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Lisa Munro

Research Project

(Because this is an unpublished work in progress, please don’t cite or reference this paper.)

El Rock Chapín on Local, Regional, and International Stages

Guatemala, a the most populous Central American nation, remains best known for its

large indigenous population, brilliant hand woven textiles, stunning scenery, and some of the

world’s finest coffee. Guatemalan rock music, however, has not achieved such fame, although

rock chapín has developed into an authentic musical form with widespread appeal. Rock chapín

competes with other musical styles in its effort to capture the nation’s attention, such as

traditional marimba, rock en español imported from neighboring Mexico, popular Latin dance

music, and English hits from the United States and Europe. Nevertheless, Guatemalans proudly

proclaim their national artists as “puros Chapínes” and one can find Guatemalan rock music

blaring from the makeshift speakers on any public bus. What then, makes Guatemalans identify

with this style and what characteristics make it Guatemalan?

This project explores the nature of Guatemalan rock music through an examination of

specific characteristics that make it distinctly identifiable as Guatemalan, rather than as an

imitation of more famous rock en español from other regions of Latin America. I consider the

music of three Guatemalan rock artists: Alux Nahual, Ricardo Arjona, and Bohemia Suburbana.

I intend to compare and contrast the work of these artists in an effort to uncover the Guatemalan-

ness of the music through musical style, lyrics, as well as the origin and history of the artists

themselves. I situate this analysis between the broader context of Guatemala’s particularly brutal

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history in the late twentieth century and its consistent struggle to define a national identity that

fully encompasses the regional, ethnic, and linguistic diversity of the nation’s highly

heterogeneous population.1 Guatemalan rock provides the nation with easily identifiable heroes,

as well as references themes that touch the national psyche in a way that makes rock Chapín a

unique and distinct musical form.

I draw on the work of Benedict Anderson and his theory of national identity formation in

his groundbreaking work Imagined Communities.2 Anderson proposed that people form

communities with people in distant places through “print-capitalism,” and posited that

newspapers provide people with a sense of community by creating an imaginary link between

people. This theoretical model has proved useful to scholars, but fails to account for the ways in

which people who do not have access to print media form communities. Recent scholars have

used Anderson’s work as a basis for their analysis, but have departed from his original idea and

have argued that people can form communities through non-print cultural forms, such as food,

puppet shows, or clothing. Following this lead, I argue that rock chapín functions in much the

same way, linking people together through the shared medium of music. Much of Guatemala

remains desperately poor and a high number of people remain illiterate, especially in rural towns

and villages far from the urban capital or tourist centers. Nearly everyone, however, has access

to radio stations that play rock music. Equal access to music provides a modicum of equality in

a country with an appalling degree of inequality between wealthy capital citizens and indigenous

1 Thomas Turino, “Nationalism and Latin American Music: Selected Case Studies and Theoretical Considerations,” Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana 24, no. 2 (Autumn - Winter 2003): 170.

2 Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London; New York: Verso, 1991).

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communities that struggle to obtain basic services such as decent housing, education, and food

security.

Thomas Turino, in his book Nationalism, Cosmopolitans, and Popular Music in

Zimbabwe also offers a useful way to think about the process of specific local objects, ideas, and

cultural concepts that broaden into international contexts in his idea of cosmopolitanism. In

Turino’s usage, cosmopolitanism refers to local practices that transcend international boundaries,

which then connect multiple local places through media. Furthemore, Turino argues that local

practices, such as music, take on international dimensions once local people have internalized

foreign ideas and discourses, appropriated them for their own use, and reproduced them in a

local context.3 The concept of rock chapín that I identify in this paper fits into this critical

framework in that it demonstrates the process of the adoption of foreign rock as an authentically

Guatemalan form and its transformation from a purely local and regional phenomenon into an

international language that continues to have repercussions both globally and locally.

Secondary for this project remain scarce, as Guatemalan rock has not attained the same

status as its Mexican counterpart. Nevertheless, I plan to use the music of the aforementioned

groups as primary sources and analyze their lyrics, imagery, musical styles, and the composition

of their musicians. I plan to build on the work of Eric Zolov in his influential book, Refried Elvis.

Rock chapín, a primarily urban, lower to middle class musical form, followed a similar, though

not identical path in its development to Mexican rock en español. Zolov’s later work Rockin’

Las Americas contains a chapter authored by one of the founding members of Alux Nahual,

which provides a unique firsthand account of the reasons that the band resonated with

3 Thomas Turino, Nationalists, cosmopolitans, and popular music in Zimbabwe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 7-9.

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Guatemalan audiences. I also draw on class readings that present a similar shift from a purely

national phenomenon to an international but still nationalistic style that allowed Guatemalans to

take part in a larger, global musical conversation that spread national music far beyond the

borders of Central America.

The group Alux Nahual stands as one of the nation’s oldest rock groups and continues to

enjoy widespread popularity. The band recently played venues in Xela, Huehuetenango, and La

Antigua Guatemala to celebrate their thirty years of success.4 Nevertheless, the band’s early

years, set against a background of state-sponsored violence, left its future in doubt. During the

1980s, the virulent suppression of any public expression considered to be subversive (or even

slightly political) nearly extinguished the nascent rock movement before it had even begun.

Guatemalan rock appealed mostly to mid- to upper class urban youths in the capital city, many of

whom were students at the University of San Carlos. Many student leaders disappeared and

faced military sanctions for their vocal stances and activism against the rising violence in the

country that targeted both urban leftists and rural guerilla leaders. For this reason, rock music

became associated with student movements and radical politics that made many people wary of

listening to it for fear of raising the army’s suspicion. Furthermore, Alux Nahual began playing

rock music at a time when many people viewed rock music as nothing more than an exotic

import from the United States that Guatemalan musicians blatantly imitated in sound and style.

In other words, early rock chapín struggled against perceptions of its inherent inferiority,

4 “Alux, en la Ermita de la Santa Cruz, en Antigua Guatemala,” Prensa Libre - Edición electrónica - Espectaculos, November 24, 2009, http://www.prensalibre.com/pl/2009/noviembre/25/358399.html.

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political associations, and the sense that Guatemalan rock contained no elements that ordinary

Guatemalans could relate to.5

Rather than abandon the rock format, Alux Nahual made sure that its music contained

heavily nationalistic elements that emphasized the authenticity of rock chapín and its local roots.

The band’s name, in particular, remains immediately recognizable as Guatemala, as the words

come from the K’iche’ Mayan language. The word alux is the verb “to be born,” while the word

nahual refers to a person’s Mayan spiritual sign. Even for residents of the capital, most of whom

disparage Mayan languages, the band’s name immediately links it to a distinctly Guatemalan

element that references a local context. Its most famous song, “Alto El Fuego” became the

anthem of a generation faced with unimaginable levels of terror and violence in everyday life.

Additionally, El Salvador and Nicaragua both found themselves embroiled in their own conflicts

during the 1980s, adding to the impression of an entire region in crisis. The lyrics of “Alto El

Fuego” evoked a sense of solidarity, as the chorus repeats, “…alto el fuego, cese el fuego, en

todo el territorio Centro Americano!”6 The acknowledgement of similar violent conflicts

throughout the region drew a symbolic border around Central America and raised awareness of

the common experiences between the five nations. Finally, “Alto El Fuego” gave voice to

sentiments that people dared not speak aloud during the conflict.

The band’s self-referential nature, evident in songs such as “Hombres del Maíz,”an

obvious reference to the famous novel of the same name by Miguel Angel Asturias, continued to

reassure listeners that rock chapín remained closely integrated with the nation’s history and

5 Paulo Alvarado, “Guatemala's Alux Nahual: A Non-"Latin American" Latin American Rock Group?,” in Rockin' Las Americas (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004), 225.

6 “Alto al fuego," Alux Nahual, 2007, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A5MsuxxlBdQ&feature=youtube_gdata.

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culture. Other examples of the heavy emphasis on the local and regional nature of Alux

Nahual’s music include the 1983 release of the popular song, “Aquí es tu tierra,” a song about

Central American refugees in the United States and their memories of home. Alux Nahual never

reached a high level of popularity outside of Central America, but the band eventually gained a

loyal following and continued to win over listeners by mixing lyrical imagery that linked Alux

Nahual with local elements, even while presenting them in a new musical format. The band’s

performance at the signing of the 1996 Peace Accords that officially ended the nation’s thirty-six

year civil conflict cemented Alux Nahual’s reputation as the quintessential Guatemalan rock

band and earned them a permanent place in the nation’s cultural consciousness.7

Alux Nahual’s pioneering steps and the decidedly less repressive political climate of the

late 1990s paved the way for other Guatemalan musicians. Although not technically a rock

musician, Ricardo Arjona remains one of the most popular singers in Guatemala and

Guatemalans proudly claim him as a native son. Unlike Alux Nahual’s urban roots, Arjona hails

from Jocotenango, a small town outside the tourist mecca La Antigua Guatemala. Guatemalans

have long draw a distinction between the cosmopolitan atmosphere of the urban capital and the

rural countryside that geographically and economically divides the nation. The sprawling

capital, although a hotbed of crime and gang activity, also exudes an aura of urbanity, modernity,

and wealth that makes it the envy of many rural residents. Given this characterization of the city

and capitalino conceptions of the backwardness, poverty, and illiteracy of the countryside,

Arjona’s roots in a small rural town challenges stereotypes about rural life and the possibilities

for social mobility that often seem out of reach for ordinary citizens. Residents of Jocotenango

feel especially proud of Arjona’s achievements and celebrate him publicly by broadcasting his

7 Alvarado, “Guatemala's Alux Nahual,” 232.

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music as well as etching him in the town’s collective memory and naming local streets in his

honor.8 Although Arjona no longer lives in Guatemala, but instead in the Latin music capital of

Mexico City, people continue to venerate him and he draws large and enthusiastic crowds

whenever he returns to Guatemala for charity fundraising events and concerts.9

Ricardo Arjona achieved international fame when he won two Grammy Awards in 2007,

much to the delight of Guatemalans everywhere. He has also been nominated for another

Grammy Award in the category Best Latin Pop Album in 2009 for his most recent album, “5to.

Piso.”10 Not only has this type of international recognition make Guatemalans incredibly proud

of one of their local musicians, but also has spread Arjona’s music to a wider audience outside of

Central America. His music often strikes a decidedly political note, as in the evocative lyrical

images in the song, “El Mojado,” which vividly describes the difficulties that illegal immigrants

face, not only in their quest to send money to their families, but also the personal experiences of

homesickness, exploitation, and loneliness. It also clearly makes the point that the intense

discrimination against and the persecution of illegal immigration constitute a grave injustice to

people willing to take enormous risks to ensure a better life for themselves, their families, and

their communities. It is this recognition of the international dimensions of local conditions of

poverty and injustice that has not only given voice to Guatemalans who have made the

dangerous journey “al norte,” but has also allowed the musical format to carry the message far

8 Much of this is based on my own observations and conversations that I had with local people during the years that I lived in Guatemala.

9 H Rodas, A. Vicente, and G. Montenegro, “Ricardo Arjona: ¡Hola, paisanos!,” Prensa Libre- Edición electrónica- Nacional, December 4, 2009, http://www.prensalibre.com/pl/2009/diciembre/05/360917.html.

10 Antonio Mejia-Rentas, “Latinos nominados al Grammy,” La Opinión - noticias locales, nacionales e internacionales desde Los Ángeles - impre.com -, December 2, 2009, http://www.impre.com/laopinion/entretenimiento/musica/2009/12/3/latinos-nominados-al-grammy-161867-1.html.

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beyond national and regional borders. The music video of this song features a Mexican norteño

band that accompanies Arjona in his musical exploration of conditions of migrant workers,

which infuses the song with a more international flavor that transcends regional rivalries between

Guatemalans and Mexicans and that also adds the recognition that illegal immigration is a

common experience shared by Latino people of all nationalities.11

Bohemia Suburbana constitutes the final group under consideration and in many ways, it

presents a complex mixture of elements that allow it not only to be considered staunchly

Guatemalan, but also as part of a larger, international musical discourse that projects local

elements into increasingly more global contexts. Founded in 1992, the band’s founding

members represent a mix of nationalities that includes a Peruvian guitarist, a Puerto Rican

drummer and Colombian bass player, and Guatemalan vocalists which adds to its international

appeal and widens its already considerable transnational fan base. The group’s sound deviates

significantly from the “hard” electrified guitar sound of Alux Nahual and also from the pop-

influenced melodies of Ricardo Arjona. Instead, Bohemia Suburbana’s sound draws from North

American indie and alternative rock genres, but in such a way that the format represents a

completely new twist on rock en español and more specifically, el rock chapín. Indeed, one

would be hard pressed to find any of the heavily self-referential lyrics and imagery that infused

Alux Nahual’s early recordings in Bohemia Suburbana’s hits, such as the wildly popular “Peces

e Iguanas.”12

11 “Mojado," - Ricardo Arjona, 2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2XRVYLAllCI&feature=youtube_gdata.

12 “Peces e Iguanas"-Bohemia Suburbana, 2007, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iHuQs5X_gWQ&feature=youtube_gdata.

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Superficially, the band’s international musicians and its alternative style may not seem

overtly nationalistic or to contain any national elements. Nevertheless, Guatemalans proudly

claim Bohemia Suburbana as “theirs” and it remains one of the most popular groups in the

nation.13 One reason for the departure from overt nationalistic references may be that rock

chapín today represents a solid musical form that people no longer view as simply a poor

imitation of rock music from the United States. Alux Nahual formed within a climate of intense

violence and suspicion of foreign intensions, which necessitated consisted references to

recognizably local cultural elements. The repeated emphasis on the distinctly Guatemalan nature

of Alux Nahual’s origin and music reminded listeners exactly where the band originated and

highlighted the fact that their sound, although unlike any other types of Guatemalan music, still

represented an authentic expression of lo más chapín and conveyed a sense of solidarity across

not only the nation, but also the region. During the early 1980s, it was far from clear that rock

chapín would survive, given its association with radical student movements and political

subversion. In contrast, Bohemia Suburbana reached critical success in the post-conflict period,

which removed the intense pressure to prove that its music constituted an authentic form of

Guatemalan music. Additionally, the regional success of Alux Nahual and the international

success of Ricardo Arjona paved the way for other national musicians to reach critical acclaim

not only with Guatemalan audiences, but also around the world.

The case of Bohemia Suburbana also correlates with the experiences of other nationalistic

composers and musicians who have taken local and regional musics and created a national style

with a distinctly international flair. Alberto Ginastera, the venerated national composer of

13 Hilda Rodas, “Reaparece Bohemia Sin temor al tiempo,” Prensa Libre - Edición electrónica - Gente Joven, August 3, 2009, http://www.prensalibre.com/pl/2009/agosto/08/332518.html.

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Argentina, defined his music in three distinct categories, based on the degree to which his work

expressed national elements: objective nationalism, subjective nationalism, and neo-

expressionism. Ginastera’s works during the neo-expressionist period contained no obvert

references to the Argentinian folk melodies and rhythms that had characterized his previous

work. Nevertheless, despite their lack of an obvious nationalistic theme, musicologists consider

the works that he produced during this time nationalistic in spirit. The avant-garde elements of

his music combined with fleeting references to specific Argentine instruments and rhythms

continue to evoke nationalistic sentiments while incorporating international concepts.14

The same musical trajectory applies to the three artists considered here and the gradual

evolution of rock chapín from, in Ginastera’s terms, objective nationalism, to subjective

nationalism, to neo-expressionism. From Alux Nahual to Ricardo Arjona to Bohemia

Suburbana, each group has appropriated the rock format and created a style that makes

Guatemalans identify with the music. All of these three groups has remained Guatemalan, but

has also interpreted lo chapín in distinctly different ways that reflects their understanding of

national identity as well as the ways that rock chapín integrates into larger regional and

international musical conversations that make local voices heard on a global stage. Alux Nahual,

Arjona, and Bohemia Suburbana have not only appropriated rock music and infused it with

discourses that link it to a particular geographic location, but also have incorporated international

elements that allow it to reach a wider audience and prove that el rock chapín will continue to be

a viable musical form well into the future. The examples given here also exemplify Turino’s

conception of cosmopolitanism, as early Guatemalan rock musicians appropriated an imported

14 Michelle Tabor, “Alberto Ginastera's Late Instrumental Style,” Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana 15, no. 1 (Spring - Summer 1994): 27-28.

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genre, added local and regional elements and created something that embodied lo chapín. Later

musicians then took the essential kernel of rock chapín and projected it onto the world stage,

making rock chapín a truly cosmopolitan genre that reverberates both locally and internationally.

In conclusion, although Guatemalan rock music shares characteristics with rock en

español, it embodies a unique confluence of elements that have resulted in not only in the

establishment of rock chapín as an enduring form, but also in the increasingly wide scope of

Guatemalan rock and a worldwide appreciation for the genre. Against daunting odds, early rock

musicians assuaged public anxieties about rock’s radical appearance and political statements

through repeated references to local conditions that integrated rock into the cultural landscape.

Additionally, rock drew symbolically drew local communities together and transcended regional

rivalries through recognition of common experiences of violence and political repression that

affected Central American during the early 1980s. Most of the rock bands from the early years

of rock chapín have since disbanded, but their efforts and contributions of Alux Nahual opened

new possibilities and opportunities for other musicians. As rock music gained popularity after

the signing of the Peace Accords in 1996, a renewed commitment to democratic ideals, and a

growing sense of globalization, increasingly political musical messages transcended national and

regional borders and placed rock chapín in an international spotlight. The international success

of local musician Ricardo Arjona increased the demand for specifically Guatemalan rock and

allowed rock chapín to differentiate itself from the larger genre of rock en Español. Finally, the

phenomenal international popularity of Bohemia Suburbana established rock chapín as a

Guatemalan-based band with international musicians that chapines could claim as their own.

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Rock chapín has evolved from an obscure, local brand to an internationally marketed,

easily recognized label that continues to evoke an imagined musical community that now

extends globally. It represents a genre that promises to inspire local musicians to achieve not

only local recognition, but also to meet an international demand for further development of the

style. Rock music may end up being the nation’s most successful export product and its success

is one that ordinary Guatemalans can also be proud of. Whether Guatemalans and international

fans crank up the volume of the heavily self-referential lyrics of Alux Nahual, the critically

acclaimed pop rhythms of Ricardo Arjona, or the indie-alt international style of Bohemia

Suburbana, the development and success of rock chapín ensures that it will continue to find

audiences on local, regional, and international stages.

Bibliography

“Alto al fuego." Alux Nahual. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A5MsuxxlBdQ&feature=youtube_gdata.

“Alux, en la Ermita de la Santa Cruz, en Antigua Guatemala.” Prensa Libre - Edición electrónica - Espectaculos, November 24, 2009. http://www.prensalibre.com/pl/2009/noviembre/25/358399.html.

Alvarado, Paulo. “Guatemala's Alux Nahual: A Non-"Latin American" Latin American Rock Group?.” In Rockin' Las Americas, 220-240. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004.

Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London; New York: Verso, 1991.

Mejia-Rentas, Antonio. “Latinos nominados al Grammy.” La Opinión - noticias locales, nacionales e internacionales desde Los Ángeles - impre.com -, December 2, 2009. http://www.impre.com/laopinion/entretenimiento/musica/2009/12/3/latinos-nominados-al-grammy-161867-1.html.

"Mojado," Ricardo Arjona. http://www.youtube.com/watch?

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v=2XRVYLAllCI&feature=youtube_gdata.

"Peces e Iguanas," Bohemia Suburbana. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iHuQs5X_gWQ&feature=youtube_gdata.

Rodas, H, A. Vicente, and G. Montenegro. “Ricardo Arjona: ¡Hola, paisanos!.” Prensa Libre- Edición electrónica- Nacional, December 4, 2009. http://www.prensalibre.com/pl/2009/diciembre/05/360917.html.

Rodas, Hilda. “Reaparece Bohemi Sin temor al tiempo.” Prensa Libre - Edición electrónica - Gente Joven, August 3, 2009. http://www.prensalibre.com/pl/2009/agosto/08/332518.html.

Tabor, Michelle. “Alberto Ginastera's Late Instrumental Style.” Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana 15, no. 1 (Spring - Summer 1994): 1-31.

Turino, Thomas. “Nationalism and Latin American Music: Selected Case Studies and Theoretical Considerations.” Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana 24, no. 2 (Autumn - Winter 2003): 169-209.

———. Nationalists, Cosmopolitans, and Popular Music in Zimbabwe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.

For Further Reading

Zolov, Eric. Refried Elvis: the Rise of the Mexican Counterculture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.