English Linguistics 1

Session 1 2

Helpful references

Crystal, David (1985, 19974, 20086) A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell.

Crystal, David (1995) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP.

Crystal, David (1997) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: CUP.

Herbst, Thomas; Stoll, Rita und Westermayr, Rudolf (1991) Terminologie der Sprachbeschreibung. Ismaning: Hueber.

13.10.2010

Session 1 3

Bußmann, Hadumod (20023) Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft. Stuttgart: Kröner.

Bußmann, Hadumod (1996) Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. London and New York: Routledge.

13.10.2010

Session 1 4

2 Communication, language and signs

2.1 Sign systems index, icon, symbol

2.2 The defining features of human language/ What is language?

2.3 The functions of language

13.10.2010

• 2 Communication, language and signs

Preliminary remark (see ch. 1):the aim of linguistics is

to describe language in a systematic and comprehensive way, to formulate theories as to how

language works ...[remember: ‘theory’ carries no negative overtones; ‘there is nothing more practical than a good theory’]

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• Make clear what the description / investigation is about

• First steps: delimitate the fielddefine central terms

the use of the terms communication and language

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• Humans communicate, they use language• Animals communicate, they use language

• We talk of the language of images, pictures,the language of music, flowers,the language of gestures, emotions,the language of advertising, film, the language of clothing …

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what can we infer from the above examples about the use of 'communication' and 'language'?

→ start with definitions proposed by linguists

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Communication:"Communication refers to the transmission and reception of information (a 'message') between a source and a receiver using a signalling system." (Crystal 1997)

Kommunikation:"Jede Form von wechselseitiger Übermittlung von Information durch Zeichen/Symbole zwischen Lebewesen (Menschen, Tieren) oder zwischen Menschen und Daten verarbeitenden Maschinen." (Bußmann 2002)

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Question: What is/are the central term/s in these definitions?

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2.1 Sign systems

• humans want to share 'information' with others in many ways

• not only 'information' in narrow sense (= factual), also expressive/ emotional information

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what could be a sign in human communication?

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all these methods of expression meaningful to us –

"signs" of something sign =

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Sign (definition):

"Something which stands for, or refers to, something else, in a meaningful way.... signs of rain, mathematical signs, traffic lights, ... almost anything in a society can be a significant sign." (Wales 1989)

'if almost anything can be a sign' →Do all signs have the same characteristics /features?

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Three different types of signs: indexical, iconic and symbolic (Charles S. Peirce)

• indexical sign, or index, points to something in its immediate vicinity Latin index 'pointing finger'ex.: signpost for traffic which says “Palma”

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• iconic sign, or iconGreek eikon 'replica' image of the thing it stands forsimilarity clearest instance: fotograph

image may be only vaguely similar to reality

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• symbolic sign, symbolno natural link between the form and the thing representedconventional link

term symbolic in linguistics people have "agreed" upon the pairing of a particular form with a particular meaning.( convention)

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Try to categorize the following signs according to Peirce's classification (indexical, iconic, symbolic)

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“no u-turn” “right turn only”

"give right of way"“winding road ahead”

Difference between icon and index not always perfectly cleare.g. spoon and fork:

e.g. 'liberty' – 'breaking chains':

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Hierarchy of abstraction amongst the three types of signsTry to arrange the three types according to their degree of abstraction

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The three types of signs reflect general principles of coping with form and meaning

• indexical signs: general principle – things that are contiguous can stand for each other

I'm curious to see the Picassosassociation of a piece of art with the artist= also 'metonymy' (see ch. 3)

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• iconic signs: principle of using an image for the real thing farmers – scarecrows in fields – birdspictograms / pictographic writings

based on similarity=~ 'metaphor' (see ch. 3 )

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• symbol: link between any form and any meaning rose stands for 'love'

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Fig. 2-1 : Link between form and meaning

2.2 The defining features of human language / What is language?

(natural) language

the abstract system underlying the collective totality of the speech and writing behaviour of a community (the notion of 'langue') …

a defining feature of human behaviour

(Crystal 19974, 214 )

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• natural language contrasts with artificially constructed systems, e.g. logical, formal, computer languages, or languages constructed to facilitate communication, e.g. Esperanto

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Wichtigstes und artspezifisches Kommunikationsmittel des Menschen, das dem Austausch von Informationen sowie kognitive (die Organisation des Denkens betreffende) und affektive Funktionen erfüllt

(Glück 1993, 570)natürliche Sprachemenschliche Sprache, die sich innerhalb einer Sprachgemeinschaft und deren sozialem und kulturellem Kontext entwickelt hat

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Charles Hockett (1960)

16 design features of human language

7 primary: arbitrariness, displacement, duality, creativity, systematicity, structure dependence, cultural transmission

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2.2.1 Arbitrariness of linguistic signs/ Arbitrarität, Willkürlichkeit

• signs of languages (morphemes) are typically symbolic, relationship between the sign and its meaning is arbitrarypig

elephant

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exceptions: onomatopoeic words: cuckoo - imitates sound of bird,the long cry made by a cock:EGF

→ animal communication often iconic: when dog shows/bares its teeth - the dog snarled; cat spits/snarls

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• linguistic sign:

– material form, signifier (spoken, written)– meaning, signified

Swiss linguistFerdinand de Saussure(= one of the founding fathers of modern linguistics)1916: Cours de linguistique générale

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tree [tri:]

signifiant, signifier

signifié, signified

Bezeichnendes

Bezeichnetes

2.2.2 Displacement / Zeitliche und räumliche Ungebundenheit

in human language – meanings which are 'displaced' or removed from the physical presence of the signifier, e.g.

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2.2.3 Duality / double articulation / Dualität/ doppelte Artikulation

Animals: usually finite number of sounds / sound patterns with a certain meaninge.g. vervet monkeys / grüne Meerkatzen – enemies: eagle, leopard, lion,snake … differentiation according to type of enemy,combinations rare

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Human language:two-part / dual structurethe meaningful whole made up of meaningless parts:

animals; but: some birdsongs composedof meaningless components?

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p , t , o

2.2.4 Creativity / Kreativität

male grasshopper: choice of six messages1. I am happy, life is good.2. I would like to make love.3. You are trespassing on my territory.4. She's mine.5. Let's make love.6. Oh how nice to have made love.= finite set

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human language characterized by(1) openness and (2) recursionad (1) e.g. paraphrase:

new words (OED 2010)staycation – a money-saving holiday at home Zombie bankers unfriend (← facebook) jeggings – jeans + leggings

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ad (2) impossible to set a limit on the length of phrases or sentences

a friend, a friend of mine, ……...

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2.2.5 Systematicity / grammaticality languages have rather strict rules, several systems - hierarchically ordered  Sound system:English k+n; S+p – cannot occur initially≠ German Knecht, sprechenrules may change in the history: English knight, know spoken as [kn...] up to the 17th cty.

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Word order:Think of the combinations the English system of word order allows (or does not allow): burglar, loudly, sneezed, the

• The burglar sneezed loudly.• …• …• …

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2.2.6 Structure dependence / Strukturabhängigkeit

in every utterance – structure behind the surface of words

• The lion roared dreadfully.• roared dreadfully.• quacked dreadfully.• The majestic elephant approached without a

noise.

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to be precise we should not talk of word order but order of structural elements (G Satzglieder)Structure:…

Changes are structure dependent…

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• A woggle uggled a diggle.• …• …• …• …• …

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2.2.7 Cultural transmission

Human languages have to be learned / culturally transmitted, basic faculty is innate,has to be triggered by language input and social interaction, critical phaseNonhuman species: mostly innate

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2.2.8 Other properties of languageAcoustic channelReciprocity / Reziprozität:

any speaker can be a listenerPrevarication: ability to lieDiscreteness:

sounds are observed as discrete units

variation between /A:/ /e:/G Vater Väter

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2.3 The functions of language

up to now: discussion of structures / categories / signs / linguistic elements and description of their meanings

new level: signs are used for communication, they function as communicative signals

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dichotomy (Dichotomie) in linguistic descriptionslinguistic elements / units - which role in the language?

linguistic form function noun …Is it John? …

= functions in the grammatical system

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• Model of language functions (Roman Jakobson)

• Model of communication:

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Functions1. referential2. expressive or emotive3. conative or appellative4. phatic5. metalinguistic6. poetic

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1. This is a linguist.2. Wow, a linguist!3. Beware of linguists!4. Hello, lovers of linguistics.5. Can you explain the word ‚linguist‘ to me?6. Linguists like labials and liquids.

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Try to find out the primary function of each of the following examples

Alex, come here a minute!(on the phone) Can you hear me?Hello. How are you? Fine thanks. How are you?Fine. See you later.Yes. OK. See you.

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Here's the 14a.(bus)Now, I've lost the word ...

What did you say, can you spell the word?

with kith and kin Joan and Margery rarely Margery and JoanA Mars a day helps you work, rest and play.Liberty, equality, fraternityI'm tired (and don't want to go to the cinema)

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Think of different situations in which Here's the 14a (bus)

can have expressive, conative or phatic functions

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