sexua l role s 10 , 2 7 gender structur e 3 6 genre 255 , 25 7

theories 6 1 genrification 44 , 45 , 49 , 6 2

of ren'ai dorama 44 , 4 9 Giddens, A . 11 6 Gillespie, M . 14 9 Gledhill, C . 11 7 global capitalism and modernity 1 2 global consumer cultur e 261 , 262,

272

global cultura l encounter s 1 3 global cultura l powe r 5 global homogenizatio n 3- 5

and heterogenizatio n 1 1 See also Americanization, cultura l

imperialism global localizatio n 217 , 22 1 global-local

interpenetration 3 nexus 4 , 10 4 or national-foreign dichotomize d

framework 1 6 global marketin g strateg y 6 global medi a merger s 6 global popula r cultura l product s

185, 19 0 global popula r cultur e 17 8 globalization 3 , 12 , 13 , 2 0

decentering process/forces o f 3 , 5

of culture, countering the forceso f 197

of popula r cultur e 177 , 19 7 glocalization 6 , 253 , 25 4

of T V drama 30 4 Go 8 5 Goh C . T . 16 1 government policie s

and Singaporea n femininit y 160

Grossberg, L . 4 4 GTO 18 9 Gupta, A . and Ferguson , J. 27 5

ha-ri 107 , 130, 134, 141 , 144, 147, 148, 25 4

ha-ri-zu 133 , 136 , 147 , 229 , 241 , 245

Hall,S. 5 ,28,41,114,149,30 4

Index 34( 5

Hamelink, C . 25 3 Hanliu (Korea n wave) 17 , 252, 254 Hannerz, U . 5 , 149 , 150 , 27 5 Happy Together 26 3 Hari, K . 147 , 14 8 Harvey, D . 11 6 Hebdige, D . 18 5 Hello Kitt y 53 , 228 , 24 0 Herzfeld, M . 30 7 Ho, H.-W . 110,11 8 Hollywood 6 , 1 1 Hoshi no kinka 14 0 Hoskins, C . an d Mirus , R . 25 3 Hsia, C.-J . 11 6 Hu, H.-C . 24 4 Huang, D . C . 13 1 hyper-reading 100-10 4

Ice World 12 2 identification spectru m 14 2 image bank s 30 6 imitation

of cultur e o f colonize r 1 7 of Japanese T V dramas 17-1 8

(im)migration experienc e 28 9 In the Name of Love 7 4 Inden, R . 20 6 Indian diaspori c communitie s 22 3 indigenizing modernit y 1 3 inter-media 233 , 23 4 international copyrigh t regulation s

216 intertextuality 48 , 62 , 13 3 intimacy 307 , 30 8

and distanc e 3 of T V drama 307 , 30 8

intraregional cultura l resonance 1 3 Isin, E . an d Wood , P 29 0 Ito, M . an d Fujita , M . 2 5

ITV (Thailand ) 188 , 189 , 19 1 iTV (Hon g Kong ) 23 7 Iwabuchi, K . 6 , 7 , 12 , 15 , 18 , 19 ,

26, 40 , 41 , 102 , 103 , 114 , 131 , 145, 155 , 156 , 158 , 209 , 217 , 218, 288 , 30 4

Jade TV B 9 0 jaemi (pleasure ) 281-28 2 Jameson, F 22 1 Jan, H . T . 14 4 Japan 2

as "dreamworld " 1 4 asymmetrical powe r relationshi p

with th e res t o f Asi a 1 5 Japanese animatio n an d compute r

games 6 Japanese an d othe r Asia n media ,

affiliation betwee n 7 Japanese colonialis m 14 , 15 , 12 5 Japanese colonizatio n o f Taiwa n

116 relationship o f 10 7

Japanese cultura l export s 6 Japanese cultura l influenc e 2 , 18 ,

252 and cultura l powe r 3 and Japanese T V 21 9 on Sout h Kore a 28 8

Japanese cultur e and America n cultur e 14 5 and Chines e cultur e 16 4

Japanese diaspora s 14 , 1 6 Japanese ido l drama s 9 , 107 , 108 ,

109, 113 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123, 124 , 20 9 and Korea n dram a 268 , 28 6 and self-reflexiv e vie w o f cultur e

3

34 6 Inde x

as artfu l bricolag e 3 8 promotion o f 7 See also t rend y dramas ,

(post-) trendy drama s Japanese imperialis m 25 1

media/cultural 21 9 See also Japanese colonialis m

Japanese modernit y 28 7 Taiwanese versio n o f 12 5

Japanese Orientalis t conceptio n o f Asia 1 5

Japanese po p musi c 18 6 Japanese popula r culture , ba n o n

import o f 16 , 25 1 Japanese trend y drama s 27 1 Japanese TV drama tour s 14 , 130 -

151 passim Japanese T V industr y

as a n inactiv e empir e 21 9 "Japaneseness" o f dram a 24 0 Japanese-style romanc e 167-16 9 Japanization 89 , 93 , 11 0 Jealousy 257 , 263 , 266 , 267-27 2

passim and Tokyo Love Story 26 7

Jenkins, R . 14 8 JET T V 139 , 21 8 jidai-geki (samura i dramas ) 7 1 Joo, E . 26 2

Kanjana Kaewthe p 19 1 Kasian Thechapir a 18 3 Katz, E . an d Liebes , T 30 4 KBS 26 1 Kearney, M . 27 5 Kijima, Seiichir o 6 4 Kimura, Takuy a 91 , 92, 94 , 9 7 Kita no Kuni kara 8 0 Kitagawa, Erik o 10 , 44-63 passim

Kiwi VCD s 21 4 KMT government , th e 13 1 Ko, Y-F 11 0 Koi no paradise 46 , 6 3 Kome Kom e Clu b 5 8 Korean government , th e 25 1 Korean resident s i n Japan 84-8 5 Korean trend y drama s 252 , 254 ,

257, 261-264 , 271 , 27 2 appropriation o f Japanese trend y

dramas 16 , 255 , 260 , 28 8 Korean vide o renta l store s 28 5 Korean-language T V channels in US

cities 27 9 Korean/Korean America n youth s

consumpt ion o f Korea n an d Japanese T V drama s 2 7 5 -293 passim

Kulini Mutakali n 18 5 Kuruchon 18 3

Lee, D . an d Chen , Z . 110 , 11 9 Lee, M.- T 11 8 Lee, S.-J . 110,11 9 Lee, T.-D . 110 , 11 8 Lee, W. 26 2 Lentricchia E an d McLaughlin , T

144 Leung, G . 23 8 Leung, L.-K . 23 7 Leung, Y-M . L . 91 , 209 Lewis, G . e t a l 13 1 Liebes, T . and Katz , E . 25 3 Lii, D. T . and Che n Z . Y 212 , 21 9 Lin, R . D . 118 , 119 , 14 1 Liuxing huayuan (Meteo r Garden )

17 Livingstone, S . an d Bovill , M .

134

Lo, H . W . 13 1 local, th e 11 3

as generalize d collectivit y 11 1 local indigenizin g processe s 5 local partnershi p an d initiativ e 7 local practic e

of appropr ia t io n o f foreig n cultural product s 5

of cultura l translatio n 3 localization 6 , 1 7 Long Vacation 10 , 11 , 14 , 28 , 29 ,

31, 33 , 34, 36, 49, 55, 56, 60, 72, 89, 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 97 , 99 , 122 , 140, 189 , 215 , 229 , 26 5 Hayama, Minami 29-32 , 34-3 6

Love 2000 13 2 love capita l 57 , 5 8 Love Generation 10 , 30, 72, 92, 93,

123, 140 , 189, 215, 229, 256, 264 love storie s 5 8 Love Story 5 5 Lowe, L . 29 3

Maira, S . 27 7 marketing strategie s

of th e televisio n station s 2 6 MBC 26 1 McQuail, D . 2 5 McClure, S . 18 7 media imperialis m 218 , 219 , 253 ,

272 and cultura l imperialism 4 , 220 See also Americanizat ion ,

Japanization melodrama 117 , 11 8

in Taiwa n 12 4 melodramatic imaginatio n 30 8 melodramatic representatio n 11 7 Miller, D . 3

H r\

Index 34tL

Mittell, I . 25 5 Miyoshi, M . 114 , 222 , 22 5 Mlinar, Z . 15 0 modern experience s 2 modern identit y 195 , 19 7 modern livin g 9 , 13 , 1 7 modern temporalit y 1 2 modern world-syste m 2 modernity 115-118 , 18 7

ambivalence o f "anxiet y an d desire" fo r 10 8

in Taiwan , colonia l 12 5 in Japan 16 5 represented i n Japanes e drama s

120, 28 7 See also Asian modernitie s

modernization 3 , 1 2 Modleski, T . 19 7 Morley, D . 15 0 Morley, D. and Robins , K . 150 , 221,

276, 277 , 29 1

Nakano, Y 22 0 Naomi 23 6 national, th e

conflation wit h "th e local " 11 3 national and cultura l boundaries 5 national/cultural identit y 1 5 Nikkatsu Studi o 52-5 3 Nojima, S . 6 1 Noraset Mudkon g 18 6 NTV 8 5 Nye, J. S . 13 0

O-Daiba 14 0 Ota T . 45-4 7 Ockey J . 18 5 Oda, Kazumas a 54 , 5 8 Odagiri, M . 4 5

34 8 Inde x

Off Cours e 51 , 52 operational realis m 11 9 Osaka 8 1 Oshin 9 0 Over Time 10 , 14 , 55, 56, 157-17 1

passim, 18 9

pan-Asian communit y 241 , 29 2 consumption o f VCDs o f 24 1

Panasonic 8 patriarchal valu e syste m 3 5 Pieterse, J. 25 4 piracy 20 6

unlicensed 229-24 3 software 7 VCDs 8 , 22 2

plagiarism 26 4 Pleng Pua Chiwit (Son g fo r Life )

180, 182-183 , 19 4 Pokemon 6 pop musi c 57 , 5 8 post-colonial question s 4 , 10 9 post-modernity 18 7 "post-text" travelogue s 1 4 (post)-trendy drama s 10 , 11 , 72 ,

81, 82 , 158 , 159 , 256 , 305 , 30 8 See also Japanes e ido l dramas ,

trendy drama s Power Office Girls 18 9 programmatic technolog y 230 ,

231, 242 . See also VC D pure lov e drama . See re'nai dorama

Radway, J. 4 4 "real" an d "dream " 12 3 real imager y 12 3 real imaginar y 1 4 real setting s 121 , 12 4 realism 108 , 11 8

and fantas y 7 7 in Japanese idol dramas 108,11 8 See also emotional realis m

reality effect s 120-12 1 regional cultura l connection s i n

East/Southeast Asi a 2 regional flow s 1 8 Reisei to jonetsu no aida 7 8 ren'ai dorama (lov e stor y dramas )

44-63 passim, 7 2 Ren'ai no kamisama 6 3 reproductive technologie s 23 1 Ring 18 9 Robertson, R . 254 , 30 4 romance 19 0

notion of , i n Japanes e drama s 167

quality o f "innocence " 16 7 Rosaldo, R . an d Flores , W. 29 0 Rouse, R . 29 4 Rushdie, S . 14 7 rybsai kenbo (good wife, wise mother)

27

Sain waV 5 1 Sangkomsart Paritha t 180 , 18 1 Savage, J. 18 7 SBS 26 1 Schiller, H . 6 , 25 3 Schilling, M . 25 6 Schudson, M . 19 7 scriptwriters 44-6 3 passim, 7 6 semiotic constructio n 3 8 semiotic empowermen t 1 5 Sex in the City 307-30 8 sexual role s an d gende r norm s 2 7 Shao, Y.-J . 11 0 Shining Path 9 0 shinsedae 261 , 262, 271 , 28 3

Index 34g L

Shiraishi, S . 13 0 similarity an d differenc e 12 , 30 7 Sinclair, J. e t al . 3 , 218 , 22 0 Siray 17 9 Sleeping Forest 21 5 small univers e 11 , 17 , 3 7 social context s 4 1 Sony 6 , 8 Sora kara furu ichioku no hoshi 21 0 spatio-temporal distance/proximit y

19 staging metho d 36-37 , 3 9

and superficia l sens e o f realit y 37

and superficia l image s 3 9 Stam, R . e t al . 4 8 standardization 5

of forma t an d formul a 30 4 Star T V 7 , 9 , 132 , 212 , 23 8 Stevenson, M . 24 3 Stewart, A . 23 4 strategy i n Asia n market s 77-7 8 Straubhaar, J . 12 , 155 , 240 , 253 ,

304 structure o f feelin g 272 , 30 7 student uprisin g 18 0 Su, H . 10 9 Su, H . an d Chen , S.- Y 11 0 Su, Y-L. 110 , 118 , 119 , 13 3 Sugao no mamade 5 4 Sun, L.-C . 11 0 Sun Shines Forever, The 19 1 Sundaram, R . 21 3 Sunday Best 189 , 193 , 19 4 Sutekina Kataomoi 7 2 Sweet Daddy 18 9 symbolic cente r 5

taidan (talk/interview ) 6 0

Taiwan 21 2 colonized pas t o f 12 5 cultural identit y o f 10 7 national identit y o f 11 0 urban modernit y o f 10 8

Taiwanese cabl e T V 7 Taiwanese melodrama s 12 2

and Korea n melodrama s 12 4 Taiwanese touris m 1 4 Takenouchi, Yutak a 7 8 TBS 21 8 textual consumptio n

politico-cultural effect s o f 4 1 textual an d symboli c appea l 8 Thai yout h

and ant i- imperial is t cul tur e 178, 184 , 188 , 194-19 6

classless 18 8 Thussu, D . 25 4 Tobin, J. 28 8 "Tokyo" o n scree n 12 3 Tokyo Love Story 9, 10 , 11 , 28-32,

33, 36 , 54, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 80, 81 , 82, 83 , 89, 91 , 107 , 122 , 132, 256 , 263 , 267 , 272 , 305 , 306, 307 , 30 8 Akana, Rik a 29-4 0 passim, 74 -

76 in Taiwa n 4 0 Nagao Kanch i 29-3 0

Tomlinson, J . 4 , 113 , 150 , 219 , 276, 30 4

total cultura l packag e 6 tourist gaz e 136 , 14 0 traditional value s

rejection o f 17 0 and previou s understanding s o f

womanliness 3 1 and pro-famil y value s 17 2

w •ft E320 Inde x

traditions hollowing ou t o f 30 7

tragic lov e affair s 7 4 transcultural imaginar y 8 9 translocal consumptio n 1 6 translocal decoding s 1 3 translocal reading s 1 3 translocation 10 0 transnational allianc e 7 , 8 transnational Asia n (im)migran t

communities 27 7 transnational collaboration , amon g

media industrie s 7 transnational connection s 4 transnational cultura l flows 2 , 5, 6,

16 and powe r relation s 5 receiving en d o f 1 9

transnational cultura l powe r 5 , 6 transnational dialogu e 19 , 2 0 transnational imaginatio n 3 transnational industr y allianc e 4 transnational medi a an d cultura l

industries 6 transnational medi a consumptio n

12 transnational zone of cultural affinit y

305, 30 8 Australia outsid e o f 30 5

trendy drama s 9 , 10 , 26 , 45-47 , 63, 69-72 , 190 , 252 , 255-257 , 262, 27 1 and traditiona l drama s 25 7 See also (post-)trend y dramas ,

Japanese ido l drama s Tsunku 6 0 TVB 236 , 237-23 8 TVBS-G Channe l 13 2 Tyrrell, H . 22 3

Ubonrat Siriyuvasa k 18 5 Under One Roof 26 3 urban consumeris m 1 2 urban lifestyle s 9 urban modernit y 13-1 4 urbanization 3 Urry, J. 13 5 US, a s dominan t cul tura l powe r

278 US imperia l dominanc e

in Asi a 17 9 in Thailan d 18 0 See also Americanizatio n

V-Box 21 4 Valaskivi, K . 4 5 VCD 7 , 8 , 95 , 132 , 2 0 5 - 2 2 4

passim, 227-24 3 passim in Hon g Kon g 209 , 22 9 piracy 23 0 as Thir d Worl d gueril la -

technology 208 , 23 7 viewing 9 5 See also programmatic technolog y

Vietnam War , th e 17 9

Wallerstein, I . 3 Wang, G . 25 3 Waterman, D . an d Rogers , E . 25 3 Wee, C . J. W.-L . 16 2 West-Rest paradigm , th e 3 Western cultura l hegemon y 4 Western cultural political, economic ,

and militar y powe r 2 Western cultura l products/medi a

3-4 Western modernit y 2 , 1 2

replication o f 30 6 Wharf Cabl e 237-23 9

Index 3 ^

Wilk, R . 5 , 13 3 Williams, R . 272 , 23 0 Winston, B . 231 , 232 With Love 18 9 woman/women

construction of , a s represented i n TV drama s 32 , 33 , 3 4

contemporary 28 , 3 2 free an d independen t 31 , 34 good 3 6 image o f 27-2 8 new, typified b y Rika and Minam i

31 one-sided lov e o f 7 3 portrayed a s bad 34-3 6 sexuality o f 1 4

Wong, C . 22 3

Woodward, K . 14 3 WTO 21 6 Wulff, H . 15 0

X-Japan 186 , 187 , 18 8 X-Mania Club/ X fan s 18 6

Ximending 111 , 13 4 Xing, J. 29 1

Yamaguchi, Tomok o 91 , 92, 9 8 Yamatonadeshiko 10 , 11, 28, 33, 36,

123 Kanno, Sakurak o 33-3 6

Yau, E . 27 7 Yellow Peril , th e 18 1 youth, globalize d imag e o f 30 6 Yuming 51 , 59

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