Emerging Adulthood, Adult Development, and Aging

Chapter 11:

Human AdjustmentJohn W. Santrock

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Chapter Outline

Becoming an Adult

Physical Development in Adulthood

Cognitive Development in Adulthood

Socioemotional Development in Adulthood

Death and Grieving

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Learning Goals

1. Describe the nature of development and becoming an adult

2. Explain physical changes in adulthood

3. Characterize cognitive changes in adulthood

4. Summarize socioemotional changes in adulthood

5. Discuss death and grieving

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BECOMING AN ADULT

The Nature of Development

Emerging Adulthood

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The Nature of Development

Development = pattern of change in human capabilities that begins at conception and continues through the lifespan

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The Nature of Development

The pattern of development is the product of:–Physical processes - changes in individual’s biological

nature

–Cognitive processes - changes in individual’s thinking, intelligence and language

–Socioemotional processes - changes in individual’s relationships with other people, emotions, and personality

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11-7Figure 11.1 Developmental Changes are the Result of

Physical, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes

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Adult Periods of Development

Early adulthood - begins in late teens/early 20s and lasts through the 30s

Early adulthood is a time of: –establishing personal and economic independence–developing a career– selecting a mate– learning to live with someone in an intimate way– starting a family– rearing children

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Adult Periods of Development

Middle adulthood - period from 40 years of age to about 60

Middle adulthood is time of: –expanding personal and social involvement and

responsibility

–assisting next generation in becoming competent, mature individuals

– reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career

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Adult Periods of Development

Late adulthood - period that begins in the 60s and lasts until death

Late adulthood is the time of: –adjusting to retirement

–decreasing strength and health

–new social roles

– reviewing one’s life

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11-11Figure 11.2 Degree of Personal Life

Investment at Different Points in Life

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Emerging Adulthood

Emerging Adulthood = term for the transition from adolescence to adulthood (18 to 25 years of age) that is characterized by experimentation and exploration

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Who Is an Adult?

Determining just when an individual becomes an adult is difficult

Some markers include:–marriage

– full-time job

–economic independence

– self-responsibility

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11-14Adjustment Strategies

for Emerging Adulthood

1. Experiment and explore responsibility

2. Develop intellectual assets

3. Create psychological assets

4. Establish social assets

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Adapting to College

Going from being a senior in high school to being a freshman in college brings many changes

Special challenges face students who are returning students - students who either did not go to college right out of high school or went to college, dropped out, and now have returned

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11-16Adjustment Strategies

for Returning Students

1. Develop strategies to cope with new environment

2. Connect with your campus

3. Get to know other students

4. Take advantage of support services

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Review - Learning Goal 1

–How can development be characterized?

–What is emerging adulthood?

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11-18PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

IN ADULTHOOD

Early Adulthood

Middle Adulthood

Late Adulthood

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Early Adulthood

Most adults reach their peak physical development and are healthiest during their 20s

Young adults rarely recognize that bad eating habits, heavy drinking, and smoking in early adulthood can impair their health as they age

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Middle Adulthood

Physical changes in middle adulthood include changes in appearance– Individuals begin to lose height in middle age, and many

gain weight

People become more concerned about their health in their 40s

For women, menopause occurs in late 40s or early 50s

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Late Adulthood

The fastest-growing segment of the population today is 85 years old and older

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Lifespan and Life Expectancy

Lifespan - maximum number of years any member of the species has been documented to live–Our lifespan is about 120 years

Life expectancy - number of years that will probably be lived by the average person born in a particular year–The life expectancy of individuals born today in the United

States is 77 years (80 for women, 73 for men)

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Hormonal Stress Theory

Hormonal stress theory - aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower resilience to stress and increase likelihood of disease–As we age, hormones remain elevated longer

–Prolonged stress-related hormones are associated with increased risks for diseases

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11-24Physical Changes and Health

in Late Adulthood Changes in physical appearance become more

pronounced in older adults Chronic diseases (arthritis, hypertension) become

more common in late adulthood Exercise slows the aging process and helps older

adults function in society A sense of control is important for health and survival

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Dementias

20% of individuals over 80 years of age have dementia–More than 70 types of dementia have been identified

Dementia = global term for any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve deterioration of mental functioning

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Alzheimer’s Disease

More than 50% of dementias involve Alzheimer’s disease

The deterioration of the brain is characterized by the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles

Alzheimer’s disease = progressive, irreversible brain disorder characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, eventually, physical functioning

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The Brain in Late Adulthood

Adults can grow new brain cells throughout their lives Even in late adulthood, the brain has remarkable repair

capability

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Review - Learning Goal 2

–What physical changes characterize early adulthood?

–What physical changes occur in middle adulthood?

–What physical changes take place in late adulthood?

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11-29COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

IN ADULTHOOD

Early Adulthood

Middle Adulthood

Late Adulthood

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Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

Jean Piaget (1952) - in each stage of cognitive development, people think in a qualitatively different way

Piaget believed that the formal operational stage (ages 11 to 15) is the highest stage of thinking

Adults gain knowledge, but ways of thinking are the same as those of adolescents

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Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

Some researchers disagree with Piaget and believe that thinking in early adulthood becomes more realistic and pragmatic

Post-formal thought - thought that is– reflective, relativistic, and contextual–provisional– realistic–open to emotions and subjective

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Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

Horn argues some intellectual abilities decline in middle age, but others increase

Crystallized intelligence (individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills) increases in middle adulthood

Fluid intelligence (one’s ability to reason abstractly) begins to decline in middle adulthood

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Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

Schaie (1996) found that two intellectual abilities (numerical ability and perceptual speed) declined in middle age

Schaie found that four intellectual abilities (vocabulary, verbal memory, inductive reasoning, and spatial orientation) improved after early adulthood

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11-34Figure 11.8 Longitudinal Changes in Six

Intellectual Abilities From Age 25 to Age 67

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Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

When speed of processing is involved, older adults do more poorly than younger adults

Older adults do more poorly in most areas of memory Wisdom (expert knowledge about practical aspects of

life) may increase with age

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Review - Learning Goal 3

–What cognitive changes take place in early adulthood?

–What cognitive changes occur in middle adulthood?

–What cognitive changes take place in late adulthood?

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11-37SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

IN ADULTHOOD

Early Adulthood

Middle Adulthood

Late Adulthood

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11-38Socioemotional Development

in Early Adulthood During early adulthood, individuals enter Erikson's

intimacy versus isolation stage (developmental task of forming intimate relationships with others or becoming socially isolated)

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11-39Figure 11.9 Erikson's Eight

Life-Span Stages

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Careers and Work in Early Adulthood

Establishing oneself in a job and then a career is one of the central concerns of people in their 20s and 30s

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11-41Socioemotional Development

in Middle Adulthood Generativity (the consciousness of being in the middle

of one’s life) and questions about the meaning of life are themes of middle adulthood

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Generativity

Generativity versus stagnation - Erikson’s seventh stage, in which individuals leave a legacy of themselves to the next generation (generativity) or do nothing for the next generation (stagnation)

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Generativity

Middle-aged adults can develop generativity through:–biological generativity - giving birth to an infant

–parental generativity - providing nurturance and guidance to children

–work generativity - developing skills that are passed down to others

–cultural generativity - creating or conserving an aspect of culture

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Midlife Crises

Levinson (1978) interviewed middle-aged men and identified four major conflicts:–being young versus being old

–being destructive versus being constructive

–being masculine versus being feminine

–being attached to others versus being separated from them

Other research indicated only 10% of people experienced a midlife crisis

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Meaning of Life and Life Themes

During middle adulthood, you are likely to:–experience death of people close to you

– recognize time left in life is finite

Life themes involve people’s efforts to cultivate meaningful, optimal experiences

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11-46Socioemotional Development

in Late Adulthood Integrity versus despair - Erikson’s late adulthood

stage in which individuals engage in a life review that is either positive (integrity) or negative (despair)

Life review - involves looking back on one’s life experiences and evaluating them

Older adults report experiencing more positive emotion and less negative emotion

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Social Networks

Social support is linked with a reduction in diseases, depression

Older adults have smaller social networks

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Social Networks

Laura Carstensen's socio-emotional selectivity theory - older adults become more selective about their social networks and often spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships

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Self-Regulation

As we age, regulation of our capacities and activities is a key aspect of adjustment

Successful self-regulation in aging involves three processes:– selectivity

–optimization

– compensation

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Self-Regulation

As individuals get older, they face losses so they are likely to adjust best when they:– reduce performance in areas in which they are not

competent (selectivity)

–perform in areas in which they can still function effectively (optimization)

– compensate in circumstances with high mental or physical demands (compensation)

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Religion

Religion can provide important psychological needs in older adults:–help them face impending death

– find and maintain sense of meaningfulness in life

–accept inevitable losses of old age

Religion has been shown to be related to a sense of well-being and life satisfaction

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Positive Psychology and Aging

The more active and involved older adults are, the more satisfied they are and the more likely they are to stay healthy

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Adjustment Strategies for Successful Aging

1. Don’t abuse alcohol and don’t smoke

2. Exercise regularly and avoid being overweight

3. Be well educated

4. Use your intellectual skills

5. Develop coping skills

6. Have good friends and/or a loving partner

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Review - Learning Goal 4

–What socioemotional changes characterize early adulthood?

–What socioemotional changes occur in middle adulthood?

–What socioemotional changes take place in late adulthood?

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DEATH AND GRIEVING

Facing One’s Own Death

Coping with the Death of Someone Else

Death in Different Cultures

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Facing One’s Own Death

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (1969) - five stages of dying:–denial and isolation

–anger

–bargaining

–depression

–acceptance

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Coping with the Death of Someone Else

Most psychologists believe it is best for dying individuals and their significant others to know they are dying so they can interact and communicate with each other

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Coping with the Death of Someone Else

Advantages of shared awareness for dying individuals:–dying individuals can close their lives in accord with their

own ideas about proper dying

– they may be able to complete projects, make arrangements for survivors, and participate in funeral decisions

– they have the opportunity to reminisce and converse with others

–dying individuals will understand what is happening within their bodies and what the medical staff is doing to them

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11-59Adjustment Strategies

for Communication With a Dying Person1. Establish your presence2. Eliminate distraction3. Be sensitive to how long you should stay4. Don’t insist the person feel acceptance of death5. Encourage expression of feelings6. Don’t be afraid to ask what the expected outcome for their illness is7. Ask if there is anyone he or she would like to see 8. Encourage the dying person to reminisce9. Talk when she or he wishes to10. Express your regard for the dying person

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Grieving

For most individuals, grief becomes manageable over time

Many grieving spouses report that they have never gotten over their loss

Grief = emotional numbness, disbelief, separation anxiety, despair, sadness, and loneliness that accompanies loss of someone you love

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Death in Different Cultures

Most societies throughout history have had philosophical or religious beliefs about death

In most societies, death is not viewed as the end of existence - though the biological body has died the spiritual body is believed to live on

The religious perspective is favored by most Americans

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Review - Learning Goal 5

–How do people face their own death?

–How do people cope with the death of someone else?

–How is death perceived in different cultures?