ELC 231: Introduction to Language and Linguistics - Week ... · 1Introduction...

1 Introduction2 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax3.0 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Semantics

4.0 Summary and Further QuestionsReferences

Time Turner: Image from http://harrypotter.wikia.com/wiki/Time-Turner?file=TimeTurner.PNG

ELC 231: Introduction to Language and LinguisticsWeek 13: Temporality II

Grammatical Aspect and Tense

Dr. Meagan Louie

M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 1 / 73



1.1 REVIEW: Lexical Aspect1.2 Lexical Aspects and Compositionality1.3 DISPLACEMENT as a Design Feature

Core Subdomains

Linguistics: The study of Language

Phonetics

Phonology

Morphology

Syntax

Semantics

Pragmatics





Last Week: The Morphosemantics of Lexical Aspect in Verbs

Linguistics: The study of Language

Phonetics

Phonology

Morphology

Syntax

Semantics

Pragmatics





Semantically-Defined VERB CLASSES: Lexical Aspect

Rothstein 2004: Semantically-defined aspectual classes

VERB CLASS Examples

Statives “non-dynamic situations”Activities “open-ended processes”Accomplishments “processes with a natural endpoint”Achievements “near-instantaneous events” with change of state(Semelfactives) “near-instantaneous events” no change of state





Verb Classes and Lexical Aspect/Aktionsart

Recall: There are TWO kinds of ASPECT

(i) Verbal/Lexical Aspect (aka aktionsart)→ This is a way of categorizing verbs/VPs/events

(according to their semantic temporal properties)

eg., stative, activity, accomplishment, achievement, semelfactive

(ii) Grammatical/Viewpoint Aspect→ This is used to modify the interpretation of the verb/VP/event

(in terms of its semantic temporal properties)

eg., progressive (be -ing), simple (-s/∅), perfect (have -en/ed)...





Verb Classes and Lexical Aspect/Aktionsart

Recall: GRAMMATICAL ASPECT 6= TENSE

(i) Grammatical/Viewpoint Aspect→ This modifies the temporal interpretation of the verb/VP/event

with respect a reference time

eg., progressive (be -ing), simple (-s/∅), perfect (have -en/ed)...

(ii) Tense→ This locates the reference time

with respect the utterance/speech time

eg., PAST and PRESENT





Semantically-Defined ASPECTUAL VERB CLASSES

Vendler 1957: Verbs/VPs have different aspectual classesand these are semantically-defined:

Lexical Aspect Dynamic Telic Durative

States × × N/AActivities X × XAccomplishments X X XAchievements X X ×Semelfactives X × ×






These aspectual classes differ in their (i) acceptability and (ii)interpretation with Tense/Grammatical Aspect combinations:

Lexical Aspect PRES Simple PRES PROG

States Ongoing ×*temporary

Activities HAB X ongoing

Accomplishments HAB X ongoing

Achievements HAB ×*preparatory

Semelfactives HAB X *iterative






These aspectual classes differ in their (i) acceptability and (ii)interpretation with Tense/Grammatical Aspect combinations:

Lexical Aspect Pst.PROG |= Pst.Simple “for X time” “in X time”

States N/A X ×Activities X X ×Accomplishments × × XAchievements N/A × XSemelfactives X X ×






Remaining Question: Can our theory account for WHY thesediagnostics distinguish different kinds of aspectual classes?

Lexical Aspect PRES Simple PRES PROG

States Ongoing ×*temporary

Activities HAB X ongoing

Accomplishments HAB X ongoing

Achievements HAB ×*preparatory

Semelfactives HAB X *iterative

Can we explain WHY grammatical aspects havedifferent interpretations with different verb classes?





Recall: SEMANTICITY as a Design Feature of Language

Given semanticity, we expect the FORM of the simple aspect,-s/-∅, to systematically correlate with a specific MEANING...

VERB SIMPLE ASPECT

a. run She runsHAB

b. eat She eats an appleHAB

c. recognize She recognizes meHAB

d. find She finds a dogHAB

e. know She knows meONGOING

f. have She has a brotherONGOING

g. like She likes a singerONGOING

...so why is it interpreted variably as ONGOING and HABITUAL?





The Principle of Compositionality

.

Gottlob Frege (1848-1925)

The Principle of Compositionality“...meaning of a complex expression is

a function of the meaning of its parts

and the way those parts are combined.”

The meaning of a complex word or sentenceis based on

(i) the meaning of its parts and

(ii) the way that the parts are combined.





The Principle of Compositionality

.

Gottlob Frege (1848-1925)

The Principle of Compositionality“...meaning of a complex expression is

a function of the meaning of its parts

and the way those parts are combined.”

The meaning of a complex word or sentenceis based on

(i) the meaning of its parts and

(ii) the way that the parts are combined.





Recall: COMPOSITIONALITY

Question: Assuming semanticity, we expect that the simplepresent should have a systematic meaning...

...so why is it interpreted asONGOING for states, butHABITUAL for eventives?

Recall: statives and eventives have distinct semantic properties→ eventives are dynamic

Idea: The (systematic) meaning of the simple present combinesdifferently with dynamic VPs, resulting in a different interpretation





Underspecification and Compositionality: Pokémon Analogy

Eevee → Vaporeon / mmWater Stone

Eevee → Jolteon/ mmThunder Stone

Eevee → Flareon/ mmFire Stone






Vaporeon → Water Stone + Eevee

Jolteon → Thunder Stone + Eevee

Flareon → Fire Stone + Eevee






Flareon → Fire Stone + Eevee

Arcanine → Fire Stone + Growlithe

Ninetales → Fire Stone + Vulpix





UNDERSPECIFICATION and COMPOSITIONALITY

Idea: There is a (systematic) meaning for the simple present,compatible with both the HABITUAL and ONGOING interpretation

...when it combines with different kinds of VPs (i.e.,dynamic/eventive vs non-dynamic/stative...

...it results in one or the other interpretation





The Morphosemantics of Viewpoint Aspect and Tense

...but what IS this underspecified, systematic meaning?

Today: The semantics ofVIEWPOINT ASPECTS (eg., simple/progressive/perfect), andTENSES (eg., present/past)

But first, a design feature...





Recall: Hockett’s Design Features of Language

.Q: What properties does LANGUAGE have?i.e., what counts as a LANGUAGE (vs communication system)?

Charles F. Hockett (1916-2000)proposed several criteria that acommunication system must have inorder to count as a language





Hockett’s Design Features of Language Hockett (1959)


Hockett’s Design Features

1 Discreteness

2 Semanticity

3 Arbitrariness

4 Productivity

5 Prevarication

6 Duality of Patterning

7 Displacement

8 ...M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 21 / 73







1 Discreteness

2 Semanticity

3 Arbitrariness

4 Productivity

5 Prevarication

6 Duality of Patterning

7 Displacement

8 ...M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 22 / 73







DISPLACEMENT

Language can communicate aboutindividuals or events that are notpresent in the here and now.

.








DISPLACEMENT

Recall: My stomach rumbling andsweating are ways of communicatinginformation (i.e., hunger, feeling hot...)

.








DISPLACEMENT

...but my stomach only grumbles ifI’m hungry NOW, and I only sweatif I’m feeling hot NOW.








DISPLACEMENT

..my stomach grumbling can’tconvey that I was hungry yesterday,or that Khanun is hungry.








DISPLACEMENT

..my sweating can’t convey that Iwas feeling hot this morning, orthat Leigh is feeling hot.








DISPLACEMENT

...but I can do BOTH of thesethings with language:

“Khanun is hungry.”“I was hungry (yesterday).”

.








DISPLACEMENT

“I was hungry (yesterday).”→ temporal displacement

But how do languages do this?








DISPLACEMENT

“I was hungry (yesterday).”→ temporal displacement

→ with TENSE and ASPECT!




2.1 Tense and Viewpoint Aspect: Morphosyntax2.2 TENSE and the Perfect2.3 TENSE and the Progressive2.4 TENSE and the Simple

Today’s Goals: Semantics for Temporal Displacement

STUDENT LEARNING GOALS:Learn about some of the basic concepts associated with the semantics ofTENSE and VIEWPOINT ASPECT.

Concepts you should know by the end of today:

1. TENSE (past, present)2. VIEWPOINT ASPECT (simple, progressive, perfect)3. Utterance time (UT)4. Reference time (RT)5. Event time (ET)





Today’s Goals: Semantics for Temporal Displacement

MY GOALS:Convince you that TENSE and VIEWPOINT ASPECT are

1. Morphosyntactically distinct-i.e., they have distinct forms & distinct distributions in a sentence.

2. Semantically distinct-i.e., have distinct effects on the meaning of a sentence.

(both in terms of truth-conditions and use-conditions)





Describing Tense and Aspect

I’ll be focusing on TRUTH-CONDITIONS today

QUESTIONS FOR TODAY1. What effect does tense morphology have

on the truth-conditions of a sentence?

2. What effect does aspect morphology haveon the truth-conditions of a sentence?





Tense: An English Minimal Pair

CONTEXTI was working hard on my dissertation, but now I’m taking a facebookbreak. My advisor walks up and asks me what I’m doing. Since she can’tsee my laptop screen, I tell her:

(1) a. I am working on my dissertation! False!

b. I was working on my dissertation! True!

Observation: Tense morphology affects truth-conditions!





Aspect: An English Minimal Pair

CONTEXTI work on my dissertation a little every day. But right now, I’m taking abreak. My brother sees me checking facebook and asks "Don’t you everwork on your dissertation?" I reply:

(2) a. I am working on my dissertation! False!(Meagan is working on her dissertation)

b. I work on my dissertation! True!(Meagan works on her dissertation)

Observation: Aspect morphology affects truth-conditions!





MORPHOLOGICAL KINDS of TENSE and ASPECT

Claim I: Tense and Aspect are morphosyntactically distinct

They are NOT in complementary distribution - they co-occur.

Kinds of English Tense

1. PAST Aux/V irreg./-ed3sg

2. PRESENT Aux/V irreg./-s3sg

Kinds of English Viewpoint Aspect

1. Simple V-∅/-s3sg2. Progressive BEAux V-ing

3. Perfect HAVEAux V-en/-ed








→ All six combinations are found:

PRESENT PAST

SIMPLE X XPROGRESSIVE X XPERFECT X X





The Perfect Viewpoint Aspect

The Perfect Aspect

perfect = have auxiliary + perfect/past participle V

Observation: The auxiliary inflects for tense

(3) a. I have checked facebook. PRESENT PERFECT

b. I had checked facebook PAST PERFECT

(4) a. She has seen the movie. PRESENT PERFECT

b. She had seen the movie PAST PERFECT





The Progressive Viewpoint Aspect

The Progressive Aspect

progressive = be auxiliary + present participle V (-ing form)

Observation: The auxiliary inflects for tense

(5) a. I am checking facebook. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

b. I was checking facebook PAST PROGRESSIVE

(6) a. She is watching the movie. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

b. She was watching the movie PAST PROGRESSIVE





The Simple Viewpoint Aspect

The Simple Aspectsimple = no auxiliary, no special form of the verb

Observation: The verb itself inflects for tense.

(7) a. I check facebook. SIMPLE PRESENT

b. I checked facebook SIMPLE PAST

(8) a. She watches the movie. SIMPLE PRESENT

b. She watched the movie SIMPLE PAST






Claim I: Tense and Viewpoint Aspect are morphosyntactically distinct


This is evidence that these are distinct categories...so please do not call PROGRESSIVE/PERFECT/SIMPLE a tense!

Claim II: Tense and Viewpoint Aspect are semantically distinct

Both TENSE and VIEWPOINT ASPECTplace semantic restrictions on the relationship between two times...

but they operate on distinct pairs of times.




3.1 REVIEW: Our Basic Semantic Model3.2 Tense Semantics: Hypothesis 1 - R(ET,UT)3.3 Viewpoint Aspect Semantics3.4 Tense Semantics: Hypothesis 2 - R(RT,UT)


TENSE and VIEWPOINT ASPECTplace semantic restrictions on distinct pairs of times.

In other words, they have distinct meanings/semantics

...but how can we represent this with our semantic theory?

We need to add more to our semantic theory...





Q: What are the basic building blocks of MEANING?

1 Truth-Values: True (T) and False (F) (associated with sentences)

2 Things that words/phrases can refer to:(i) Objects/Individuals: a, b, c, d

eg., “Bao-Bao”=a, “Taz”= d, ...

(ii) NEW! Times: t1, t2, t3 ...eg., “April 7th, 1985, 10:34 am” = t14 , “now” = t0

3 Operations: Set-formation, Tuple-Formation





Adding TIMES to our Semantic Model (Bennett & Partee1978)

TIMES are entities in the ontology of our semantic model(just like individuals are entities in the ontology).

TIMES are linearly ordered by the precedence relation ≺:t0≺t1≺t2≺t3≺t4≺ ...

We can also refer to sets of (contiguous/adjacent) times, i.e., intervalseg., JtomorrowK = {t300, t301, ...t499, t500}





Adding TIMES to our Semantic Model (Bennett & Partee1978)

Our semantic theory can now distinguish between:(i) INSTANTS: points on the linear time scale

eg., JnowK = tt0(ii) INTERVALS: intervals on the linear time scale

eg., Jtwo days agoK = {t3, t4, ...t299, t300}

t-2≺ t-1≺t0≺t1≺t2≺t3≺t4≺ t5

We can also represent the difference betweendurative and instantaneous events





Adding TEMPORALITY to the Semantics of Verbs

Semantic Ontology

1 Truth-Values: T, F

2 Individuals:a = Harryb = Hermionec = Rond = Dracoe = Buckbeakf = Lunag = Ginnyh = Hedwigi = Hagridq = quidditch

3 Times:t-1≺t0≺t1≺t2≺t3≺...

4 Operations: {}, 〈〉

Previously: Verbs referred to(i) Sets of Individuals

eg., JfliesK = {e, h, ...}

Revised: Verbs refer to(i) Sets of 〈individual, time〉 Pairs

eg., JfliesK = {〈e, tx〉, 〈h, ty〉, ...}

For durative verbs, t is an interval; forinstantaneous verbs, t is an instant






TENSE and VIEWPOINT ASPECTplace semantic restrictions on distinct pairs of times.

Having added TIMES to our semantic theory, we can start makingspecific hypotheses about the semantics of TENSE and ASPECT

t0≺t1≺t2≺t3≺t4≺ ...





KINDS of TIMES

Three times relevant for TENSE and VIEWPOINT ASPECT:

1. Utterance Time: UT = t0The time associated with the act of uttering a sentence (eg., now)

2. Reference Time:1 RTA contextually-salient time (eg., set up before the utterance of thesentence, by the topic matter of the conversation, or given by a timeadverbial like "on Tuesday")

3. Event Time: ETThe time associated with the event described by the VP

1RT introduced by Reichenbach (1947), revived by Klein (1994) (as Topic Time.)M. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 48 / 73




Tense and Aspect Semantics

Q: What is the semantic contribution of TENSE morphology?

PAST and PRESENT tenseThe Traditional Hypothesis:Tense places a restriction on the relationship between the UT and ET.

. past: requires that ET precedes UT ET ≺ UT

. present: requires the ET to overlap with UT ET ° UT

UT

ET

PASTET ≺ UT





Tense and Aspect Semantics


PAST and PRESENT tenseThe Traditional Hypothesis:Tense places a restriction on the relationship between the UT and ET.

. past: requires that ET precedes UT ET ≺ UT

. present: requires the ET to overlap with UT ET ° UT

UT

ET

PRESENTET ° UT





What is the semantic contribution of TENSE morphology?

Hypothesis 1: TENSE indicates a relationship btw UT and ET

Tense morphology modifies truth-conditionsby placing conditions on the relationship between

(i) The utterance time (UT)a, and

(ii) The event time (ET)b

aThe time at which the speaker says/utters the sentence.bThe runtime of the event described by the VP.

UT

ET

PASTET ≺ UT

UT

ET

PRESENTET ° UT





Tense: An English Minimal Pair (Progressive Aspect)

CONTEXT 1I’ve spent an hour working on my dissertation, but now I’m taking afacebook break. My advisor walks up and asks me what I’m doing. Sinceshe can’t see my laptop screen, I tell her:

(9) a. I ampres working on my dissertation! False!

b. I waspast working on my dissertation! True!

H1: PAST and PRESENT tense

UT

ET

PASTET ≺ UT

UT

ET

PRESENTET ° UT





Tense: An English Minimal Pair (Progressive Aspect)

CONTEXT 1I’ve spent an hour working on my dissertation, but now I’m taking afacebook break. My advisor walks up and asks me what I’m doing. Sinceshe can’t see my laptop screen, I tell her:

(9) a. I ampres working on my dissertation! False!

b. I waspast working on my dissertation! True!

H1 supported! (so far)





Tense: An English Minimal Pair (Perfect Aspect)

CONTEXT 2

I’ve spent an hour working on my dissertation, but now I’m taking a facebookbreak. My advisor walks up and asks me what I’ve done today.

(10) a. I’vepres worked on my dissertation. True!

b. I hadpast worked on my dissertation.2 True!

H1: PRESENT tense requires that ET overlaps with UT

UT

ET

PRESENTET ° UT

ET does not overlap with UT( Acc. to H1, (10a) should be false) ×2This sounds pretty weird. We’ll talk about why later.





What is the semantic contribution of ASPECT?

H1 (the "Traditional View") disproved!

The change in VIEWPOINT ASPECT disproved H1.

So what did the change in viewpoint aspect DO?

Q: What’s the semantic contribution of aspect?





What is the semantic contribution of ASPECT?

Hypothesis: ASPECT indicates a relationship btw RT and ET

Aspect morphology modifies truth-conditionsby placing restrictions on the relationship between

(i) The reference time (RT)a, and

(ii) The event time (ET)b

aA contextually-salient time, eg., given by a temporal adverbialbThe runtime of the event described by the VP.

Proposal: PERFECT and PROGRESSIVE aspect

. perfect: requires that ET precedes RT ET ≺ RT

. progressive: requires that ET overlap with RT ET ° RT





PAST: Aspect indicates a relationship btw ET and RT




(11) a. At 2pm, I had worked on my dissertation (a little) PERF

b. At 2pm, I was checking facebook PROG

(i) Reference Time (RT) = 2pm

(ii) Event Time(ET) = the time I was(a) working on my dissertation(b) checking facebook

(iii) Utterance Time (UT) = the time I say the above sentencesM. Louie ELC 231: Language and Linguistics 57 / 73








(11) a. At 2pm, I had worked on my dissertation (a little) PERF

b. At 2pm, I was checking facebook PROG

Predictions:(11a) is true if ET (working time) precedes RT (2pm)(11b) is true if ET (facebook-checking time) overlaps with RT (2pm)

2pm

ET

PERFECTET ≺ RT

2pm

ET

PROGRESSIVEET ° RT






CONTEXT

I woke up and started working on my dissertation. By the time 2pm rolledaround, however, I stopped writing so that I could check facebook.

2pm

ETwork

PERFECTET ≺ RT

2pm

ETFB

PROGRESSIVEET ° RT

(11) a. At 2pm, I was checking facebook (True!) PROG X

b. At 2pm, I had worked on my dissertation (True!) PERF X

(12) a. ET (facebook time) ° RT (2pm) ≺ UT

b. ET (working time) ≺ RT (2pm) ≺ UT






CONTEXT

I woke up and started working on my dissertation. By the time 2pm rolledaround, however, I stopped writing so that I could check facebook.

2pm

ETwork

PERFECTET ≺ RT

2pm

ETFB

PROGRESSIVEET ° RT

(13) a. At 2pm, I was working on my dissertation (False!) PROG X

b. At 2pm, I had checked facebook (False!) PERF X

(14) a. ET (facebook time) ° RT (2pm) ≺ UT

b. ET (working time) ≺ RT (2pm) ≺ UT





PRESENT: Aspect indicates a relationship btw ET and RT

CONTEXT

I’ve been working on my dissertation this morning. But now I’m taking a breakto check facebook. Sonja asks me what’s up. I say:

NOW

ETwork

PERFECTET ≺ RT

NOW

ETFB

PROGRESSIVEET ° RT

(15) a. I am checking facebook (True!) PROG X

b. I have worked on my dissertation (True!) PERF X

(16) a. ET (facebook time) ° RT (now) = UT

b. ET (working time) ≺ RT (now) = UT





PRESENT: Aspect indicates a relationship btw ET and RT

CONTEXT

I’ve been working on my dissertation this morning. But now I’m taking a breakto check facebook. Sonja asks me what’s up. I say:

NOW

ETwork

PERFECTET ≺ RT

NOW

ETFB

PROGRESSIVEET ° RT

(17) a. I am working on my dissertation (False!) PROG X

b. I have checked facebook (False!) PERF X

(18) a. ET (facebook time) ° RT (now) = UT

b. ET (working time) ≺ RT (now) = UT





Viewpoint Aspect Semantics

Hypothesis: Aspect encodes a relation btw ET and RT

. perfect: requires that ET precedes RT(False otherwise)

. progressive: requires ET overlaps with RT(False otherwise)

Accounts for the data so far:

X Past Perfect ET ≺ RT ≺ UT

X Past Progressive ET ° RT ≺ UT

X Present Perfect ET ≺ RT = UT

X Present Progressive ET ° RT = UT





Back to Tense Semantics


(19) PROGRESSIVE

a. Right now, I am checking facebook PRESENT

b. At 2pm, I was checking facebook PAST

(20) PERFECT

a. Right now, I have worked on my dissertation PRESENT

b. At 2pm, I had worked on my dissertation PAST






Hypothesis 2: TENSE indicates a relationship btw UT and RT

Tense morphology modifies truth-conditions by placing restrictionson the relationship between

(i) The utterance time (UT), and

(ii) The reference time (RT)

Hypothesis 2: PAST and PRESENT tense

. past: requires that RT precedes UT RT ≺ UT

. present: requires that RT is UT RT = UT






Hypothesis 2: PAST and PRESENT tense

. past: requires that RT precedes UT RT ≺ UT

. present: requires that RT is UT RT = UT

(21) PAST

a. At 2pm, I was checking facebook (2pm ≺ UT) X

b. At 2pm, I had worked on my dissertation (2pm ≺ UT) X

(22) PRESENT

a. Right now, I’ve worked on my dissertation (Now = UT) X

b. Right now, I am checking facebook (Now = UT) X




4.1 Summary: The Semantics of Tense and Aspect4.2 What about the SIMPLE Viewpoint Aspect?4.3 What about the PRAGMATICS of Tense and Aspect?

Summary: The Semantics of Tense and Aspect

TENSE SEMANTICSTenses indicate a relationship between the UT and RT:

. past: requires that RT precedes UT (RT ≺ UT)

. present: requires that RT is UT (RT = UT)

VIEWPOINT ASPECT SEMANTICSViewpoint Aspects indicate a relationship between the RT and ET:

. perfect: requires that ET precedes RT (ET ≺ RT)

. progressive: requires ET overlaps with RT (ET ° RT)







(i) They are not in complementary distribution.

(ii) Multiple aspects are allowed, multiple tenses are not allowed.a

aI didn’t show this, but we can discuss the data.

Claim II: Tense and Aspect are semantically distinct

(i) Tense indicates a relationship between the RT and UT

(ii) Aspect indicates a relationship between the RT and ET






...wait a minute!

What about the semantics of the SIMPLE aspect?

i.e., our original question

Original Question

Why is the simple present interpreted as(i) ONGOING with states, but(ii) HABITUAL with eventives?





SIMPLE Viewpoint Aspect

...this gets a bit complicated/tricky.

I would have to introduce a new semantic concept(quantification) ...

...which I think is too much for an introductory course

So we’ll leave the simple aspect as a mystery for further inquiry.






CONTEXTI’ve spent an hour working on my dissertation, but now I’m taking afacebook break. My advisor walks up and asks me what’s going on.

(23) a. I’ve worked on my dissertation. True!

b. ??I had worked on my dissertation. True!

Q: Why is (23b) weird?

PAST PERFECT: ET ≺ RT ≺ UT

But there is no contextually salient RT (distinct from UT)!

This violates a use-condition of the past perfect.





Next Time: Interactions between Tense and Aspect

1 Homework: N/A

2 Instagram Homework: Design Feature (your choice) Illustration




References I

Bennett, M. & B.H. Partee. 1978. Toward the Logic of Tense and Aspect in English. IndianaUniversity Linguistics Club.

Hockett, Charles F. 1959. Animal "languages" and human language. Human Biology 31(1).32–39.

Klein, Wolfgang. 1994. Time in language. Psychology Press.

Reichenbach, Hans. 1947. Elements of Symbolic Logic. New York: Macmillan Co.

Rothstein, Susan D. 2004. Structuring Events: a Study in the Semantics of Lexical Aspect.Wiley-Blackwell.

Vendler, Zeno. 1957. Verbs and Times. The Philosophical Review 66(2). 143–160.


Date post:	14-Oct-2020
Category:	Documents
Upload:	others
View:	2 times
Download:	1 times

ELC 231: Introduction to Language and Linguistics - Week ... · 1Introduction...

Documents