erg.ucd.ieerg.ucd.ie/enerbuild/restricted/doc/rtd_strategy_report... · Web view31 March 2003....

EnerBuild RTD Strategy Report (Rev. 3.2)31 March 2003

Co-ordinator:Professor J Owen LewisNational University of Ireland, DublinEnergy Research GroupUniversity College DublinSchool of ArchitectureRichview, ClonskeaghIRL-Dublin 14http://www.enerbuild.net

Report prepared by Cian O’Riordan

http://www.enerbuild.net/

EnerBuild RTD: Strategy Report

1. Introduction and Objectives......................................................................................................................... 3

2. Structure of the Construction Industry and Implications for Research.........................................................52.1 The Driving Forces: Security of Supply and Climate Change................................................................52.2 The Importance of Energy in Buildings..................................................................................................52.3 Market Failure and Energy Efficiency in the Building Sector and the Role of the EnerBuild Network. . .52.4 European Responses 4........................................................................................................................ 112.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 12

3. State of Research and Future Priorities.....................................................................................................143.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 143.2 Solar Technologies [Mats Santamouris, University of Athens]............................................................153.3 Lighting & Daylighting (Prof. Marc Fontoynont, CNRS).......................................................................243.4 Mechanical Heating & Cooling (John Berry, Ove Arup).......................................................................293.5 Building Integrated PV (Peter Toggweiler, Enecolo)...........................................................................353.6 Building Components (Peter Wouters, BBRI)......................................................................................403.7 Building & Urban Design (Koen Steemers, Cambridge Architectural Research).................................44

4. Cross-Cutting Considerations.................................................................................................................... 494.1 Health, Comfortable, and Safe Spaces for The People of Europe......................................................494.2 Information Technology....................................................................................................................... 564.3 Dissemination & Technology Transfer.................................................................................................654.4 The EnerBuild Strategy: A Sociological Commentary (Elizabeth Shove, University of Lancaster)......72

5. Assessment of Future Priorities & Activities necessary.............................................................................765.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 765.2 Review of above ................................................................................................................................. 765.3 Pareto Voting ................................................................................................................................. 765.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 78

6. Future Structures ................................................................................................................................. 83

7. Conclusion: Research and Energy Efficiency in Buildings.........................................................................85

Appendix A - References................................................................................................................................ 86

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1. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

The EnerBuild RTD Thematic Network aims to enhance cooperation and the exchange of knowledge between coordinators of building sector energy research and development projects supported in the European Commission’s Fourth and Fifth Framework programmes. This RTD Strategy Report has been prepared for submission to the European Commission DG Research as one of the project’s final deliverables. It draws on information gathered over the course of the 36-month EnerBuild project, at a series of meetings with project participants and workshops with industrial and research representatives not directly involved in EnerBuild; and on the specialist expertise of the EnerBuild Steering Committee members.

The objective of this RTD strategy report is to examine and propose a development strategy and funding priorities for future RTD actions in the Building Sector based on the broad technical and economic experience, and market knowledge available among the project participants. The report seeks to answer a simple question: how can future RTD actions in the Building Sector contribute to the construction of more energy efficient and sustainable buildings?

The report looks at different areas of building-related research, following the lines the project thematic groups and specialist research areas of the thematic group coordinators. This strategy is intended to be pragmatic in nature: it seeks to identify pathways of technical enquiry (being a strategic document, pathways of technical enquiry rather than specific research projects are identified) that are likely to have an actual market impact. Consequently, its fundamental approach involves “the strategic evaluation of contextually specific opportunities for success. The implicit goal is to identify efficient and effective means for creating and exploiting possibilities for increasing the energy efficiency of the built environment given the contours of the present social, economic and technological landscape”1.

Something that defines the nature of this landscape is the structure of the construction industry, and its fragmented nature this presents particular challenges for the dissemination and transfer of research technologies into buildings. Two particular contours in the current landscape are the EU Directive on Energy Performance in Buildings [COM (2001) 226], and the emerging EC Sixth Framework Programme (FP6).

The report also examines social, comfort and information technology issues that impinge upon the research directions by drawing on studies undertaken by the EnerBuild network participants.

As this report features contributions from experts in specialist areas – solar technologies, lighting and daylighting, mechanical heating and cooling, building and urban design, building components, photovoltaics in buildings, comfort, sociology, information technology, and dissemination and technology transfer – the final sections seek to draw the various contributions together. In particular, we seek to identify the research areas and activities that we regard as particularly important to creating energy efficiency in buildings: these may cut across several of the specialist areas.

Based upon the foregoing, the Fig. 1.1 illustrates the framework for this RTD Strategy Report:

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Fig. 1.1

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Structure of construction industry and implications for researchIntroduction and objectives of report

Solar Technologies

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

Lighting &Daylighting

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

MechanicalHeat &Cool

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

Build & UrbDesign

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

BuildingComponents

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

PV inBuildings

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

Cross-cutting considerations: D&TT - Comfort – IT - Sociology

Future ActivitiesFuture Structures

Energy Efficiency in Buildings

Funding Instrument

Structure of construction industry and implications for researchIntroduction and objectives of report

Solar Technologies

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

Solar Technologies

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities


State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities


State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities


State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities


State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

Build & UrbDesign

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

BuildingComponents

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

BuildingComponents

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

PV inBuildings

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

PV inBuildings

State of research

IndustryStructure

Marketsituation

FuturePriorities

Cross-cutting considerations: D&TT - Comfort – IT - Sociology

Future ActivitiesFuture Structures

Energy Efficiency in Buildings

Funding Instrument


2. STRUCTURE OF THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH

2.1 The Driving Forces: Security of Supply and Climate Change

In its Green Paper "Towards a European Strategy for Energy Supply" the Commission highlighted three main points:

The European Union will become increasingly dependent on external energy sources; enlargement will reinforce this trend. Based on current forecasts, if measures are not taken, import dependence will reach 70% in 2030, compared to 50% today.

At present, greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union are on the rise, making it difficult to respond to the challenge of climate change and to meet its commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. Moreover, the commitments made in the Kyoto Protocol must be regarded as a first step; climate change is a longterm battle involving the entire international community.

The European Union has very limited scope to influence energy supply conditions. It is essentially on the demand side that the EU can intervene, mainly by promoting energy savings in buildings and in the transport sector.

2.2 The Importance of Energy in BuildingsBuildings have a key role to play in addressing the security of supply and climate change issues.

Buildings consume high proportion of EU primary energy: the total final energy consumption in the EU in 1997 was about 930Mtoe, with buildings accounting for approximately 40% of this.

This total quantity of energy consumed, means buildings contribute highly to CO2 production. There are large national differences amongst member states, depending on climate and living standards. Economic growth and energy demand are closely linked.

The long lifetime of buildings – 50 to 100 years – means decisions made now regarding the energy efficiency and lifetime of new stock will have a significant impact on current energy demand (in the form of energy embodied in them during construction) and future energy demand (in the form of annual energy consumption and the cycle for replacement or refurbishment) over the long term.

In addition, their long life means new buildings represent only 1-2% of the building stock and major improvements are needed to existing stock in the form of refurbishment.

As regards energy in buildings that is used for heating, hot water, air-conditioning or lighting purposes, a savings potential of around 22% of present consumption is estimated to exist and can be realised by the year 20103.

If the building sector meets the indicative target set out in the Commission’s Green Paper “Towards a European Strategy for Energy Supply”, which is to improve energy intensity of final consumption by a further 1 % per year over that which would have otherwise been attained, the avoided energy consumption of over 55 Mtoe would contribute to around 20% of the EU Kyoto commitment.

2.3 Market Failure and Energy Efficiency in the Building Sector and the Role of the EnerBuild Network

(J. Peter Clinch, Department of Environmental Studies, University College Dublin)

I. Introduction

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Many cost-benefit studies have demonstrated that improving energy efficiency in the building sector makes economic sense1. Indeed, it is often shown that energy-efficiency measures pay for themselves simply by savings in energy costs. Added to this benefit is the economic value of reductions in emissions associated with fossil-fuel consumption. These reductions in environmental emissions may also assist countries or regions to comply with their obligations under international environmental agreements such as the Kyoto (global warming) and Gothenburg (acidification) Protocols and to comply with EU Directives. Improved energy efficiency in buildings has also been shown to have the potential to provide health and comfort benefits2. These studies are consistent with the view of the European Commission that the building sector offers one of the largest single potentials for energy efficiency and should thus be a major focus for action3. However, despite the positive net benefits of some of these energy-efficiency technologies and programmes, it is generally recognised that there is a sub-optimal take-up of such opportunities. The purpose of this paper is to examine why the market fails to ensure that society captures the net benefits of energy-efficiency opportunities, to explore the role of various policy instruments in addressing this problem, and to examine the role of EnerBuild in this regard.

II. Why does the market fail to deliver an optimal level of energy efficiency?

The question arises as to why, if the benefits of the energy-conservation measures tend to outweigh their costs, these measures are not adopted. The principal causes are Market Failure and Government Failure.

Market FailureThe first Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics builds on the observation of Adam Smith that, if markets are competitive, and individuals act in their own self-interest, a 'Pareto-optimal' equilibrium will be achieved where no one individual can be made better off without making someone else worse off. However, it is well recognised by economists that a market economy will fail to achieve optimal outcomes due to various market failures. Firstly, the market for a particular good or service may not be competitive. Secondly, the Theorem ignores the distribution of income and equity considerations. Third, the Theorem assumes no externalities. In reality, the actions of one agent in the economy may have real (non-monetary) consequences for the welfare of others. For example, the burning of fossil fuels to generate energy causes the release of various pollutants that impose costs upon those other than the energy consumer. The existence of 'externalities' will result in a suboptimal outcome if left unchecked. Closely related to the concept of externalities are those of 'property-rights failure' and 'missing markets'. These are particularly relevant in regard to the environment. In a market economy, goods and services are allocated by the price mechanism which reflects underlying supply and demand. Many environmental resources are not owned and so do not have a price (or are under-priced). If environmental goods (such as the assimilative capacity of the atmosphere) are under-priced, they will be overused thereby resulting in a suboptimal outcome. Public goods (such as national defence and some forms of R&D) which are either perfectly or imperfectly non-rivalrous and non-excludable in consumption will not be provided by the unfettered market. Market failures also result from imperfect information in the market which may lead to sub-optimal outcomes. A further difficulty results from principal-agent-type problems whereby the objectives of staff or shareholders differ from those of the management.

Government FailureGovernment exists to address these various market failures but may cause further distortions by its own behaviour. This usually results from perverse incentives being introduced by inappropriate pricing, by poor management or, in extreme cases, by corruption.

1 For example, Pezzey (1984), Henderson and Shorrock (1989), van Harmelen and Uyterlinde (1999), Arny et al. (1998), Blasnik (1998), Brechling and Smith (1994), Goldman et al. (1988), Skumatz (1996), Clinch and Healy (2001).2 See, for example, Clinch and Healy (2000).3 Towards a strategy for the rational use of energy, EC COM(98)246 29 April 1998

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III. Market and Government Failure with regard to Energy-Efficiency in Buildings

Failures in the market and by government provide a number of impediments to the take-up of energy-efficiency opportunities in the building sector despite the results of cost-benefit analyses demonstrating the net economic benefits of such opportunities.

The private and social benefits and costs may differA social cost-benefit analysis considers all the benefits to society of installing improved energy-efficiency technologies in the building sector. However, an economic agent (an individual, developer or firm) normally only takes account of the direct benefits to themselves, i.e. the private benefits of energy-efficiency measures. External benefits which are captured by wider society (e.g. reductions in environmental emissions) may not to be considered when a private individual is considering whether to invest in such measures. The payback periods and net benefits of various measures and programmes are adversely affected by the exclusion of non-private benefits. In addition, while some of the benefits may be private in nature, they may not be recognised or considered by those who benefit. Energy savings may well be considered but improvements in health, being non-monetary in nature, are often not known about or recognised when making financial decisions.

Cost-benefit analyses exclude transfers. In addition, prices may be adjusted to reflect more closely the true opportunity cost of using resources. However, private agents face actual market prices and taxes and the cost of any labour required is the market wage (a cost-benefit analysis may reduce labour costs to reflect underemployment). Thus, the actual costs of adopting energy-efficiency measures may be higher than reflected in cost-benefit figures.

The private and social rates of discount may differ The consideration of time is usually of considerable import when assessing the net benefits of energy-efficiency technologies or programmes. There is no agreement on an appropriate figure for the social rate of discount which would be used in a cost-benefit analysis. Most such studies employ a range of discount and use a Government test discount rate (often around 5 or 6%) for the purpose of public policy recommendations. While this might be considered the appropriate rate for the social cost-benefit analysis, it is less applicable to the private agent. Those who are considering improving the energy-efficiency characteristics of a building are likely to carry out a financial analysis. The market interest rate is likely to be used in these calculations as it reflects the opportunity cost of capital. These rates may be somewhere in the region of 10% which would reduce the net present value of future energy savings and thereby increase the payback period and possibly result in a negative return.

Those who make the decisions may not reap the rewardsIn addition to the problem of external benefits being excluded, there may be market inefficiencies as regards the incentives for developers to adopt improved technologies. This can result because those making the decision as to whether to upgrade the energy-efficiency standards of a new building may not be the occupiers of the completed building. In some cases, the fixed costs of installing improved energy-efficiency technologies may outweigh the cost of traditional measures. The variable costs (the costs of running the systems) may be lower, i.e. there will be a payback period of a number of years. If the market were to work efficiently, part of this discounted saving (see below) would be appropriated by the developer. However, the market may fail in this regard, principally, due to information asymmetries. If the benefits of the technologies cannot be adequately communicated to the purchaser or renter of the building, there is little incentive for the developer to bear the fixed costs.

Principal-agent problems may existRelated to the above, it may well be that those who make the decisions regarding whether to install the better technologies or whether to rent or purchase a building which embodies these technologies, may not be those who occupy the building day-to-day. For example, if the management of a large corporation is not to occupy the new building, it may not adequately

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consider the effects of its energy-efficiency characteristics on the work environment of the occupants. If the technologies have some health or comfort benefits, the extent to which this recognised by the management will depend upon how clearly they associate a healthy work environment with the productivity of the corporation.

The distribution of income may be an inhibiting factorSocio-economic considerations play an important role in relation take up of energy efficiency opportunities in the household / domestic sector. The least energy-efficient households are more likely to be lower income households4 Such households are much less likely to have available funds and, thus, are most likely to have to resort to a loan. They are less likely to be in the position of accessing credit (particularly at the market rate of interest5)and they are more likely to have more pressing alternative uses for any extra funds. They may, additionally, have an aversion to borrowing funds, as has been reported by Salvage (1992). It has also been shown that low-income households tend to have higher discount rates, i.e. they exhibit myopic tendencies whereby they place a greater value on income now as opposed to in the future, partly resulting from the higher degree of uncertainty about the future stemming from their financial instability.

The public-good characteristics of innovation may result sub-optimal R&D effortResearch and development can be a costly business for a private agent in the short term whereas the benefits, if there are any, may only arise well in the future. A high private discount rate and risk of failure will discourage R&D effort. In addition, inadequate patent protection may lead to aisk of the innovator being unable to appropriate sufficient benefits to reward their effort. This provides a rationale for state-aid for R&D.

There may be considerable information asymmetriesWith suboptimal R&D effort, we may simply be unaware of the opportunities for energy savings in buildings. Sometimes the full nature, extent and magnitude of the benefits of energy efficiency in the building sector are a matter for speculation. Even if the technologies have been invented, it may be that the economic analyse showing the net benefits of their implementation have not been completed. This is often presented as the necessity for public funding of R&D.

An additional reason for state funding of research is because there is often a 10 to 20-year delay in between the dissemination of public knowledge and its eventual effect on industrial processes (US National Science Board, 1996) which affects the rate of return to R&D. The most extreme case would be in the domestic / household sector where there would likely be very incomplete knowledge amongst householders of the opportunities available6. This information gap is likely to be greater in low-income households where the benefits would be greatest. In addition, an information asymmetry between buyers and sellers of energy-efficiency measures may occur, leading to adverse selection of such technology7.

If the market worked effectively, the monetary value of the energy-efficiency measures would be reflected in the value of the buildings and this would provide an incentive for the technologies to be implemented. Information asymmetries inhibit this function of the price mechanism.

Transactions’ costsClosely related to the information problem is that of the fixed costs of learning about, and administering, energy-conservation measures. Examples of transactions’ costs include the time agents must spend to learn about the various options, oversee the work, deal with any disruption etc. Such costs are not reflected in Cost-Benefit Analyses. The amplitude of these transactions’ costs may overwhelm the potential pay-off of such an effort, acting as a performance-inhibiting ‘wedge’ which prevents the implementation of cost-effective energy-conservation measures. These

4 See Clinch and Healy (1999); Whyley and Callender (1997) Brechling and Smith (1994).5 See Weber (1990) for more on this issue.6 Lack of information is seen as a key reason for market failure in the UK according to Williams and Ross (1980) and Carlsmith et al. (1990) and in Ireland by Healy and Clinch (2003).7 See Smith (1992).

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transactions’ costs are difficult to measure, but are potentially the key factors in explaining the slow take-up of financially viable measures, especially in the domestic sector (Convery, 1998).

Property-rights failureTenants are not generally responsible for the energy-efficiency standards of the buildings they occupy. This is also a particular problem in the domestic / household sector. For example, some of the least energy-efficient houses in the UK and Ireland are tenant-occupied (Boardman, 1991; Brechling and Smith, 1992; Brophy et al., 1999). Tenants may feel that they are not responsible for undertaking investments in energy efficiency or authorised to do so, i.e. there is a non-appropriability of benefits. Indeed, it is not financially sound for a tenant to invest if they expect to move out in the short to medium term. Likewise, landlords may feel that the benefits to them of such investment may not be recouped if they are unable to raise rents. Also, if investment does take place in a multi-occupancy dwelling, ‘free-rider’ incentives may exist in relation to the financing of this public good (Smith, 1992).Government FailureThe structure of government may contribute to the lack of take-up of energy-efficiency measures whereby, under institutional arrangements that prevail, there is no one institutionally or politically positioned to ‘champion’ them. Policy responsibility for energy efficiency may be spread across a variety of ministries and agencies. In addition, there may be inadequate policy instruments to address market failures. Energy policy traditionally focused on supply-side interventions and neglected demand-side options. Without appropriate incentives to 'internalise' the externalities associated with energy use, such as via carbon taxes or emissions-trading systems, there is little incentive to take such environmental emissions into account.

IV. Policy Measures to Address Market Failure in regard to Energy Efficiency

There are a number of instruments available to policy-makers to correct for market failure. These include:

RegulationRegulation, also known as command-and-control, endeavours to improve the performance of the market via the setting of standards e.g. building regulations. Non-compliance with a standard results in a penalty, usually in the form of legal action and/or fines. Regulation is likely to be most effective for new buildings where minimum standards can be set.

Taxes and chargesEnvironmental taxes and charges are forms of market-based instruments. These instruments are put in place by a policy-maker to alter market signals to encourage or discourage certain activities or behaviour. A tax on energy generated from fossil fuels may be part of a strategy to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. This would provide an incentive to invest in energy-conservation measures. However, energy tends to be price-inelastic and so, when the substitutes for energy generated from fossil fuels are limited, such a tax may not be effective unless combined with other policy instruments.

Tradeable permits and offsetsEmissions Trading is also market-based instrument. Rather than being a price instrument (like a tax), it is a quantity-based instrument. In the Kyoto Global Warming Protocol, compliance with the greenhouse emission quotas can be achieved, in part, by purchasing from others who have a quota to spare. A price emerges for the permits which reflects the scarcity value of the environment. If such as system were introduced within a country, it would be important that the building sector be included in some way. However, the practical implementation of such a trading system might prove difficult.

Subsidies and tax relief

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Removal of subsides, if any, on energy products would enhance the incentives for energy efficiency. Tax relief and grants for energy-conservation measures are other potential instruments.

Voluntary approachesA voluntary agreement (in place of an implied threat of alternative government regulation) by developers that information on the thermal specifications of buildings be included in sales literature would have had potential if it had not already been overtaken by the EU Energy Performance Directive (see below).

Institutional developmentWhile not a policy instrument as such, institutional issues are very important. Energy efficiency is usually the concern of a number of government departments. In order to mobilise the policy process, it is helpful if a focal point for energy-efficiency is established to reduce government failure.

V. The Role of EnerBuild in correcting market failure in energy efficiency

The key role of the EnerBuild RTD Thematic Network is in reducing information asymmetries and encouraging R&D. Its core objective is to improve the flow of information on these potentials for improved energy efficiency in the building sector.

The stated objectives of the Network are: To deliver the results of past and current research to potential users in the most important

sectors with the greatest dissemination potential, with the overall objective of reducing emissions and improving the energy efficiency of the built environment in Europe.

To facilitate and encourage collaboration, co-operation and exchange among EC-supported research projects and researchers.

To help maintain the technical and industrial content of future European energy-related building research and to contribute to the identifications of future research priorities.

To form links with relevant targeted research and demonstration actions and other Thematic Networks with a view to maximising the effectiveness of the problem-solving effort.

To minimise overlap and facilitate communications between national and EC-funded activities. To encourage the formation of new RTD partnerships between stakeholders in construction

including industry, designers, developers and researchers. To evaluate the effectiveness of different strategies and media in disseminating RTD results

and supporting innovation in the European building sector.

EnerBuild therefore improves the R&D effort and its effectiveness so that we become aware of the opportunities for energy savings in buildings and associated environmental emissions reductions. Without these initiatives, the full benefits of innovation in energy efficiency will not be forthcoming. In addition, as mentioned previously, it has been shown that there is often a 10 to 20-year delay between the dissemination of public knowledge and its eventual effect on industrial processes. Initatives such as EnerBuild aim to reduce this 'transmission failure'. It also aims to reduce the adverse selection of the technology. The efforts of EnerBuild are consistent with the European Union's efforts to improve information flow with regard to energy efficiency in the building sector as demonstrated by the passing of the Energy Performance Directive on 17.11.02 which requires all member states to implement an Energy Certification Scheme for all buildings by 2006. This requires Energy Performance Certificates to be available when buildings are sold, let, substantially renovated and for such Certificates to be readily visible in buildings frequented by the public.

VI. Conclusion

There are a number of reasons why economicall-efficient energy-conservation measures may not be taken up by private agents. These result predominantly from market failure in the form of differing private and social rates of discount, the fact that those who make the decisions may not

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reap the rewards, other principal-agent problems, the distribution of income may be an inhibiting factor, the public-good characteristics of innovation may result sub-optimal R&D effort, and there may be transacations costs and property-rights failure.

Of considerable importance is a further market failure, that is, the persistence of information asymmetries. This provides the economic rationale for the EnerBuild project which has at its core the objective of improving the flow of information on the potentials for improved energy efficiency in the building sector.

References to this paper provided in Appendix A.

2.4 European Responses 4

A range of instruments is open to the EU in addressing these issues. The OECD overview of potential instruments for environmental policy consists of three main categories:

Information-based strategies to correct lack of informatione.g. awards, public information, life-cycle analysis, product labelling

Incentive-based instruments to address cost-benefite.g. demand-side management, regulatory reform, subsidy removal, marketable permits, tax reform

Directive-based instruments to mandate specific behavioure.g. trade restrictions, ambient emissions standards, licencing, bans.

Particular responses by the EU include the Energy Performance (in Buildings) Directive, mandating specific behaviour, and a series of support programmes/framework programmes to provide incentives or information.

Energy Performance DirectiveThe basic objective underlying this Directive is to promote the improvement of the energy performance of buildings within the EU, ensuring in so far as possible that only such measures as are the most cost-effective are undertaken. There are four main elements to the directive:

Establishing a general framework of a common methodology for calculating the integrated energy performance of buildings;

Application of minimum standards on the energy performance to new buildings and to certain existing buildings when they are renovated;

Certification schemes for new and existing buildings on the basis of the above standards and public display of energy performance certificates and recommended indoor temperatures and other relevant climatic factors in public buildings and buildings frequented by the public;

Specific inspection and assessment of boilers and heating/cooling installations.

The certification scheme is expected to result in building energy performance becoming a factor in the sale or rental of properties. This, in turn, should result in greater consideration being given by building developers and owners to the total lifecycle costs of a building. This market pull instrument should, ultimately, result in the construction and refurbishment of more energy efficient buildings.

Framework ProgrammesFor over 30 years the EC has been supporting R&D and demonstration in energy-efficient and solar building technologies and innovative materials and systems. An ambitious, but clearly-targeted series of research projects in the JOULE Programme investigated major energy-related issues concerning the heating, cooling and daylighting of buildings and deficiencies in knowledge of climate and human comfort, and developed new products and materials. THERMIE provided financial support for the demonstration of near-market energy technologies which otherwise might not penetrate the market.

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The Fifth Framework Programme included a programme focussing on energy with key actions promoting “cleaner energy systems, including renewables”, and actions for “economic and efficient energy for a competitive Europe”. The aim of the “cleaner energy systems, including renewables” action was to minimise the environmental impact of the production and use of energy in Europe. The aim of the key action for “economic and efficient energy for a competitive Europe” was to provide Europe with a reliable, efficient, safe and economic energy supply. Work focussed on technologies for: the rational and efficient end-use of energy; the transmission and distribution of energy; technologies for the storage of energy; and on improving the efficiency of new and renewable energy sources.

Under the Fifth Framework Programme, support was provided directly for Research and Technical Development (RTD) activities and also for the development of Thematic Networks to facilitate the dissemination and optimisation of the results of activities in Community RTD. EnerBuild is one such network.

Since the commencement of this report the Sixth Framework Programme (FP6) has emerged and provides context for the future. Research actions within the Sustainable Energy Systems component of FP6 aim at sustainable, secure and affordable energy reducing greenhouse gases and pollutant emissions; increasing security of energy supply; increasing the share of renewable energy sources; improving energy efficiency; improving competitiveness of EU energy industry; improving quality of life within EU and globally.

Implementation instruments include Integrated Projects (IP), Networks of Excellence (NoE), Specific Targeted Research Projects (STRP), Co-ordination Actions (CA), and Specific Support Actions (SSA).

Short and medium-term (SM) research actions focus on integrated demonstration actions, primarily to implement energy policy, but also serving research and associated policies. Medium and long-term (ML) research actions focus on research, including prototypes and pilot plants, primarily to implement research policy aims, but also serving energy and associated policies.

Of particular relevance to research into energy in buildings are those SM actions focussed on energy savings and energy efficiency, namely “Eco-buildings” and “Polygeneration”. Eco-buildings are intended to design, construct and operate new/refurbished buildings with a view to improving the building stock’s energy performance. Polygeneration addresses energy technologies for providing electricity, heating, cooling and/or other energy products and services. This includes decentralised generation, fuel cells, hydrogen, renewable energy sources in the energy system.

The Concerto instrument seeks to achieve the large scale integration of innovative energy technologies (including renewable energy sources, ecobuildings, and polygeneration) into sustainable communities.

Also of relevance to research into energy in buildings are the ML actions focussed on Renewable Energy Systems (photovoltaics, biomass and bioenergy, other) and energy storage and technologies for grid connections.

2.6 ConclusionIn summary, security of supply and climate change are the forces driving the European Union’s energy policy. Energy efficiency in new and refurbished buildings has an important role in the EU’s energy policy. However, the construction industry is particularly fragmented and, despite the emergence of energy-saving technologies, their application in buildings remains an ongoing challenge. There are many reasons for (what economists term) market failure and government failure. European responses to address this failure include sesearch-based strategies, information-based strategies, incentive-based instruments. These are complemented with legislative-based instruments, such as an ongoing improvement in national construction standards, which mandate minimum levels of performance.

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It is situated against this background that we examine the state of research and future priorities for various technology areas.

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3. STATE OF RESEARCH AND FUTURE PRIORITIES

3.1 IntroductionThe structure of the EnerBuild Thematic Network was primarily into “Thematic Groups” which focussed on a number of technology areas: Solar Technologies, Lighting and Daylighting, Mechanical Heating and Cooling, Building Integrated PhotoVoltaics, Building Components, and Building and Urban Design. For practical reasons, the approach has been to discuss each of these technology areas, with a particular focus on the state of research, industry structure, market situation, all with a view to identifying future research priorities.

A word on terminology: this report seeks to address the state of research and future research needs; but what is meant by “research”? In the broadest sense of the word, it generally refers to the range of activities that are involved in bringing a technology, component, system, material or simulation tool to market: basic research; development; demonstration; dissemination; and, deployment. In order to provide clarity, in the context of this report the following definitions of these terms are used:

(Basic) Research = investigation of new technologies, components, materials, systems, or mathematical models describing an aspect of building performance. It is often medium to long term in nature, with final outcomes uncertain and, thus, requires public support. It is primarily concerned with the pursuit of new knowledge.

Development = the improvement of existing technologies, components, materials or systems. The integration of mathematical models into building performance simulation tools (e.g. software) and improvement thereof. Tends to short/medium term in nature. In the case of a technology, component, material or system, will culminate in the construction of a prototype. Software will culminate in a Beta test version. The risk involved is lower than research as it is concerned with incremental improvements or the application of existing knowledge.

Demonstration = proving that a technology, component, material, system or simulation tool works through its application in a real-world situation and monitoring actual performance.

Dissemination = the transfer of knowledge or information on a technology, component, material or system’s actual performance in the real world. May involve the preparation of brochures, case studies, design guidelines and other tools to facilitate market uptake.

Deployment = the wider market penetration of demonstrated technologies, components, materials, systems or simulation tools. May involve some form of assistance to stimulate the market.

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3.2 Solar Technologies [Mats Santamouris, University of Athens]

IntroductionTraditional solar design principles include passive solar heating, passive cooling and natural ventilation, and daylighting. Solar buildings rely on both traditional, energy conscious architectural practices and recent developments which supply architects and building engineers with an ever-increasing catalogue of components and techniques. New powerful simulation methods allow architects and engineers to model the interplay between these components in the design phase of a building.

The solar technologies addressed in this section of the RTD strategy document include:- Passive Solar Heating- Passive Solar Cooling - Active Solar Thermal- Urban ventilation- Solar materials

Active Solar Thermal SystemsState of the Research: Overview of the Applications and Technology SituationActive Solar Thermal Systems are most commonly used for the heating of Domestic Hot Water (DHW) in dwellings, but may also be used for space heating or space cooling. The systems consist of a number of components: collectors (flat plate or evacuated tube or concentrating collectors), a hot water storage vessel, and (usually) a circulating pump. In the case of space heating, an alternative system can heat air directly and duct it directly through the house. In the case of space cooling, the system must be coupled with an absorbtion cycle and requires temperatures exceeding 100degC. The systems are regarded as being technologically mature in that the systems are reliable and technical advances consist of incremental improvements.

Market Status and IssuesThe market for Active Solar Thermal Systems for DHW applications has grown rapidly over the last decade and have gained significant penetration of some European markets (fig. 3.1 and 3.2), and a consequent decline in system prices.

Fig. 3.1

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Fig. 3.2

Successful market penetration requires local initiatives to stimulate the market and develop the supply infrastructure until it becomes self-sustaining; climatic conditions also assist market penetration. While the cost-benefit of such systems varies depending on the competitiveness of the local market and climatic conditions, the systems tend to be affordable for homeowners.

Active Solar Thermal Systems for Space Heating have not achieved significant market penetration: the two main problems for the broader propagation of this technology refer to the need for higher water temperatures and the gap between thermal energy supply and demand, both on a diurnal and seasonal basis. Overcoming the former problem requires improvements in collector efficiency and/or reductions in cost; the latter requires thermal storage, short term or interseasonal, be addressed.

Active Solar Thermal Systems for Space Cooling have not achieved market penetration despite the unsustainable proliferation of conventional air-conditioning in southern Europe. This is largely due to system cost vis-à-vis conventional AC and, to a lesser extent, thermal storage issues. Reducing collector cost through improvement in the efficiency of flat plate collectors or the costs of evacuated tube collectors would overcome this problem. The potential market for this system includes dwellings and commercial buildings.

Industry StructureThe typical organisations in the Active Solar Thermal System industry are represented below.

Fig. 3.3

There may be some overlap between the organisations in the above value chain. For instance, the system manufacturer may also make some or all of the components. In addition, system development and materials research may be either conducted inhouse or by research institutions.

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ComponentManufacturers

SystemManufacturer

LocalInstaller

BuildingOccupant

MaterialsResearch

SystemDevelopment

ComponentManufacturers

SystemManufacturer

LocalInstaller

BuildingOccupant

MaterialsResearch

SystemDevelopment


Organisations tend to be SME’s. As the manufacture of vacuum tube collectors requires more specialised, capital-intensive equipment, the manufacturers tend to be larger than for the flat plate collector manufacturers.

Of particular interest is that the local installer tends to sell single units directly to the building occupant, rather than multiple units to property developers or landlords. In those European markets where the technology has achieved significant market penetration, such as Greece and Germany, the key to further market development will be addressing the developer/landlord market and/or penetrating the space heating market.

Passive Solar Cooling SystemsState of the Research: Overview of Applications and Technology SituationThree essential elements of passive cooling are:

Prevention of internal and external heat gains Modulation of heat flows by internal thermal mass Utilisation of heat sinks to absorb excess heat. Techniques include:

o Radiative cooling – the heat sink being the sky and the heat transfer mode radiation, typically using a flat plate cooler.

o Evaporative cooling – the heat sink being air (the wet bulb depression) and the heat transfer mode being evaporation. Systems may be direct or indirect, and passive or hybrid.

o Ventilative cooling – the heat sink being the air the heat transfer mode being convection; may be through convective loss from the human body or by nocturnal ventilation of the building.

o Ground cooling – the heat sink being the earth and the heat transfer mode being conduction, using either direct contact or earth-to-air heat exchangers

These are the traditional cooling systems that dominated architectural design in hot climates prior to the availability of low-cost electricity.

Current research focuses on components (such as efficient heat exchangers), techniques, systems and design tools.

Opportunities for further research have been identified and may be categorised as those relating to:

Basic researcho Modelling new systems and combinations of systems; developing standard

calculation procedureso Adapted control strategies

Passive cooling and the urban environmento a need to better understand the urban heat island effect, which can significantly

increase the number of cooling degree days and limit the viability of passive cooling technologies.

o natural ventilation and airflow in the urban environment Passive cooling with regard to building comfort and indoor air quality

o comfort standards relating to non steady state conditions and perceptions of comfort

o a need to assess the impact of air quality requirements on natural ventilation techniques

The integration of passive cooling systems into buildingso guidelines on which systems are most appropriate for different local (climatic)

conditionso guidelines on how to combine these techniques with conventional air-

conditioning in buildings where both are provided

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o standard calculation procedures to rate the performance of natural cooling techniques in a building design.

o Incorporation of natural cooling technique calculations into existing design tools that calculate the energy performance of buildings

o Study of potential of different systems for refurbishing existing stock Technical development of passive cooling techniques

o seasonal storage of cool o absorbtion cooling and dessicant cooling.

Industry StructureTypical organisations active in the Passive Solar Cooling Industry are represented below.

Fig. 3.4

As with active solar thermal technologies, the components, systems and integration tools tend to be developed by research institutions and SME’s; this R&D may or may not be collaborative in nature.

Market Status and IssuesAll these passive techniques have reached a high degree of technical maturity and projects demonstrating their application in commercial buildings exist. The formal use of these techniques tends to be in commercial buildings; they tend to be designed into the building from the outset, rather than as retrofit measures.

However, despite massive demand for air-conditioning in buildings, stubborn resistance to the widespread application of these passive cooling techniques remains. One classic problem is that the building occupant is not necessarily the building owner or building developer: the Energy Performance Directive seeks to address this. A second classic problem is the need to internalise the external costs of pollution: various national initiatives, such as climate change levys, are emerging to address this. However, at a more technical level, there would appear to be a concern amongst building designers that by incorporating these systems into a building they will have a system that reliably meets occupant requirements: the opportunities for further research identified above bear this out.

Passive Solar HeatingState of the Research: Overview of Applications and Technology SituationThe architectural quality of buildings with glass makes passive solar design an important area. The architectural aspects of passive solar thermal design are long established. Research tends to focus on the development of transparent (glazing) and opaque materials that maximise the incidence of useful solar radiation into a building, facilitate the capture and storage of this energy, and minimise the thermal losses from the building envelope.

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SystemManufacturer

MaterialsResearch

SystemDevelopment

Building energy performance tools

System integrationtools & guidelines

ComponentManufacturer

Design Team

BuildingDeveloper

BuildingOwner

BuildingOccupant

SystemManufacturer

MaterialsResearch

SystemDevelopment

Building energy performance tools

System integrationtools & guidelines

ComponentManufacturer

Design Team

BuildingDeveloper

BuildingOwner

BuildingOccupant


There has been tremendous improvements in the properties of transparent materials:

Fig. 3.5

Areas of current glazing element materials research include: reducing the thermal losses of glazing further through optimised low-e coatings and

vacuum glazing technologies increasing solar gains through improved solar transmittance of glazing/reducing its

reflective qualities control of solar gains by angle-selective glazing which reflects solar radiation incident at

high solar altitudes, while transmitting radiation incident at near-horizontal angles. Market penetration of this micro-structured glazing is limited due to high manufacturing costs.

Multifunctional systems such as PV glazing or window collectors.

Areas of current opaque element materials research include: Reducing the cost and/or improving the efficiency of transparent insulation materials, as

production costs are currently too high to be justified in terms of energy savings. Low-e paint.

An area of current research into increasing the thermal storage capacity of materials include building-integrated phase change materials.

Industry StructureThe market demand for glazing elements exists, so research tends to focus on incremental improvements in their properties. Research is driven by the need for materials manufacturers to establish an advantage over their competitors, and so it tends to be conducted either inhouse or through sponsorship of a research programme with a research institution. Research results in incremental improvements in the properties of the materials, hence improving the properties of existing products. Communication of product improvements to designers and specifiers is through conventional advertising and promotion means.

Market Status and IssuesData from an EC Project, SolGain, completed in 2001 suggested that passive solar gain in dwellings is being utilised to levels exceeding previous estimates:

Country Solar fraction of total space heating requirement

Country Solar fraction of total space heating

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requirementNorway 10% Germany 13%Finland 15% Belgium 12%UK 15% Greece 12%Ireland 12%

At an architectural level, awareness of passive solar design principles is essential; this is addressed through the education and continuing professional development of architects.

There do not appear to be significant barriers to the market penetration of improvements in existing glazing materials.

The demand for opaque elements that maximise solar heat gain or for specialist thermal storage materials for passive solar gain tends to be a niche market. Essentially, the materials are expensive and the energy savings are insufficient to justify them on cost-benefit alone. Production economies of scale alone will not be sufficient to correct this situation; further technical improvements will also be necessary.

Solar coating materialsState of the Research: Technology SituationFurther to the section above, which focuses on solar heat materials, this section focuses on the development of coating materials for solar components. Since the pioneering work of Tabor, the development of thin film optically selective surfaces has been widely pursued to enable the efficient conversion and control of visible, solar and thermal radiation. Today such materials represent mature technologies which find many applications in e.g. solar thermal collectors, photovoltaics, windows and daylighting. Spectrally selective solar absorber coatings enhance the efficiency of solar thermal systems by maximising solar gain and minimising radiative losses from the heated collector surface. Transparent low thermal emittance (low-e) coated glazings are used in passive solar design in climates where high solar gain and reduced thermal loss are key objectives. Solar control coatings, which selectively transmit incident visible light and reflect near infrared solar radiation reduce the risk of overheating in buildings whilst preserving good levels of natural daylight. Angular selective glazing is designed to attenuate radiation coming directly from the sun which is the main source of glare. Dynamic variable transmittance apertures, such as electrochromic, gasochromic and thermotropic glazing, aim to avoid overheating during peak periods of solar availability, reduce glare problems and allow a greater use of glazing area to enhance solar gain during the heating season.

Scientific and technical advances in coating design and the progress achieved by industry in producing large area coatings with excellent uniformity has been matched by improved accuracy and reliability in the measurement of surface optical properties and the development of simulation tools for component design and calculation of performance. Currently European research and development is focussed on providing technical information in forms suitable for use by the manufacturer, designer and architect to aid choice in product selection appropriate to building type, end-use and climate. Performance rating and energy labelling of window products in Europe are also being investigated.

Industry StructureResearch into the area of solar coating materials tends to be undertaken by the manufacturers themselves, possibly in conjunction with research institutions. The research produces incremental improvements in technology performance (such as a solar collector).

Market Status

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The market for low-e glazing materials has grown rapidly, coming to dominate the sale of glazing materials.

FIG. 3.6

Natural VentilationState of the Research: Overview of Applications and Technology Situation The role of the ventilation in buildings is to maintain acceptable levels of oxygen in air and to remove odours, moisture, and internal pollutants. It may also remove excess heat by direct cooling or by using the building thermal mass.

Performance criteria are related to the objectives of ventilation: air quality control and thermal comfort. Criteria for air quality control are defined in terms of minimum ventilation rates or by restricting the contaminant concentration to acceptable levels (e.g., ASHRAE Standard 62). While designing for a minimum ventilation rate is straightforward, designing to restrict air contaminant concentrations is far more difficult. Consequently, most often the minimum ventilation rate is the approach taken in the design of natural and mechanical ventilation systems, although the minimum recommended ventilation rates have been amended many times. Careful design, detailed computation, attentive execution and automatic control of operation are needed to achieve a successful solution.

Research into natural ventilation is primarily concerned with mathematically describing the basic techniques for natural ventilation (i.e. natural ventilation strategies such as wind variation induced single sided ventilation, wind pressure driven cross ventilation, and buoyancy pressures driven stack ventilation and combinations thereof) and the development of models capable of predicting the performance of naturally ventilated buildings in terms of air quality and thermal comfort.

Furthermore, research is also concerned with the use of natural ventilation in the urban environment needs also take account of lower wind velocity, noise and pollution. A number of ancient Middle Eastern strategies using both roof level inlets and exhausts, called balanced stack schemes, are being reconsidered for broader application and technical refinement. These can be combined with evaporative cooling to give passive downdraught evaporative cooling.

Industry Structure

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Research into mathematically describing natural ventilation strategies and their incorporation into dynamic models of building energy performance is primarily the domain of research institutions. The models are then used as design tools to assist in building design.

Market Status and IssuesMechanical ventilation of buildings is the default for medium and large office buildings. Natural ventilation is generally driven by client demand, rather than architectural preference. Reversing this situation requires successful demonstration buildings in a range of climatic and urban environments, and the provision of design tools that accurately take account of these.

ConclusionsMany solar and energy-efficient technologies have succeeded in penetrating some or all of the European markets; the extent of their local penetration depends on climate, building practices and local efforts to stimulate the market. In terms of market penetration, particularly successful solar thermal technologies include solar domestic hot water systems and solar glazing systems. On the other hand, natural ventilation and cooling technologies continue to struggle against more convenient mechanical technologies.

In terms of the effectiveness of these technologies in reducing energy consumption, new designs have decreased the heating demand as low as 15 to 30 kWh/m2 per year and cooling demand as low as 5 to 10 kWh/m2 per year. Fig. 3.7 below, illustrates a declining trend in the energy consumed by buildings for space heating and hot water requirements, which is attributable to energy efficient measures and solar thermal technologies.

FIG. 3.7

Overall RecommendationsReviewing the above, the areas that stand out in terms of their potential to achieve significant energy savings are the deployment of natural cooling techniques, the research of buildings within urban environment; the retrofitting of solar technologies into buildings; and the provision of the necessary means for the integration of solar technologies into building design. It is recommended that these become the priorities for future activities.

Research into the Urban EnvironmentIt is estimated that 70% of the energy consumption of buildings occurs in the urban environment. However, issues associated with the urban environment itself further complicate the provision of energy-efficient buildings. These issues include the heat island effect, the effect on air movement,

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shading and concerns over indoor air quality. Research in this area should focus on studying the optimum integration of natural cooling and ventilation techniques into buildings in the urban environment.

Retrofitting of Existing StockNew buildings tend to be lower consumers of energy than the existing stock thanks to increasingly stringent regulations and rising levels of awareness. However, the low replacement rate of buildings mean that the existing stock presents the greatest challenge in terms of energy consumption and indoor air quality.

Dissemination and Deployment of Natural Cooling TechniquesAs mentioned above, natural cooling techniques have failed to counter the rapid proliferation of air-conditioning into commercial and residential buildings. As such air-conditioning tends to rely on electrical energy, it is particularly energy-intensive and places high peak demands on electrical infrastructure. Natural cooling techniques have been demonstrated but their widespread application depends upon providing designers with confidence the ability of these techniques to meet their cooling requirements and tools to facilitate their integration into the design process. A programme focussed on providing an integrated set of measures to facilitate the penetration of natural cooling techniques is essential.

Dissemination and Deployment on the Integration of Solar Technologies into Building DesignIt is expected that the Energy Performance Directive will go some way towards creating the necessary market pull for energy efficient buildings. In addition, many of the solar technologies noted above are technically mature and can meet the demand for energy efficient technologies. However, the integration of these technologies into building design remains a challenge and should the focus of future research priorities. Architects and engineers need to know what technologies exist, what applications they are most suited to, how to design them into buildings (in the form of guidelines) and how they will perform once they are a part of the building (through the use of common simulation tools).

References in Appendix A.

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3.3 Lighting & Daylighting (Prof. Marc Fontoynont, CNRS)

IntroductionThis section of the RTD Strategy report is concerned with the state of research and future research needs in the area of lighting and daylighting. It particularly focuses on:

Lamps for buildings Luminaries Lighting and daylighting design Lighting and daylighting control systems, Daylighting components

Market Status and IssuesA fundamental question is “what drives progress in lighting: supply or demand?”

On the supply side, the drive for building energy efficiency is benefiting from a range of technical improvements including increases in luminous efficacy, power range and life of various lamp technologies, coupled with decreases in their size and cost. We are also benefiting from improved lighting design, increased insulation of glazing and smart controls.

On the demand side, people are spending more time indoors, are more active at night, and spend more time in cities, where light compensates for a loss of natural environment. People are also performing more intensive visual tasks and have a greater usage of VDUs. Furthermore, people have a greater consciousness of aesthetics in the workplace and have a clearly-demonstrated preference for daylight and energy-efficient lighting levels.

In countries such as Germany, Netherlands, and Switzerland the practice of energy-efficient lighting is well established, but standards are progressing well throughout Europe. At present lighting power densities for lighting vary from 12 W/m2 to 20 W/m2 of floor area in general. Areas of glazing are equivalent to 1/12 to 1/8 of total floor areas.

RefurbishmentRefurbishment represents an important market for lighting systems: the typical life of artificial lighting installations is below 20 years. During retrofitting it is common to improve the energy efficiency of installations by 50 to 100 %. Power density is often reduced and illuminance levels are generally significantly increased. However, the cost-benefit of replacing lighting systems is usually insufficient to justify purely on the grounds of energy efficiency.

Industry StructureEuropean industry leads the world regarding the performance of the luminaire industry and control technology, and their position in the production of light sources is good. However, there is a danger that this may be lost to Asian companies if we consider the increase in imports in compact fluorescent lamps and the future market penetration of LEDs from Asia. Philips and OSRAM are investing strongly to maintain their poll position.

Lamps are produced by a small number of multi-national companies in expensive, high capacity factories. Publicly funded research has little influence on these companies’ activities except through the maintenance of materials science and physics laboratories. However, lighting regulations can increase demand for high efficiency lighting directly. Indirect measures, such as energy/carbon taxes would also have a beneficial effect.

Luminaires tend to be manufactured by SME’s and European industry leads the world regarding their performance. The luminaire industry spends a lot of effort on development of new luminaires and their design.

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Control technology is manufactured by SMEs, lamp manufactures and luminaire manufacturers. They are also developed by shading device integrators. Again, European industry leads the world, but recent developments in the US (LUTRON) demonstrate that lighting industry and shading systems and controls developers may be part of a same company.

It is worth noting that benefits beyond energy efficiency are sought by most manufacturers in this field.

The industry value chain, below, identifies the main players:

Research suggest that if a final client (investor) wants lighting quality and efficiency, that will be provided. However, architects and engineering teams are far more conservative than clients, and the fragmented nature of the industry (discussed in above and in Section 2.3) make it difficult to bring together the most innovative manufacturers with clients. Two possible solutions are to encourage demonstration projects with participants from manufacturers and large, multi-site clients or to address the conservative nature of design teams through deployment measures. Both of these are discussed further below.

State of Technology and ResearchEC Programmes (1995-2002)EC programmes have focussed lighting and daylight research on a number of areas:

Daylight availability data (produced from satellite recordings) Daylight and lighting software Efficient lighting scenarios (lighting, daylighting, controls) Intelligent controls Deep daylighting techniques (daylight guidance, heliostats) Advanced glazing materials for daylighting (light deviation, sunlight protection, variable

transmittance).

Lamps for buildingsHalogen and incandescent lamps have poor efficiencies and short life-spans.

Tubular fluorescent lamps, especially 16mm T5 with electronic ballasts, are considered to be the most efficient and durable sources of white light, with no large potential for improvement for the next 20 years. This means that this new technology is becoming gradually the state of the art.

Metal halide lamps are developing well and are the most efficient sources of intensive white light.

High-pressure sodium lamps are less efficient, but still provide an interesting alternative for certain applications (shops, supermarkets, with appropriate colouring effects).

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Lamp/Luminaire/Controls R&D and Manufacturer

Design Team

BuildingDeveloper

BuildingOwner

BuildingOccupant

MaterialsManufacturer

MaterialsR&D

Design Guidelines

Light/DaylightDesign

Tools/Software

Lamp/Luminaire/Controls R&D and Manufacturer

Design Team

BuildingDeveloper

BuildingOwner

BuildingOccupant

MaterialsManufacturer

MaterialsR&D

Design Guidelines

Light/DaylightDesign

Tools/Software


Compact fluorescent lamps are an efficient alternative to incandescent lamps but should be associated with appropriate optics. Replacement of incandescent lamps with compact fluorescent ones to reduce energy use is common in homes. However, spent lamps should be recycled to prevent pollution by mercury waste.

Light Emitting Diodes (LED’s) cannot yet compete in terms of luminous efficacy. At present, the best performance of white LED’s is 25 lm/W, but performance of 60lm/W is predicted within three years. If achieved, this will result in LED’s being the best alternative to incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps. It is expected that small halogen spotlights will progressively be replaced in the next 5-10 years by LED sources. Their high life-spans (up to 100,000 hours), reduced infra-red emissions and absence of pollution make LED’s very appealing. The development of high luminous efficacy white LED's will, it seems, be the most revolutionary change in the next decade.

Dimming of arc lamps are currently being investigated. But it seems that dimming below 40% of the maximum flux leads to serious technological and economical challenges.

LuminairesLuminaire efficiencies of over 75% are feasible and up to 90% with highly reflective optics. The efficiencies of luminaries increase with the miniaturisation of light sources.

Nowadays, comfortable illuminance levels (above 500 lx) can be achieved on an entire desk area with a T5 fluorescent lamp of less than 15 W/m2.

Lighting designAppropriate lighting design (i.e. to closely meet needs) can produce large savings. For example, good task lighting in offices allows reductions in ambient lighting power, and this may be the only way to reduce lighting power densities from around 13 or 15 W/m2 to between 6 and 10 W/m2. Light-coloured (“clear”) floor finishes can reduce lighting power requirements by more than 20%.

Daylighting componentsLighting power for daylighting is ‘free’. The costs are incurred in the design, specification and construction of window components and indoor spaces to optimise daylight use. However, window size affects heating energy needs and, more significantly, cooling energy when air conditioning is used.

Daylighting is highly desirable especially at work spaces. The efficiency of daylighting depends on the technology of the window components, in particular the type of glass and solar shading used:

Low emissivity and low solar factor glazing allow larger glazed areas to be used thus allowing more daylight to enter while reducing energy needs. The widespread use of these glazing materials, driven by changes in building regulations, permit greater use of daylighting.

Solar shading reduces excessive daylight. More daylight, due to larger glazed areas, can result in dis-improvements in thermal and visual comfort levels.

Daylighting designDaylighting can be optimised by the design / organisation of spaces with regard to daylighting needs and by the use of basic window and solar shading technologies. Again, light-coloured floor finishes improve daylight use and good distribution of daylight apertures is more effective that increasing window areas. The major barriers to good daylighting are:

Lack of awareness by clients Low direct financial benefits (typical annual savings of 1Euros to 2 Euros per m2/year with

daylighting alone) Long pay-back periods with some solutions Design team’s lack of ability to master optimal daylighting design.

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Goals Targets and TimescaleGiven the technical maturity of T5 lamps and luminaires, the areas of greatest potential for energy savings will come from

the widespread application of “best practice”, i.e. high quality lamps and luminaries with low power density design

the use of control systems and human practice to turn off the lights whenever it is possible, i.e. based on occupant needs, presence and, above all, daylighting.

Potential performance targets are2005 Office lighting power densities at 6W/m2, and consumption of less than 6kWh/m2 per year.

Lighting of an individual workspace could be below 50W.

2006 Cost-effective daylighting techniques, bringing useful quantities of daylight more than 4 meters away from the envelope in office buildings.

2006 New LEDs with efficacy higher than 50lm/W.

2010 Potential replacement of all compact fluorescent and halogen lamps by LEDs (no more mercury) with a life of > 30,000 hrs.

After Very efficient glazing materials: insulated, transparent, and controllable at market prices. Glass and organic raw materials. Control of glazing in relation to electricity availability (PV Grid).

RecommendationsFrom the analysis above, we can attempt to list below the major challenges for the future. The targets above are based upon EC support to address these challenges.

Product and system development:

High efficiency task lighting, providing up to 600 lx to the entire surface of a desk, with high luminance control. The objective is to reduce power densities in offices from 15 W/m2 to below 10 W/m2, possibly as low as 7 W/m2. This will result in savings of 50%, compared with current practice.

User friendly automatic controls (with override) that are well accepted by users, minimise electric power consumption and result in optimal use of shading devices

Highly insulated glass, which will allow the use of larger glazed areas and more daylighting.

Optimised solar shading devices and their controls that provide the required luminance patterns and allow sufficient daylight to enter. There is considerable potential for innovation in this area.

Façade systems that allow glare control and enhance daylight penetration, with costs and maintenance needs that are acceptable to the market.

Roof systems with integrated solar protection

Continued development of deep daylighting techniques, such as passive light guides and façade components. There should be an increasing role of optics in these developments (for rejection of summer sunlight, deep penetration of light, etc.)

Non-technical research and developmentResearch into user lighting preferences and the acceptability of energy-efficient lighting scenarios.

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Research into the potential of lighting quality to affect health and well-being.

Design support:

Daylighting simulation packages, well adapted to existing CAD software (plug-ins)

Daylighting data bases: 1) material properties , 2) climatic data on daylight availability

Detailed design information from manufacturers of glazing, window frames, solar protection components / systems, etc.

Stimulation of demand

DemonstrationIn order to facilitate the widespread application of best practice, there is a need for demonstration case studies, with which manufacturers can demonstrate the possibilities of high quality, low energy solutions in conjunction with major clients with high potential for replication (such as banks, supermarkets, public organisations).

Examples of efficient offices with lighting power levels of below 70W per person, compared with current levels of 200W per person.

Examples of well daylit (and solar protected) buildings with efficient control strategies. Examples of solutions for retrofits projects.

The user satisfaction and cost-benefit of these demonstration projects will need to be objectively assessed.

DisseminationFrom the above demonstration projects case studies should be prepared of the results and widely disseminated. The press provides an important medium through which results should be communicated.

DeploymentDefinition of "reasonable standards" regarding lighting power densities and consumption.

ConclusionThe most impressive progress in the field of lighting has been in two areas:

Development of high efficiency lamps by multi-national companies

Client awareness in some markets (Germany, Switzerland, etc.)

The development of high efficiency solutions in the near future will be strongly influenced by the ability of the lighting industry and the window component industry to demonstrate the benefits of their solutions not only with respect to energy conservation, but regarding other financial benefits, such as increased market value of the buildings or enhanced well being of building occupants.

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3.4 Mechanical Heating & Cooling (John Berry, Ove Arup)

IntroductionThis section of the RTD Strategy report is concerned with the state of research and future priorities in the broad area of “Mechanical Heating and Cooling in Buildings”. The term covers a multitude and, whilst there are ongoing improvements in the efficiency of traditional technologies, it is necessary to put some boundaries on what is being considered here:

Heat pumps Small- and micro-scale polygeneration, including Stirling engines, micro-turbines and fuel

cells Sustainable cooling systems

The focus will be on systems (rather than components) that are suited to building applications. In the case of fuel cells in particular, the focus is on issues associated with their application in buildings, rather than the technology itself.

Heat Pumps

Industry StructureThe heat pump industry is fragmented, with mainly SMEs being involved in the development of the technology for the marketplace, rather than large enterprises. The heat pumps tend to be sold to the final consumer, i.e. the building owner-occupier. The reseller tends to be an important player in the development of the heat pump market: they sell the equipment; design/size the system to the building requirements; undertake the installation of the external and internal collectors or provide guidance as to requirements and quality control.

State of ResearchHeat pump technology is relatively mature, with research focussed on achieving improvements in performance. Consequently, the fragmented nature of the industry is not seen as a barrier to further technical development. This research is primarily motivated by the replacement of HFC refrigerants and energy saving/CO2 reduction. Particular areas of recent research include:

COP optimisation Reversible heat pumps for heating and cooling New refrigerants (hydrocarbon, ammonia, CO2) Sorption technology Heat storage technologies Cost-effective heat sources (geothermal use) System technology and control, integration in sustainable buildings.

Market Status and IssuesHeat pumps are cost-effective in particular site applications (such as sites which are naturally favourable to high heat collector efficiency, buildings where a high quantity of low temperature heat is required) and national economic conditions (such as low price of electricity relative to gas/heating oil). While further incremental improvements in heat pump technology and performance are possible, their impact on the performance of the heat pump industry will not be a driving force in its development. Therefore, the primary challenge is to develop the market, rather

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Heat PumpManufacturer

Research &Development

(may be mfgr.)Reseller

Building Owner &Occupier

SystemInstaller

Heat PumpManufacturer

Research &Development

(may be mfgr.)Reseller

Building Owner &Occupier

SystemInstaller


than the technology. Issues associated with the wider uptake of heat pumps in the market place are largely typical of a new technology breaking into a well-established industry (i.e. the central heating industry) with entrenched technologies which define the industry. Overcoming these can be undertaken through a number of demonstration and dissemination projects, plus activities to assist in deployment (such as training and certification of installers). It is suggested that, due to the fragmented nature of the heat pump industry, that these measures be assisted by EC funding.

RecommendationsProduct and System Development Areas where further research is required include heat storage technologies, whereby electricity is purchased optimally/off-peak and heat off-loaded as required, and cost-effective techniques for heat collector installation (in Europe installation costs are 30-50% of total installed cost; anecdotal evidence suggests that the cost of collector installation in the US may be 50% of that in Europe). Significant advances in cost-effective storage technologies or heat collector installation could have a major impact on market development. Heat storage research should build upon past work in this area.

Stimulation of DemandDemonstration and dissemination On the demand side, there is a need to tackle issues associated with the consumer adoption of a new technology through independent demonstration, monitoring and dissemination projects. Demonstration projects can provide objective evidence as to the performance of heat pumps in various applications and a clear business case for the technology in that application based upon cost-benefit analysis versus a conventional heating/cooling/dehumidification system. The applications the technology is best-suited to would then become self-evident. Due to the national differences in energy prices, a suite of demonstration projects should be conducted at national levels, rather than pan-European level. By demonstration, we actually mean full support for the “monitoring” equipment and exercise, rather than subsidising the conventional heat pump installation. Demonstration projects should be widely disseminated with detailed consideration given to an effective dissemination plan based on modern marketing principles (i.e. identify the target audience and implement an focussed, integrated suite of dissemination measures that meet the specific needs of that audience). Furthermore, government endorsement of the technology and these projects will provide it with legitimacy.

Deployment In order to assist in the orderly maturing of the market, there is a need for training and certification of both systems and installers.

Micro-Scale Polygeneration

IntroductionThe term “polygeneration” is intended to include a range of prime movers – internal combustion engines, micro turbines, Stirling engines, fuel cells – and the harnessing of the shaft power and heat to generate electricity, provide heating and, where required, provide cooling through an absorption chiller.

Polygeneration technologies may be best considered in terms of their market segment: units with outputs greater than 100kWe are suited to large buildings, and hotels with leisure centres; units with outputs between 30kWe and 100kWe are suited to medium-sized buildings and tend to be the focus of micro-turbine research; units with outputs of the order of 5kWe are suited to dwellings and tend to be the focus of Stirling engine research.

As fuel cells are the subject of particular EC focus at present, and a massive subject in their own right, they are merely touched upon with regard to building integration issues. The focus of this discussion is on applications below 100kWe, i.e. micro applications.

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Industry StructureThere are a number of consortia currently developing micro CHP technologies, for example:

Eneco/Atag/ECN with STC free piston Stirling Advantica/Rinnai with free piston Stirling (expect to be in production by 2003) Ocean Power/Baxi with Sigma kinematic Stirling (currently evaluating, but not active) WhisperTech kinematic Stirling (a number of demonstration projects underway in the UK) Advantica package and market a Capstone microturbine Bowman Power produce a microturbine package in conjunction with a number of partners.

These consortia are large enterprises with the resources to undertake research, design, demonstration, manufacture and sale of the technology.

State of Research: Micro-turbinesMicro-turbines in packages down to a size of 30 kWe (suited to such applications as hospitals) have been developed and are available on the market. The focus of research is on incremental improvements in performance, motivated by a need to improve cost-benefit, and size reduction, motivated by a desire for a broader market base and production economies of scale.

State of Research: Stirling Engines Stirling engines are less-well developed than micro-turbines and their future is more dependent on regulatory developments. However, their development is market-driven, with a particular focus on the massive residential market segment. Plug-and-play packages are being developed that produce 6-10kWth output, with electrical output being 10% of the heat output. Net system efficiency of 98% is achievable. The operating philosophy is to produce heat according to demand (thereby replacing the domestic boiler) with electrical output being a beneficial extra. As the basic packages have been developed, a particular focus is on demonstration and improving the price/performance ratio. The focus of further technical research is on optimising controls and integrating Stirling units with other boilers.

Market Status and IssuesWhilst micro-turbines are further advanced in terms of their market development than Stirling engines, and Stirling engines are closer to market than fuel cells, all face similar issues. Resolving these issues for micro-turbines, which occupy the medium and large building market provide a solid foundation for the development of the Stirling engines in the larger residential market and fuel cells for their market.

Achieving an acceptable cost-benefit for these technologies is contingent upon production economies of scale (cost) and grid-connection with net metering at a suitable price (benefit). The benefit would be further enhanced by some form of carbon/green tax.

Efficient grid connection with net metering is an important building integration issue, which also relates to building integrated photovoltaics. A further building integration issue relates to the installation of low temperature heating systems, which would be of benefit to the efficiency of micro CHP, heat pumps and active solar thermal systems.

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ConsortiaEngine

ManufacturerPackage

Manufacturer

Agent/DealerOr

Direct Sales

BuildingOwner

& OccupierResearch

ConsortiaEngine

ManufacturerPackage

Manufacturer

Agent/DealerOr

Direct Sales

BuildingOwner

& OccupierResearch


One important consideration for both technologies is that their target market is generally an owner-occupier. This often means one-off, retrofit installations rather than the more cost-efficient multiple-unit, new-build installations. However, it is anticipated that the forthcoming Energy Performance Directive will contribute to resolving this issue.

Absorption Cooling (Dr. Ursula Eicker)

Market and industryAbsorption cooling devices of medium and large power are manufactured in comparatively small numbers, world-wide around 10,000 systems per year, of which 85% are produced in Asia. Whereas the manufacturing industry in the United States and Japan is dominated by large companies such as Carrier, Trane, York, Sanyo and others the European Industry mainly consists of medium size enterprises such as Robur, Entropie, Colibri, EAW, Axima etc.

Most absorption chillers are directly gas fired, thus preventing the coupling of waste or renewable heat. In the power range below 20 kW there are currently no absorption nor adsorption technologies available on the market, which can be indirectly heated.

Several recently completed EC research project have produced small size prototypes, for example a 10 kW solar assisted, single-stage LiBr absorption chiller or a 2.5 kW diffusion absorption machine. There is a significant market potential for this kind of systems, which must be further developed to reduce size, weight and efficiency. Also closed cycle adsorption chillers or liquid desiccant units are missing in the low power range.

Small power desiccant cooling units are not available on the market, but could be easily implemented in the residential building sector where ventilation and heat recovery units are now increasingly used in low energy buildings.

Research and demonstrationComponent research is required for low power cooling applications to provide cost effective units. Also further optimisation of single and double effect absorption chillers, especially for indirect heating, is possible. The use of air cooled condensors in LiBr/water chillers could offer a cost effective solution in building applications where cooling towers or evaporative condensors should be avoided.

The heat required by the thermal cooling units can be provided by solar energy, biomass, district heating systems, but also by waste heat from distributed generation systems such as fuel cells, gas turbines, microturbines, internal combustion engines or heat recovery units. System technology and control strategy work is necessary to optimise the performance. Indirect heating of the generators seems the obvious choice to integrate very diverse heat sources. However, efficiency gains can be expected if the exhaust gas of microturbines can be directly used to co-fire an absorption chiller, especially if a double-effect chiller can be used. Demonstration projects should show the benefits of such technology combinations.

On the high temperature levels, concentrating solar collectors as developed for power plant and process heat applications are an interesting technology at low costs, which should be applied in first pilot plants with double effect absorption chillers.

Some efforts should be taken to identify existing power generation sites that can benefit from integration with absorption chillers: inlet air cooling of gas turbines can be a cost effective way to improve the electricity production capacity.

More mature technologies such as solar or waste heat powered desiccant cooling and larger power adsorption and absorption systems should be disseminated in a range of demonstration projects within Europe.

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RecommendationsResearch and Technical DevelopmentEC support for the research and technical development activities of micro-turbines and Stirling engines must be considered in the context of the consortia that develop the systems. Such consortia are competing for competitive advantage against and handful of other consortia, and are unlikely to share results. The industry structure is sufficiently integrated and the players large enough to undertake their own research and technical development, although public funding would facilitate the process.

Stimulation of demandA possibly fairer and more timely distribution of EC-funded activities is on measures to facilitate the development of the market: demonstration, dissemination and deployment. What is essential is that the market achieve sufficient size to allow production economies of scale reduce costs.

Demonstration and disseminationThe demonstration, monitoring and dissemination of performance of micro-turbines and Stirling engines in various national markets is essential to stimulating the market and timely for both technologies.

DeploymentThe widespread deployment of these technologies will require cost-effective, easy-access grid connection with net metering and a fair price for exported power. EC measures to facilitate this would be of great value.

Another valuable deployment measure is to use the results of demonstration projects to develop simulation tools to predict how the micro-CHP technologies would perform in particular national markets and operating scenarios. These tools would facilitate the sale of these units to both owner-occupiers and designers/developers.

ConclusionsThe table provides a summary of the technology situation for heat pumps, micro CHP and fuel cells.

Heat Pumps Micro CHP Fuel CellsState of the Art Mature technology.

Ongoing incremental improvements in performance.

Stirling - development focussing on reducing package cost and size. Microturbines are >30kWe.

Research and development continuing into a number of fuel cell technology types.

Economics Cost-effective in certain applications. Cost of laying collectors significant.

Needs either net metering or local use of total power output for economic operation. Production volumes important.

Not yet viable. Production volumes important.

Activity Required Demonstration, dissemination and deployment.

Development and demonstration.

Research and development

Partnerships SME, Government, Univ/Research.

Large enterprises, Government, Univ/Research.

Large enterprises, University/Research

Project Types Integrated projects Integrated Projects & Networks of Excellence

Networks of Excellence

Some of the suggestions are common to all technologies:

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Low temperature heating systems – all the technologies could benefit from building regulation changes that favoured the use of low temperature heating systems.

EU standards – all the technologies need to achieve adequate production volumes in order to reduce costs. They would benefit from EU standards to help create a pan-European market.

Issues for systems that produce electricity – all small scale embedded generation technologies, including photovoltaics, would benefit from resolving the technical, economic and regulatory issues associated with grid connection. While it is noted that the regulatory conditions differs between member states, there is a case for a cross-technology network in this area, as the issues are largely the same.

Training and Certification – the development of pan-European training and certification infrastructure for installers of these technologies will contribute to their smooth market uptake.

Demonstration and monitoring – as the technologies reach the appropriate point in their development life-cycle, demonstration and monitoring projects are important. One new development is the use of the internet to provide real time project performance information. A European website featuring technical and commercial real time data would provide excellent dissemination potential.

The plans employed and lessons learned in demonstration, monitoring, dissemination, and the development of training and certification programmes for one technology can be used to provide a generic plan for other technologies in the future. This is relevant to one of EnerBuild’s work packages which includes the development of a model to assist coordinators of future RTD actions in developing and implementing effective dissemination strategies.

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3.5 Building Integrated PV (Peter Toggweiler, Enecolo)

IntroductionIn Europe most of the installed capacity will be in the built environment, with a focus on roof and façade integration. The main focus of this report is on building applications and integration issues, but it will also touch on research and manufacturing of solar cells as these represent the basic product and provide context to the discussion. The reader is referred to PV-NET for a strategy for European R&D into PV. The report will discuss the state of the technology and future priorities in the area of Building Integrated Photovoltaics.

Overview of Technology and ApplicationThe photovoltaic cell (PV) is constituted of semi-conducting electronic components, representing an elementary power generator. Several elementary cells are connected to one another to form a module of particular voltage and size. The final product commercialised by the PV industry is the module, which can then be assembled in the shape of panels grouping several modules.

PV in Buildings is now in its second decade. Many built examples demonstrate how photovoltaics can be integrated in buildings in an architecturally inspiring or harmonious manner. Public response has been positive and PV clearly has great potential both for high-profile, prestigious applications and for the more straightforward PV roofing applications.

Industry StructureResearch institutions have a long term focus on the next generation of PV technologies

Large multinational corporations involved in fossil fuel exploration, production and marketing are diversifying into the research, production and marketing of photovoltaics. They are joined by large corporations with backgrounds in electricity and electronics, such as Sanyo and Sharp. These organisations manufacture PV modules at large facilities and their research focus is on incremental improvements to the existing generation of technologies, including production processes. In addition, Europe has a number of manufacturers who are primarily focussed on PV. These manufacturers sell to local dealer, user organisation, contractors, installers, manufacturers of components and turn key systems or to the end users. The present market is not at all organised. It is different in each country and there are many different ways the modules pass from the module factory up to the roof. Basically there are always two or three types of commercial companies involved: The large industry for production of the key components such as inverters and pv-modules and the often small, local companies for the trading and installation of the systems.

State of ResearchCost-reduction is one of the major challenges PV faces and is the focus of much research. In order to achieve significant cost reductions, all steps in the production and value chain have to be improved and optimised (e.g. silicon feed stock, cells, modules and systems).

Cells, solar active layers – The solar cell is the key product for the conversion of solar power into electricity. It is under development since a few decades. There is still a potential for further improvements in performance and processing technology in crystalline silicon technology and other photovoltaic principles. Instead of single cells more and more thin film layer applications are under test, development and in pilot productions. Some common goals are

increase the conversion efficiency reduce the production costs reduce the material and energy consumption

Module – Progress in technology is realised largely through incremental improvements of available technologies. This is true for photovoltaics as well as the other parts of a solar module such as

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glazing, framing and materials lamination and sealing. The incremental improvement has to be cost-effective: that is, the ‘cost of ownership’ of the manufacturing equipment that implements this improvement has to be at least offset by gains in the price/cost relation. Much of the R&D aiming at these technology improvements will be done by industry itself in order to gain competitive advantage. Namely pilot and demonstration programmes together with market stimulation initiatives support the modules development by the industry. For further information on the status of cell technology and production, the reader is referred to references 1 & 2.

BOS Components - The inverter for the grid connection of the PV-generator is the major part among the “Balance of system components” (BOS). Due to the initial market of BIPV a strong development for the solar inverter has happened in the past years. Cost reduction of at least 50 % in the past years have been achieved beside improved efficiency and reliability. the European market is dominated by European companies such as SMA, Fronius, Siemens and others. Some common goals for past, currents and future goals of R&D are:

improve reliability and reduce the repair and replacement costs increase the efficiency, in particular the part load efficiency further cost reductions realise added values by integrating the plant performance monitoring in the inverter or the

inclusion of uninterruptable power supply function.

Applications - Regarding research into building integrated PV, research tends to focus on the application of PV technology in a cost-effective way (as noted above, all steps in the production and value chain have to be optimised). This includes:

The development of cost-effective, standard roof and façade PV elements, which allow the substitution of conventional building elements such as roof tiles and façade panels.

Supporting guidelines have been developed. Certification procedures are under preparation Architectural integration has been demonstrated, further activities in education and

knowledge transfer is required. Quality labels

MarketRegarding the PV market size, the graph below illustrates achievable levels of solar production from PV roofs and facades in IEA countries:

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Note: Based on solar yield of minimum 80% and an efficiency of the PV system of minimum 10%. Levels are expressed by the ratio:

solar electricity production potential/electricity consumption per country.

The entire PV market has been growing at an average annual rate of 20-25% over the past 10 years. Market growth is attributable to the combined effect of national initiatives, which are essential at current production costs, and declining production costs.

A wide range of PV roof and façade elements are now available on the market. It is worth noting that roof-mounted installations represent a more important market and have greater potential for energy generation in Europe than large size plant on free ground.

The chief concerns with regard to this rapidly growing market are: Production capacity constraints The need to improve the cost-benefit of the technology Market development issues

Production Capacity ConstraintsWhile this represents an important issue, production capacities continue to increase in response to market growth and technological developments.

Cost-benefit On the cost side, the objective is to reduce cost per installed kW. While this cost is primarily driven by module manufacturing costs, cost reduction of systems is essential. Based on steady historical progress and experts’ views, it is fair to assume that a steady downward trend in costs/Wp of 5-10% per annum will continue.

It is on the benefit side that building integration issues become more relevant. Improving the benefit involves substitution of conventional roof or façade materials with PV panels, i.e. making the PV panel itself both a viable and desirable building product; and obtaining optimum value for the electricity produced, e.g. through the use of net metering.

It is essential, and a major challenge for industry, that PV systems develop to become building components that can more readily be specified and architecturally integrated in roofs and façades so that they satisfactorily perform additional functions such as cladding, shading or rain screen elements.

Making PV a desirable building product can be facilitated by encouraging high-profile innovative designs, where PV becomes a feature in its own right; and by disseminating examples of architecturally pleasing, naturally integrated designs which illustrate harmony and good composition.

Low cost grid connection and resolving issues associated with the sale of surplus power are vital to market development. Germany has the highest level of photovoltaic installations in Europe and an important factor it its success is the guaranteed market and buy back rates which are in relation to the costs for the solar electricity, at present about 0.48 per kWh.

Market Development IssuesRapidly growing markets of new technologies can be vulnerable to unscrupulous entrants and ill-informed or ill-conceived development. If the technology is to enjoy the massive penetration that is necessary to drive production costs down, education and training of designers and installers is essential. In addition, standards, guidelines and certification are necessary measures to ensure the successful deployment of the technology. It is noted that a recent EU-sponsored survey (PV Information Strategy for Architects and European Citizens) found that over 80% of architects asked

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for more authoritative information on PV in buildings, particularly in the field of design guidelines, design tools, product availability, aesthetics and environmental benefits. Furthermore, financial issues, utility involvement, insurance, taxing, quality and warranty schemes have to be developed and implemented.

Goals, Targets and TimescaleThe widespread market penetration of building integrated photovoltaics will largely be determined by reducing installed cost/Wp to a level that is competitive with conventional forms of electricity generation with similar ecological performance. Technology advances and incremental improvements in production costs make it likely toachieve this.

Building integration aspects can accelerate the process slightly through improving the benefit side of the cost-benefit equation, as discussed above. Furthermore, it is essential is that the legal, political and fiscal framework contribute to the timely growth of the market (e.g. by addressing grid connection issues); and that the market be developed so as to allow the smooth growth in demand as costs decline. Addressing these issues should be the goal of EC-funded activities over the short to medium term. Recommendations as to how to address these are outlined below.

RecommendationsBased upon the above, these conclusions as to future research priorities naturally follow:

ResearchFundamental research will continue to be done largely on a national level. However, the coordination of these efforts is recommended, as done in the existing network PV-EC-NET and PV-NET. Particular focus on 3rd generation technology, efficiency improvements and process technology.

DevelopmentManufacturing cost reduction measures – further support of technical development, including high volume production processes, for several technologies such as crystalline and amorphous silicon.

Most of the PV market in Europe will be building integrated. Therefore building integration has to be an integral part of the EU-PV – program. Any extra activities for building integration must be part of the general PV program or going to have a strong co-ordination. The following proposals therefore do not specifically mention the building integration, because it is considered as integral part.

DemonstrationDemonstration of new technologies is still necessary, basic BIPV demonstration is recommended in the NAS countries. In the other countries it is more a question of how to do large scale deployment and not any more single demonstration systems.

DisseminationSee deployment, below.

DeploymentMarket stimulation - The coordination of market stimulation measures and study of best practice across EU nations.

Standards and Guidelines – the adaptation of existing standards and guidelines to allow PV modules and systems become more readily certifiable as building elements. While the development of material may be coordinated at an EU level, existing national professional organisations will provide the means for implementation.

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Education and Training – greater emphasis on PV and BIPV in engineering, architecture and building trade courses, in continuing professional development courses and related educational material for architects, engineers, and in training for installers and operators. While the development of material may be coordinated at an EU level, existing national professional organisations represent a preferred communication channel (from the perspective of the target audience).

References in Appendix A

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3.6 Building Components (Peter Wouters, BBRI)

IntroductionWhile historically the challenge of optimising building energy performance involved simply balancing thermal comfort in winter with minimising heat energy requirements, now acoustical comfort, indoor air quality, and visual comfort must also be considered. In addition, comfort levels through all four seasons must be considered when designing and assessing building envelopes.

This report is concerned with the development and integration of building elements, such as windows and façades, into the building envelope such that they contribute to providing a comfortable, healthy and energy-efficient indoor environment. It considers the state of research, how the industry is structured and how the market for these elements is performing. Recommendations for future activities to support their use are presented.

Glazing IntroductionGlazing has a number of contributions to make in providing a comfortable, healthy and energy-efficient building. It must:

Control heat losses in winter Control solar thermal gains, which are useful in winter, but not desirable in summer Provide a sense of contact with the outside Minimise the need for artificial lighting, while avoiding glare Reduce sound transmission And address additional concerns, such as

o Provide pre-heating of ventilation airo Low maintenanceo Conform with fire regulationso Be aesthetically appealingo Realistic cost.

State of ResearchThere has been major developments in the past decade in thermal and light transmission performance of glazing systems and in time-variable properties (switchable glazing, etc.). In fact, there has been a shift in the role of windows from poorly performing elements to advanced components that help optimise the building skin performance (solar thermal, daylight, etc.) in harmony with the HVAC and lighting systems. As a consequence of this shifting role, integrated design (which considers façade design, the HVAC system and lighting systems) is of increasing importance.

Research continues to improve glazing systems through the use of innovative material technologies and concepts. Examples of recent research include:

Durable peak performance evacuated glazing Insulating, light transmitting aerogel glazing Reversible frame absorptive glazing for winter and summer control.

Looking to the future, it is necessary to continue to build on the developments of the past decade. Particular areas that hold good promise for making a significant contribution to energy-efficient glazing are:

Vacuum glazing Vacuum glazing may be an attractive option in terms of energy efficiency (low U-value) and space use and aesthetics (thin components) for large-scale applications and the retrofitting of existing

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stock. The major technical issues at present are edge losses and edge condensation risk. If these technical issues can be solved, it probably may lead to a large scale application of price competitive glazings with low U-value.

Variable glazingAs indicated above, variable glazing has failed to achieve significant market penetration due to its cost-effectiveness. However, it might be that new technological findings can in the coming years result in a major breakthrough. Probably, research in the area of nano-technologies may lead to a better understanding of interesting options, similar as achieved during recent years in self-cleaning glazing.

Market Status and IssuesA wide range of products/ technical solutions is available to support good indoor climate and energy performance. The market penetration of these solutions varies widely across the EU, but in any case the market is very different from that of ten years ago. In an increased number of countries, low-e coated glazing with gas filling has become the reference solution for new buildings and for retrofitting and is more and more required as part of the building regulations.

The technologies that are technically mature but have failed to achieve significant market penetration include variable glazing systems and hybrid PV. This failure is largely attributable to their high cost. It is not evident to predict the market development for these technologies.

Industry StructureThe structure of the glazing industry may be represented:

Production of flat glass and coated glass requires very important investments and, as a result, these companies are (very) large organisations. The assembly of window units is less capital intensive and is possible by SME’s. Innovation is to a large extent steered and often to a large extent done by the R&D departments of the larger companies. However, for certain technologies is the know-how and technological input from universities and other industrial sectors probably very important.

FaçadesWhile “facades” strictly speaking includes glazing materials, this section deals with opaque elements used in the construction of the building envelope. The potential number of materials used for facades is virtually limitless. As such, comments will tend to be quite general.

State of ResearchDuring the last decade, there has been a whole range of substantial developments and improvements in the energetic performances of building components, although often less visible for the general public. Examples are:

Thermal insulation materials with a better overall performance or with similar performances but with a lower environmental impact;

Technologies for strongly reducing the thermal bridge effect.

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GlazingManufacturer

Window UnitAssembly

and Supply

Architect orBuilder

BuildingOwner

ResearchInstitution

BuildingOccupier

Develops innovative

glazing technology or systems

Incrementalimprovements

to glazingproperties

GlazingManufacturer

Window UnitAssembly

and Supply

Architect orBuilder

BuildingOwner

ResearchInstitution

BuildingOccupier

Develops innovative

glazing technology or systems

Incrementalimprovements

to glazingproperties


Among the materials with a high visibility is vacuum insulation. However, this technology is not yet mature for a wide scale application.

As far as building components is concerned, a whole range of innovative concepts have been developed during recent years. Examples from EC funded projects include ::

Solar power envelope Study and evaluation of integrated solar façade Solar building façades Design study of thermal diode wall Design of multi-functional ventilated façade Façade-roof integrated PV

As the titles suggest, most of this research has been into the integration of renewable energy technologies into the building façade.

At building level, the application of building envelopes with very good thermal performances is a remarkable development in certain countries, e.g. in relation to the so-called Passivhaus concepts.

Industry structure The potential number of materials used for facades is virtually limitless. As such, the majority of companies do not specialise in the production of “facades”, but rather in the production of particular façade components, such as bricks, concrete products, metals, timber, each with its own particular industry structure. Consequently, the “façade” industry is extremely fragmented and varied. The important point to note about industry structure are:

the development of innovative new technologies may be by research institutions in response to industry demands or public funding, or by the industry themselves;

architectural, cost and cultural considerations have often equal or greater importance than energy considerations in the choice of façade;

in order for a façade material to be used, the architect/specifier must be aware it exists and it must be available on the market;

increasing building performance requirements (in terms of thermal insulation, acoustical comfort, airtightness, etc.) will probably lead to a more integrated approach to building facades.

Market status and issuesThere are major differences between various countries concerning the market implementation of new technologies for various reasons, including climate and construction regulations.

RecommendationsThe availability of energy efficient technology is essential for improving the performances of the building stock. While research continues into glazing technologies, windows and active façades, a range of technologies are available at competitive prices. In several cases (glazings, windiow frames, insulation systems, etc.) their market penetration has been high. In some other cases, it has been poor and creating appropriate market conditions for the deployment of technologies is of greater importance than developing new technologies.

Research and Technical DevelopmentAlthough impressive progress has been achieved during the last decade(s), there is still a need for substantial further improvements. Vacuum glazing may be a cost effective and architecturally attractive technology for a large

scale application of high insulating glazing which, moreover, could be very attractive for the retrofitting market given the limited thickness of the glazing. The major technological challenge is the limitation of the edge losses and the condensation risk at the edges.

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Variable glazing systems at reasonable cost levels; Reliable climate façade concepts with optimal performances; Attractive solutions for integration of renewables in facades.

DemonstrationDemonstration projects are an important element in a global strategy for creating awareness and for gaining experience.

DeploymentDesign support – The performance of windows and facades is greatly influenced by overall building design and occupancy characteristics, especially in non-domestic buildings. Thus, component optimisation can no longer be analysed in isolation on the basis of, for example, the loss of heat in winter: integrated evaluation and solutions are required. In the case of windows, in particular, energy performances in winter and summer, along with visual and acoustical performances, are essential aspects of an integrated evaluation. Design support for ‘climatic facades’ that have great potential to improve indoor climates and energy performance is especially important. However, despite their vital nature, significant improvements in evaluation and design support tools are needed to accommodate such issues as the interaction between façade performance and HVAC performance. Appropriate energy design support for opaque components is more straightforward, with the exception of buildings without heating systems.

Standards and regulations – As the importance of energy-efficiency and indoor environmental quality increase, so does the need for integrated performance assessment methods. Several Member States operate, or are preparing, energy performance standards and regulations, mostly based on EU standards but with fundamental differences in interpretation. The appropriate assessment of many advanced developments in windows and facades is not possible within the framework of these standards and regulations and a consistent approach should be adopted.

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3.7 Building & Urban Design (Koen Steemers, Cambridge Architectural Research)

IntroductionThis section of the RTD Strategy document focuses on design and building integration in the context of the construction industry and the associated professions. The emphasis is on process of getting a building built and occupying it; on the synthesis of the various components of the building (such as the context, building form, special components, physical components of walls, technologies, controls); and on the various stakeholders (the client, architect and engineers) involved; rather than a particular product or technology.

The knowledge generated as a result of research in this area may ultimately result in the development of design guidelines, design software, the advancement of building regulations, or simply a better understanding of the considerations involved in the design and construction or refurbishment of an energy-efficient building.

To be more specific, particular areas that are considered include: Building design The integration of renewable energy technologies into buildings Building refurbishment Urban design Indoor environmental quality

Industry StructureIn terms of the development and diffusion of knowledge in the area of building and urban design, it is helpful to think of the process involved:

The Research is generally undertaken by academic/research institutions and/or practitioners. It is concerned with obtaining a deeper understanding of the issues involved in building and urban design. This knowledge may result in development, or spawn new areas of research.

Development is concerned with packaging this knowledge in a user-friendly format suitable for use by the design team. Development is undertaken by those who possess both the knowledge and the means of packaging it; for instance, software developers can take paper-based models such as the LT Method and develop CAD-based software. Consequently, this step in the process may involve collaboration between organisations with different specialities.

Obviously, there is a whole process of dissemination and technology transfer such that the packaged knowledge becomes available to the design team. This may be through marketing, national institutions such as CIBSE, national building regulations, or through conference papers, etc.

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DesignApplication of the knowledge

to building design

DevelopmentPackaging the knowledge in

format suitable for design team:Software

Design GuidelinesArticles/PublicationsConference PapersBuilding Regulations

Robust Construction Details

Beneficial UseImproved energy

performance of the building

ResearchGaining understanding of issues and variables

FeedbackPost-occupancy

evaluation of actual performance

DesignApplication of the knowledge

to building design

DevelopmentPackaging the knowledge in

format suitable for design team:Software

Design GuidelinesArticles/PublicationsConference PapersBuilding Regulations

Robust Construction Details

Beneficial UseImproved energy

performance of the building

ResearchGaining understanding of issues and variables

FeedbackPost-occupancy

evaluation of actual performance


Design is concerned with the application of this knowledge to building design. Building performance simulation tools may be used by the engineers. More general techniques or design guidelines may be used by architects.

Beneficial use of the building accrues to the occupant in terms of improved comfort and reduced energy costs. However, often the actual energy performance of a building far exceeds that predicted by simulation software. Consequently, there is a need to provide feedback to all the other parties such that a deeper understanding of why can be developed, through post-occupancy evaluation.

Market Status and IssuesWhile the knowledge is developed, transferring it to designers in a form that can be accepted and used, without information overload, remains the greatest challenge to the use of energy-efficient design tools. Reflecting on the above diagram of industry structure, the issues in the diffusion of knowledge from research to design teams are associated with highly fragmented nature of both communities, resulting in a large number of tools for specialist applications. The common means of overcoming this fragmentation are:

Having guidelines incorporated into those produced by national construction industry organisations, such as CIBSE, there by gaining credibility and distribution, but losing the market “value” of the knowledge;

Publication of research results in industry journals; Education and continued professional development; Developing a bolt-on module for the de-facto standard design packages that are already in

large offices, such as CAD and ESP-r.

An important recent development that has massive potential consequences for energy-efficient building design is climate change or, more particularly, the fact that design teams are now beginning to consider the implications of climate change for the comfort of buildings. It is conceivable that clients and designers will specify air-conditioning in order to mitigate the risk that climate change will affect comfort conditions in the future, thereby aggravating the climate change issue and making the need a self-fulfilling prophesy.

State of Research: Overview of Applications and Technology SituationBuilding designMany building design tools exist and some have been packaged in a manner that facilitates their widespread application. For instance, user-friendly front-ends have been developed for ESP-r and anecdotal evidence now suggests that it is being adopted by the engineering consultants, in much the same way as CAD became a normal design tool 10-15 years ago.

Many of the tools that exist could be enhanced to incorporate the knowledge gained from research projects into energy efficiency. For instance, the incorporation of the LT Method into CAD.

Simpler tools that are used in the earlier stages of building design and would be adopted by architects, such as the LT method, also exist.

While energy simulation tools such as ESP-r exist, they are only good at looking at the variables and predicting the parameters; they are not good at predicting actual energy consumption. This begs the question: why? It would appear that other variables are not being taken account of; for instance, how well the building is constructed and commissioned, how the occupants interact with the building and its controls, what the effects of the urban micro-climate or climate change are. There is a need for energy models that assess the robustness of the design, that consider likely occupant satisfaction and interaction with the building. However, while post-occupancy evaluation

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techniques for providing reliable feedback to research, development and design exist (PROBE studies), the use of these techniques to gather the basic information on actual building energy performance and occupant interaction with the building is not available or standardised.

The integration of renewable energy technologies into buildingsResearch into the integration of renewable energy technologies into building design, and the development of associated design support tools/guidelines has been good: for instance, practical handbooks exist on considerations for the integration of PV or solar thermal panels into buildings.

However, these practical guidelines have failed to stimulate the imagination of architects in a way that makes them a normal consideration of development. The EC-funded WEB project addressed wind energy in buildings and its success thus far in raising awareness at a mass-media level illustrates the potential value of such research. At a practical level, WEB has produced a methodology and design guidance on the integration of wind turbines into buildings.

Building refurbishmentThe focus of much of the recent research in the area of building refurbishment has been concerned with tools to assist in refurbishment decision-making. Two particular areas are the question of embodied energy and how it relates to refurbishment cycle decision-making, and tools to optimise refurbishment decisions.

In the case of embodied energy and refurbishment cycle decision-making, much knowledge has been gained but simple methods for evaluating the life-cycle energy implications of interventions; whether they are reversible/changeable or not; how one might plan for change over time; how to respond to changing work patterns and the effects of climate change have not been developed.

While new buildings can be optimised for energy, refurbishment carries a considerable amount of complexity associated with the option of retaining existing services and structures. For instance, to achieve a particular level of efficiency, one could use more energy-efficient boilers or improved insulation systems. In addition, the motives for refurbishment tend to be associated with comfort, aesthetics and changes in use, rather than energy performance; these motives will gain higher priority in the refurbishment decision-making process. Consequently, there is a need for design tools to assist in identifying and assessing the range of opportunities in this decision-making process. These tools must be general refurbishment tools, rather than simply energy-efficiency tools.

Urban designA considerable amount of research has been undertaken into the urban environment on a macro scale, addressing such issues as the heat island effect, pollution levels in cities and transport modelling. In addition, as discussed above, there has been research into the energy performance of individual buildings.

However, once a building is put into an urban microclimate, a number of issues arise: noise, pollution, overshadowing, the heat island effect. Concerns about these frequently provide an excuse to abandon the energy-efficiency agenda. With the exception of overshadowing, little or no research has been undertaken into urban building energy performance. Were a greater understanding of this area developed, it might be possible to broaden the scope of existing building design tools to become urban building design tools. For instance, ESP-r could include a means for simulating the performance of a building in an urban microclimate.

In addition, while there has been much information gathered on pollution levels in cities by local authorities, no guidelines exist for planners on how they should respond to this. Examples of research is necessary include models to determine the relative impact of the links between urban form and pollution dispersal at the street level.

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Finally, issues related to urban design are particularly pertinent to municipalities and planners. While sustainable urban design is likely to consider transport issues, little research has been undertaken into the connections between aspects of urban design and transport; how urban planning regulations and strategies impact on energy consumption; effects of live/work patterns; the movement of people; the implications of the quality of the urban environment; indoor air quality related to the outdoor environment, etc. Those are seen as broad topics for mid to long-term research that will impact on energy demand in buildings.

Indoor environmental qualityResearch has been undertaken into the sources of air pollution within a building and establishing acceptable levels. However, this knowledge has not reached building designers in a format that can be digested and taken account of during the design phase. Practical guidelines, diffused through national organisations, present one possible solution. On the research side, there is a need for IEQ research to consider the effect of external sources of pollution, as this is perceived as important by designers. See also Urban Design.

Future Priorities: Research, Development, Demonstration, Dissemination, DeploymentPost-Occupancy Evaluation of BuildingsBased on the above, a key future priority is to undertake systematic Post-Occupancy Evaluations (POE) of buildings. If undertaken properly (i.e. systematically, scientifically and independently), this information will form the basis for several activities:

Research – gaining a greater understanding of why energy simulation tools fail to accurately predict actual energy consumption of buildings. This includes information on:

o How the commissioning of buildings affects their future performance, which would result in the development of commissioning procedures

o How occupants interact with a building, its systems and its controls, which would result in the development of techniques to assess the level of adaptive opportunities available to occupants, and the environmental performance consequences (energy use, comfort, well-being, etc.).

o How urban microclimate impinges on building performance.

Development – the above research knowledge will contribute to the further development/improvement of existing tools so that they can more accurately predict building energy performance.

Dissemination – the preparation of high quality case studies that are comparable between buildings and from which general knowledge can be derived. The target audience would be designers and clients; as such, in addition to providing knowledge, it should be visually stimulating. Typically case studies have information about a particular energy performance, but it is rarely clear how that energy use/comfort/ productivity/IEQ is being assessed.

The collection of realtime information on the energy performance of buildings, and its display on the internet, would assist in the widespread dissemination of up-to-date data for use in research and development, as well as providing a live dissemination medium for design teams and clients. An online database with an international selection of buildings and different layers of information could have tremendous value. Standardised, controlled and comparable monitoring and reporting recommendations and specifications should be developed.

Research: Urban DesignResearch is required on ‘sustainable urban design’ (or designing energy efficient, comfortable and healthy buildings in an urban environment) and the development of associated tools (e.g. linking built form, transport, microclimate, air quality and citizens’ health and perceptions).

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Development: RefurbishmentRTD is needed to develop energy and environmental assessment tools for refurbishment: including life-cycle analysis, ‘diversified life’ design strategies, links with demographic and climate change scenarios, etc.

Development: Indoor Environmental QualityIndoor environmental quality, and the wider issues related to health, such as the links between the specification or treatment of materials and occupant physiological reactions (asthma, allergies, headaches, etc.), need greater consolidation. These concerns are clearly very important in themselves, but they are also strongly connected with the design and environmental performance of buildings and systems. The development of practical guidelines for designers based on recent research into IEQ is necessary. The dissemination of this information should be through national industry organisations.

Deployment Needs: TargetsIn order to reduce energy consumption and increase the use of renewables, it is critical to establish appropriate targets. While legislation provides a useful first step, it represents the lowest common denominator in that it sets a relatively low base level that is acceptable to all actors involved. Appropriate targets have the potential to instil enthusiasm, rather than use coercion, as a means to induce more sustainable design. However, it will be necessary to establish the most appropriate design targets; some possibilities include sustainability indicators, life cycle assessment, continued assessment of performance, performance of building elements and materials. Targets should also be developed for occupancy satisfaction and embodied energy use.

Deployment Needs: Robust DetailsRobust construction details already exist, providing generic design construction details that deal with certain problems or performance criteria. To conform to Building Regulations you can either use these details to design your building, or you can carry out more complex calculations. As RET’s are developed, it is important to facilitate their integration into buildings during the construction process: developing a wide range of robust construction details for the more standard/mature RET’s (such as solar thermal systems) would facilitate their wider application.

Conclusions: Short, Medium and Long term Priority Measures for the FutureThe big issues identified above are the implications of climate change for building design, the design of buildings for the urban context, the importance of refurbishment that improves energy performance, and the effect of occupant interaction on the energy performance of buildings.

In the environment described above, the measure that is most likely to have a short and medium term beneficial impact is clear: there is a need for a programme to collect, process and disseminate post-occupancy evaluation data.

This must be complemented by the development of decision-making tools to support refurbishment and of guidelines on indoor environmental quality. In addition, the data gathered in the post-occupancy evaluations will be used to enhance existing design tools.

Medium to long term research must should turn to addressing designing for climate change and the study of occupant interaction with buildings.

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4. CROSS-CUTTING CONSIDERATIONS

In addition to considering specific technology areas, discussed in Section 3, contributions in a number of areas that cut across these have also been evaluated, with the objective of identifying important considerations that don’t relate to a particular technology area. These areas are:

health and comfort information technology dissemination and technology transfer sociology.

4.1 Health, Comfortable, and Safe Spaces for The People of Europe(Philomena M. Bluyssen and Olaf C.G. Adan, TNO Building and Construction Research)

INTRODUCTIONThe well-being of the People of Europe is largely affected by health, comfort and safety during the main activities living, working and transportation in an enclosed space, where they spend more than 90% of their time (Jenkins, 1990). In more than 40% of these spaces, people suffer of health, comfort and safety related complaints and illnesses (Dorgan Asociates, 1993).

Percentage of time spend in a certain space (Jenkins, 1990):Space % of time

spendLiving 62Working 25Transport 7Outdoors 6

Improving health, comfort and safety of the European population in those spaces has consequently a huge potential for economic and societal benefits obtained by increased productivity, reduced sick leave and medical costs and reduction of number of casualties in accidents, but also by the prevention of liabilities.

A more comfortable and healthier indoor environment will result in fewer people with complaints (Bluyssen et al, 1995). Indoor environmental (IEQ) complaints are related to the sickness absence rates of office workers due to the Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) and the building-related illnesses (BRI) (Preller et al, 1990). The percentage of people having asthma and allergies in domestic buildings is increasing (Sundell, 2000) leading to increased health care costs. Losses in work productivity and performance have a direct, financial impact to businesses.

Only 20% of the building stock can be qualified as healthy implying that in 80% a potential benefit of 1 to 6% improved productivity is present (Dorgan Associates, 1993). For the US (270 million inhabitants), Fisk (2000) estimated annual savings and productivity gains from reduced allergies and asthma, reduced sick building syndrome symptoms and direct improvements in worker performance that are related to comfort. These figures were transferred to Europe-15 (375 million inhabitants) in the table below. The potential savings are enormous.

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Estimated savings for Europe-15 in billion Euro/ year.Buildings SavingsReduced Allergies and asthma (based on a reduction of 8 to 25% of medical costs)1

3-6

Reduced Sick building Syndrome symptoms (based on 20-50% reduction and 2% productivity improvement)

15-45

Increased productivity by comfort related improvements(based on 0.5-5% increase in worker performance)

30-240

Healthy/unhealthy buildings (Dorgan Associates, 1993)Category % of total

number of buildings1

Potential productivity improvement (%)

Healthy 20 0Generally healthy 40 1.5Unhealthy, source unknown

20 3.5

Unhealthy, source known

10 3.5

SBS/BRI 10 61: including office, educational, mercantile and service, lodging and food service buildings


However, the ambition of healthy, comfortable and safe indoor spaces on the one hand and the target of smart and sustainable spaces on the other appear to be conflicting and contra productive, which may have serious implications for innovations in the industry. “Spaces” in this context are enclosed environments such as: Living space (apartment buildings, private homes), Working space (office buildings, industrial working places), Recreation space (gyms, swimming pools, ), Public space (hotels, stations, schools, theatres), Transport (land: cars, busses, trucks, trains, trams; and air: aeroplanes, satellites).

To address the societal needs of improving health, comfort and safety of the European population, simultaneously reducing energy demands, as laid down basically in the WHO targets and the Kyoto protocol, respectively, the integration of different sectors, disciplines, stakeholders and organisations for realization on a European scale is a must.

MAJOR TRENDSBesides these two major targets, the following trends and issues regarding ‘smart and sustainable’, ‘health, comfort and safety’, and ‘industrial competitiveness’, can be seen, which are important to consider in such a integrated/interdisciplinary approach.

Smart and sustainable

Reduction of energy use: Products and services that reduce energy used in buildings and transport (respectively circa 40% and 32% of the total primary energy used in Europe (EU, 2000)).

Policies towards enhanced sustainability: To extend the service life of materials and constructions is one of the most effective ways to enhance sustainability of the overall economy. Sustainability, including sustainable construction and sustainability of the built environment is in the very centre of the social, economic, environmental and political attention of all member states.

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The health targets specified by the WHO Europe (WHO, 2000): - “By the year 2015, people in the Region should live in a safer physical environment, with exposure to

contaminants hazardous to health at levels not exceeding internationally agreed standard.” (European Health21 target 10) and

- “By the year 2015, people in the Region should have greater opportunities to live in healthy physical and social environments at home, at school, at the workplace and in the local community.” (European Health31 target 13)

Kyoto protocol target: “to reduce the demand for energy by 18% by the year 2010, to contribute to meeting the EU’s commitments to combat climate change and to improve the security of energy supply”


Towards eco-friendlier products: Products and services with a low emission of harmful substances and a long life cycle. This addresses the growing ecological demands and environmental legislation (e.g. tightening up of the Biocides Directive (EU, 1998)).

The industrial shift from a product towards performance based approach: integrate a low energy use and a high sustainability, leading to high CO2 reductions.

The major shift towards re-evaluating and upgrading the existing building stock: has great potential to save energy as well as to improve the indoor environmental quality of existing building stock. This applies especially to candidate countries, where energy consumption is projected to increase even faster than for the member states and their related indoor environmental complaints is foreseen to have large consequences for the near future.

Energy use and CO2 emissions in Europe.Year 2000 Projected 20102

Energy use[Mtoe]1

CO2

emission[1010 kg]1

Energy use[Mtoe]

Europe-30 1250 250 1750BuildingsExtra caused by inadequate design3

500up to 20%

10020

700140

Transport 400 80 560Europe-152 1000 200 13401: millions of oil equivalent (1 Mtoe equals 4x107 GJ); assuming 1 GJ generates 50 kg CO2

2: current EU accounts for almost 80% of the energy consumption in Europe-30. The candidate countries are projected to become more similar to the energy structure of the EU over the next decades; If no action is taken the energy demand for the current EU member states may grow with 2-4% per year and for the applicant countries 3-6% up to 2010 (EU, 2000). 3: besides development of new and renewable energies, adequate design of buildings is a potential solution to cut energy demand (Adan, 2000)

Health, comfort and safety

Health, comfort and safety of occupants is far from ideal: there is a need for products & services which will contribute to the general well-being of people, an improvement of productivity, reduction of absence due to illness and reduction of the percentage of people having asthma and allergies, and decrease the number of casualties in the transport sector. The increasing ageing population causes a corresponding increase in high-risk groups from the point of view of respiratory health complaints. It is estimated that the percentage of the Europe-15 population by age of 65 and more will grow from 2000 (15.5%) with at least 5% in 2020 (19.6%) (Doll and Haffner, 2001).

Consequences of microbial growth: Moisture problems are widespread, ranging from electronic components, wiring circuits, space stations and satellites, air conditioning systems to visual effects in the living environment. Though ‘moisture problems’ are not perceived as being a societal problem, they in fact are (Samson et al. 1994). It is estimated that approximately 20% of the human population in Europe is allergic to mites and fungi (not related to the outdoor environment (Institute of Medicine, 2000; Jantunen et al, 1999).

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Feeling of safety: Besides the physical safety, the feeling of safety by people is an emerging discussion point as well. After September 11, safety at home, on the way and at work became major issues.

Industrial competitiveness

Transition from a product based (supply) to a service-customer oriented (demand) approach: there is a need for consumer-tailored products & services, including flexibility of buildings and different and more space requirements inspired by increasing individualisation. This need driven by the fact that the average household size in Europe-15 has been decreasing from 2.9 in 1980 to 2.5 in 2000 (Doll and Haffner, 2001).

Transition towards knowledge-based society: there is a need for added value products & services that will increase the attractiveness of industries in terms of better employment conditions.

The trend towards an increased complexity of the building process: there is a need for products & services supporting an integrated approach of the building and manufacturing process, e.g. through the integration of design, construction and management processes- and the integration of the different professions. The different incentives of the stakeholders and the communication between them, are crucial in this.

Commonly agreed and uniform European regulation: there is a need for consensus regulation. Currently, different national practices make it practically impossible to comply with different regulations in the various member states.

INTEGRATED/INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACHTo create healthy, comfortable, safe, smart and sustainable spaces, so-called Ecospaces, several steps need to be taken:

1. Performance and human perception: The human requirements with respect to health, comfort and safety need to be clearly identified. A comprehensive and coherent knowledge basis for human health, comfort and safety in enclosed spaces under living, working and transportation conditions is therefore required.

2. Interaction enclosure-space (passive): The system and material requirements (enclosure of space) can then be identified and innovative techniques and systems can be applied to reach these requirements. An enhanced high performance enclosure that guarantees a high basic level of health, comfort and safety in enclosed spaces can then be created.

3. Interaction human-space (active): The demand from the occupants point of view should be regulated with the supply side (possible enclosure-environmental configuration) with the use of sensors, interfaces and actuators. An adaptive space, allowing individual control of the environmental conditions in the personal space, should thus be created.

4. A holistic approach of Ecospaces: And last but not least, all of the above should be integrated in a holistic design (concept) of the “space” considered. Healthy, comfortable and safe, smart and sustainable spaces can then be realised.

The first and the last step require both an integrated approach mainly focussed on and with people, while the second and the third step are mostly individual innovative breakthroughs with respect to products, materials or production processes, depending on techniques and materials available.

PERFORMANCE AND HUMAN PERCEPTIONFrom the occupant point-of-view, the ideal situation is an indoor environment that satisfies all occupants (i.e. they have no complaints) and does not unnecessarily increase the risk or severity of illness or injury. Both the satisfaction of people (comfort) and health status are influenced by numerous factors: general well-being, mental drive, job satisfaction, technical competence, career

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achievements, home/work interface, relationship with others, personal circumstances, organisational matters, etc.. and last but not least environmental factors, such as:- indoor air quality: comprising odour, indoor air pollution, fresh air supply etc..- thermal comfort: moisture, air velocity, temperature,…- acoustical quality: noise from outside, indoors, vibrations,..- visual or lighting quality: view, illuminance, luminance ratios, reflection,…- aesthetic quality

These environmental factors highly depend on the performance of the enclosure, as well as on the interaction between the human being and the enclosure. People are being exposed during more than 90% of their life to these factors in enclosed spaces. As the focus is on added-value technical solutions, the work only addresses these environmental factors as related to the hardware, with aesthetics serving as a second order issue. Human assessment of the environment is basically expressed in human perception of the environmental factors, and the subsequent assessment of this.

Human perceptionThe objective performance of the environment can be measured in terms of physical quantities (temperature, decibel, lux, etc). The human perception and assessment can be expressed by a person with so called subjective environmental performance indicators, such as control of environment or specific items (ventilation, noise, light,..), acceptability of environment or specific item (air quality, thermal comfort, colour..) and complaints or symptoms related to the environment (irritating eyes, skin, headaches, etc..).The relationship between objective measurement and human assessment is not known for all physical parameters. Mature models for separate subjective issues exist (e.g. thermal comfort (Fanger, 1972) and noise) but are not available for all. For example, no consensus model for air quality exists. The reasons have various grounds:- sensory assessment: The principles behind the sensory evaluation of smell is still under investigation- measurement of pollutants: The indoor environment comprises of thousands of chemical compounds in low concentrations, of which not all can be measured by the current equipment simultaneously. The nose can detect very low concentrations (ptt range) and interprete all at the same time (perceived air quality).- measurement unit: As long as no unambiguous unit as an indicator for perceived air quality exists, dose-response relations are difficult. TVOC (total volatile organic compounds) has been used for some time, but the drawback is twofold as it doesn’t represent all pollutants in the air and ignores the effect of single compounds (Seifert, 2000).

For light, recent findings showing that the amount of light falling into the eye is important to non-visual aspects (such as alertness and performance) reopened lighting modeling which is basically grounded on the illuminance of the environment (Light & Health Research Foundation, 2002). This new information indicates that brightness of the surroundings is the key element.

Performance assessmentThe most currently used performance indicators that quantify the comfort, health and safety of people, the quantifiable performance indicators are:- Productivity: quantitative and/or qualitative work output of people (product or service they

deliver) (Clements-Croome, 2002)- Sick leave: number of days sick, away of work place, per year- Estimates of life expectation (Carrothers et al., 1999):

- Value of statistical life (VSL): Approach to value reductions in premature deaths attributed to short-term pollution episodes. VSL measures how much wealth people are willing to forego for small reductions in mortality risk.

- QALY (Quality-Adjusted-Life-Year): The QALY approach deals with changes in expected survival, i.e. years of lost life, and its weighs the years lived by a measure of their health-based quality. It estimates the longevity and quality-of-life changes attributable to each health effects, converted into economic figures.

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- Number of deaths

Productivity, the highest potential gain of a healthy, comfortable, safe and secure space, has received a lot of attention in the past 5 years. Productivity can be measured:- Objectively: by for example measuring the speed of working and the accuracy of outputs by

designing very controlled experiments with well-focussed tests (e.g. productivity effects as related to thermal comfort (Wyon, 1993), air quality (Wargocki, et al, 2000)).

- Subjectively: by using self-estimated scales and questionnaires to assess the individual opinions of people concerning their work and environment (Raw, 1990)

- Combined measures: using for example some physiological measures such as brain rythms to see whether variations in the patterns of the brain responses correlate with the responses assessed by questionnaires (e.g. alertness and light, Light & Health Research Foundation, 2002).

A HOLISTIC APPROACH OF ECOSPACES

EcospacesVarious space-concepts with respect to targeted minimised environmental impact have been subjected to research and development in various user sectors, such as zero-emission buildings and zero energy buildings and transport vehicles. As yet, no enclosed space has been prototyped consciously optimising health, comfort, safety, smart and sustainable in a coherent way (‘Ecospace’), although in several sectors research has been clearly directed towards part of those issues , e.g. the healthy buildings concept, safe and comfortable aeroplanes (EU projects HOPE (Bluyssen, 2002) and Cabinair (2000), respectively) and the ultimate eco-building concept (incl. self-containing climate control for optimum health and comfort) developed for and by the space industry, addressing a multitude of new materials, technologies and production processes (the Space-House).

CommunicationThe road towards implementation and realisation of a healthy, comfortable, safe, smart and sustainable space inherently requires tools to optimise:- communication i.e. interaction between supply and demand, and knowledge and/or

technology transfer between sectors and stakeholders, - tuning of separate products and services, leading to new production technologyall in an integrated and holistic approach.

It is obvious that all stakeholders have their own demands or views. They all play a different role in the various stages of establishing a space. This complex process inherently includes many conflicts of interest. Eventually, the most dominant stakeholders determine the result, which may result in dissatisfied end-users. In negotiation between different stakeholders, user-oriented and long-term aspects are often underestimated. Individual needs become more and more important.

No operational communication tools for this complex process exist yet. The internet offers potential capabilities for providing new communication services in this context. From recent experience in trial projects it is evident that using the internet structure will improve communication to its maximum potential only in case adequate attention is given to control the complexity of the design process. Such a control of complexity may provide an underlying structure to the communication process making it more effective and efficient whilst reducing the risks that overall project goals are not achieved. Several useful concepts herein exist, such as the value-domain model (Rutten and Trum, 1998).

It is clear that there is a whole gamut of values and needs that will determine the desired functions of an ecospace and that there is not a direct corresponding one to one relationship between a specific function and the accomplishing of a particular value or vice versa. In the Building Industry, this approach can also be referred to as the Performance Based building concept:: “thinking and working in terms of ends rather than means” (CIB, 1982; Foliente et al. 1998). Currently running

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projects with respect to this approach are a Thematic Network Performance-based Building (PeBBu) (Loomans and Bluyssen, 2002), initiated by CIB, and a European project HOPE (Bluyssen, 2002). A different approach with regard to performance-based building has been developed by the Finnish Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate (FiSIAQ). They have combined specific performance criteria in order to come up with a classification of the indoor climate (FiSIAQ 2001).

Successfully creating and realizing a space that is healthy, comfortable and safe at the same time highly depends on integrating existing and new (added value) products and services. Optimizing their functionalities for various application in different user sectors, as well as integrating their functionalities in such a way that the result is more than the sum of the separate functionalities, basically being the holistic approach, should automatically induce tuning of products and services in design to production stages and will possibly lead to tuned production processes or new production technology. Basically, this refers to early communication between involved producing industries.

CONCLUSIONSReferring to the issues of concern as described above, the following required knowledge and tools are necessary in order to realise healthy, comfortable, safe, smart and sustainable spaces for the People of Europe:- Advanced and consensus models for human perception and air quality, as well as

for human perception and light.- A coherent model describing the relationship between the physical quantities and

human assessment integrally.- A generally accepted cost-benefit model linking human perception/exposure and

performance assessment, primarily based on productivity. - Communication tool(s) to structure and guide cross-interaction between stakeholders,

sectors, technologies, stages (design to production) and activities in order to optimise implementation and realisation of healthy, comfortable and safe space

- Demonstration of Ecospaces in the living, working and transport area.

To address the societal needs of improving health, comfort and safety of the European population, simultaneously reducing energy demands, as laid down basically in the WHO targets and the Kyoto protocol, respectively, the integration of different sectors, disciplines, stakeholders and organisations for realization on a European scale is a must.


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4.2 Information Technology

Performance Prediction Tools for Low Impact Building DesignJ A Clarke, Energy Systems Research Unit, University of Strathclyde

ABSRACTIT systems are emerging that may be used to support decisions relating to the design of a built enviroment that has low impact in terms of energy use and environmental emissions. This paper summarises this prospect in relation to four complementary application areas: digital cities, rational planning, virtual design and Internet energy services.

KEYWORDSDigital cities, rational planning, virtual design, Internet energy services.

INTRODUCTIONThe energy and environment domain is inherently complex and, consequently, conflicting viewpoints abound, proffered solutions are typically polarised and consensus is impossible to attain. Indeed, the different vested interests serve only to render vacuous the relationship between sustainability and energy action. This unacceptable situation gives rise to three fundamental engineering challenges: how to consider energy systems in a holistic manner in order to address the inherent complexity; how to include socio-environmental aspects in the assessment of cost-performance in order to improve overall performance; and how to embrace inter-disciplinary working in order to derive benefit from the innovative approaches to be found at the interface between the disciplines.

An effective way to address these challenges is to help stakeholders to look beyond their preconceptions, to see the real state of the world and differentiate between the promising and the possible. An essential element in promoting the rational use of energy is that decision-makers (including citizens) be given access to relevant sources of information. In the present context, these include energy demand profiles, the characteristics of potential sources of supply, and the outputs from modelling studies to assess the benefit and impact of alternative options. However, indications are that, at present, comprehensive information is rarely in the hands of those who require it, and the use of modelling in strategy formulation is virtually unknown. This paper considers four complementary applications for energy and environment modelling that have the potential to radically change this situation:

digital cities - entailing the monitoring of fuel use and availability in order to identify areas of concern and

assist with the identification of options for change;

rational planning - entailing the matching of energy demand and supply in order to assist with the deployment of new and renewable energy systems at all scales;

virtual design - by which energy systems simulation may be used to conjecture and test specific designs prior to construction; and

energy services - entailing the Internet delivery of 'up-to-the-minute' information to professionals and citizens, and the enactment of dynamic demand side management at the aggregate scale.

DIGITAL CITIESFigure 1 summarises the digital city concept. Acting in partnership, utilities, local authorities and others feed information to a shared database covering some geographical area of interest. To accommodate the temporal and scope mismatches between its component parts, the database is distributed, with Internet-resident control agents acting to recover suitable integrations when enquiries at the aggregate scale are submitted (e.g. regional fuel use, gaseous emissions, renewable energy resource availability etc). These data may then be analysed in order to provide

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relevant and up-to-the-minute information to a range of possible recipients, from policy makers, through planners and designers, to citizens. To assist with interpretation, a Geographical Information System (Clarke and Grant 1996) may be employed to overlay the energy and environment information on conventional types of information such as street layouts or power cable routings. To assist with policy formulation, an energy model is included to enable an appraisal of options for change. Where an option proves beneficial, its predicted fuel use may be returned to the database to be held alongside the present fuel use data. This enables the side-by-side display of information relating to the present and future cases in support of inter-comparisons before deployment decisions are taken.

EnTrak (Clarke et al 1998, Evans 2000) is an example of an existing system that seeks to deliver this functionality. The system offers constant monitoring and integration of fuel data relating to properties and RE schemes, consumption & supply classification, trend analysis and targeting, and the assessment of cost-effectiveness. It is foreseen that the extent to which the system can provide comprehensive planning and energy management support is limited only by the availability of high quality data of adequate resolution, or the ability to generate this by simulation at the time of need. The capacity exists within EnTrak to record time-based output figures from RE conversion systems of any kind. Such systems are, of course, still few in number. To investigate future scenarios, in which development is more intensive, two approaches are possible: where a system already exists, which may be regarded as prototypical, it can be duplicated in a new location; or the output of hypothetical systems may be modelled as a function of climate and other variables using simulation techniques.

EnTrak is built upon a distributed, SQL database architecture using JDBC technology (Sun 2002) to achieve database connectivity. Web-enabled analysis modules operate on this database to produce information tailored to the requirements of the various users. For example, Figure 1 depicts the fuel use and related gaseous emissions for a portion of a city. Such information can support a range of activities, from energy action planning, to the wider participation of citizens. By modelling proposed measures prior to their deployment, alternative options can be compared in terms of relevant criteria, including the impact on the energy supply system and the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, the impactof previous actions is implicit within the monitoring process so that schemes with a poor return can be quickly discarded and those with a high return retained.

The central and crucial requirements of such IT systems are database construction and maintenance. In the former case, two data collection methods are extant: electronic data interchange (EDI) and direct monitoring via the Internet. EDI entails the regular exchange of data via computer files adhering to a preagreed format. It is a typical interaction mode between large organisations such as local authorities and utilities. Direct monitoring requires the embedding of sensors throughout the monitored estate and the connection of these sensors to a local electronic gateway device giving access to the Internet. This approach (see later) is suitable for application at all scales from a home to a power station.

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Figure 1: The digital city concept.

RATIONAL PLANNINGFuture cities are likely to be characterised by a greater level of new and renewable energy (RE) systems deployment. Maximum impact will be achieved when such systems are used to offset local energy demands in contrast to current philosophy dictating the grid connection of large schemes (i.e. distributed generation). To assist with the integration of such systems at the local level, it is important to utilise energy efficiency techniques to reduce energy demands to magnitudes that present a favourable load for the new and RE systems being targeted. The technologies to be employed therefore fall into two categories:

demand reduction systems : mainly passive in nature and used to reduce peak demands and reshape the demand profile, e.g. advanced glazing systems to maximise daylight capture and distribution, smart control to eliminate waste, and solar thermal collectors to offset heating capacity; and

power supply systems : mainly active technologies, which convert captured energy into electrical power and heat for use to meet the building's reduced demand.

The Merit system (Born 2001, Smith 2002), for example, is built upon the interacting components as shown in Figure 2. In use, the first task is to specify the climate context of the appraisal. This is achieved by selecting from a database of standard climates or by importing site-specific weather data. The second task is to establish a set of demand profiles for the problem in hand. This set can be established to represent a problem at any scale: appliance, building, city district or national region. Large-scale sets may be produced by combining specific profile types after manipulation to reflect the scale. Where a monitoring programme has produced appropriate demand data for a specific site, this can be imported.

The next task is to select possible supply technologies to meet the demands. First, energy systems (renewable or otherwise) are elected from a model library or, where performance data exists for a specific technology, this can be imported. Each technology can be held individually or combined with other types to establish a combination supply. Second, an auxiliary supply system may be selected, comprising battery storage, a connection to the electricity supply network or a back-up generator.

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Figure 2: The rational planning concept.

Merit is now ready to conduct an automated search in order to identify those combinations that best match specified search criteria. Figure 3 illustrates a possible outcome. The first graph shows the demand superimposed on the supply to illustrate the temporal match. The second graph shows the associated energy residual, the portion above the x-axis representing a deficit. The third graph is active when an auxiliary system is selected and details its performance and duty cycle. The tabulated statistics include an inequality metric (to indicate the quantitative fit) and a correlation coefficient (to indicate the dynamic fit). The energy surplus or deficit is also displayed. In this way, a user can call for the identification of the best supply match per individual demand or best supply match overall. This search performance benchmarks each match before initiating a search ordering process, which presents possible matches in order from best to worst. Systems such as Merit allow energy managers, planners and designers to appraise the potential for new and RE systems deployment at an early stage in the design process. This allows site-specific technologies to be identified and their required capacities to be established. The stage is then set for a detailed, integrated performance appraisal of viable schemes. This is the subject of the next section.

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Figure 3: Matching supply to demand using Merit.

VIRTUAL DESIGNBecause the built environment consumes the greater portion of total delivered energy and is responsible for most of the avoidable CO2 emissions, many initiatives are focused on this sector. However, buildings are complex, and in the absence of a means to predict the performance benefit of proposed measures, such initiatives will probably fail. Modelling methods, when embedded within the building design process, allow the industry to pursue new designs and refurbishments that: conform to legislative requirements; provide the requisite levels of thermal, acoustic and lighting comfort; attain high indoor air quality standards; embody high levels of new and RE technologies; incorporate innovative solutions; and lessen environmental impact.

It is widely accepted that integrated modelling defines a new best practice approach (CIBSE 1998) to energy systems design because it allows designers to address important new challenges such as the linking of energy, the environment and health. In use, the approach requires the gradual evolution of a problem's description, with performance outputs becoming available at discrete stages as relevant information becomes available. Consider the ESP-r (Clarke 2001) based modelling process of Figure 4, which indicates a possible computational approach to design.a1) A Project Manager (Hand 1998) gives access to support databases, a simulation engine, performance assessment tools and 3rd party applications for CAD, visualisation, report synthesis etc. Its function is to coordinate problem definition and pass the data model between the supporting applications.b1) Project's commence by making ready the system databases. These include hygro-thermal, embodied energy and optical properties for constructions, typical occupancy profiles, pressure coefficient sets for use with air flow modelling, plant components for use in HVAC modelling, mould species data for use with predicted surface conditions to assess mould growth risk, and climate collections representing different locations and weather severity.c1) Embedded within such databases is knowledge that supports the design conceptualisation process. For example, the construction elements database contains sets of hygro-thermal and optical properties for a range of construction materials, and derived properties from which behaviour may be deduced (e.g. thermal diffusivity to characterise a construction’s rate of response or thermal transmittance to characterise its rate of heat loss).d1) Although the procedure for problem definition is a matter of personal preference, it is common to commence with the specification of a building's geometry using an external CAD tool or in-built equivalent. ESP-r can inter-operate with dxf compatible programs (e.g. MicroGDS; Morbitzer 2002) that can be used to create models of arbitrary complexity for import to the Project Manager where the attribution process is enabled.e1) Simple wire-line or false coloured images can be generated as an aid to the communication of design intent or the study of solar/daylight access. The Project Manager provides wire-line photomontages (Parkins 1977) and coloured, textured images via the Radiance system (Larson and Shakespeare 1998), automatically generating the required input models, driving Radiance and receiving back its outputs.a2) Constructional and operational attribution is achieved by selecting products (e.g. wall constructions) and entities (e.g. occupancy profiles) from the support databases and associating these with the problem geometry.It is at this stage that the simulation novice will appreciate the importance of a well-conceived problem abstraction that achieves adequate resolution while minimising the number of entities requiring attribution, simulation processing and performance appraisal. b2) Temperature, wind, radiation and luminance boundary conditions, of the required severity, are now associated with the model. This enables an appraisal of environmental performance (e.g. thermal and visual comfort levels) in order to gain an insight into the extent of any required remedial action. As appropriate, the boundary conditions can be modified to represent extreme weather events or local climate phenomena.c2) As required, geometrical, constructional or operational changes can be applied to the model in order todetermine the impact on performance. For example, alternative constructional systems might be investigated, different occupancy levels imposed, or different approaches to daylight utilisation

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assessed along with the extent and location of glare as shown in the figure for the case of an office with added light shelf.d2) Special façade systems might be considered: photovoltaic (PV) components to transform part of the solar power spectrum into electricity (and heat); transparent insulation to passively capture solar energy; or electro-, photo or thermo-chromic glazings to control glare and/or solar gain. In each case, the contribution to improved performance and reduced energy use can be determined.e2) To access the energy displacement potential of daylight, a luminaire control system might be introduced, comprising photocells linked to a circuit switch or dimming device. Simulations can then be undertaken to optimise the parameters of this control system in order to minimise the use of electricity for lighting purposes.a3) The issue of integrated environmental control can now be explored by defining control systems to dictate the availability of heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting etc; or to act to resolve conflict between these delivery systems.b3) To study the feasibility of building ventilation, a flow network can be associated with the building model so that the dynamic interactions are explicitly represented. The control definition may then be extended to apply to the components of this network, e.g. to emulate window opening or flow damper control.c3) Where mechanical intervention is necessary, a component network can be defined to represent the HVAC system for association with both the building model and any active flow network. The control definition previously established may be further extended to provide internal component control and link the room states to the supply condition.d3) To examine indoor air quality, spaces within the building model can be further discretised to enable the application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in order to evaluate the intra-space air movement and the distribution of temperature, humidity and contaminants such as CO.e3) While the components of a model, the building, flow and HVAC networks, and the CFD domain, may be processed independently, it is usual to subject them to an integrated assessment whereby the interactions are included. In the example shown here, a house model has been assigned a natural ventilation flow network, a ventilation heat recovery plant network, a CFD domain to enable an analysis of air quality, and a moisture flow model to allow an assessment of humidity distribution.a4) A further network might now be added to represent the building's electrical power circuits. This can be used in conjunction with the previously established models for façade-integrated PV, luminaire control, HVAC and flow networks to study scenarios for the local utilisation of the outputs from building-integrated RE components or the shedding of load as an energy efficiency measure. Other technologies, such as ? CHP and fuel cells, can also be assessed.b4) For specialist applications, the resolution of parts of the model can be enhanced to allow the detailed study of particular issues. For example, a portion of a multi-layered wall might be finely discretised to enable the identification of thermal bridges, or a moisture flow network might be added to support an assessment of condensation risk.c4) By associating the time series pairs of near-surface temperature and relative humidity (to emerge from the integrated building, CFD and network air/moisture flow models) with the growth limit data as held in the mould species database, it is possible to determine the risk of mould growth. Remedial actions may then be explored.d4) The core message is that any problem, from a single space with simple control and prescribed ventilation, to an entire building with systems, distributed control and enhanced resolutions, can be passed to the Simulator where its multi-variate performance is assessed and made available to inform the process of design evolution. By integrating the different technical domains, the approach supports the identification of trade-offs.e4) Integrated modelling supports team working because it provides a mechanism whereby the different professional viewpoints can come together and contribute equally to the eventual outcome. Such an interdisciplinary approach is likely to give rise to more innovative and sustainable solutions.

To further support inter-disciplinary working, it is possible to collate the different aspects of performance and to present these in the form of an Integrated Performance View (IPV). As shown in Figure 5, an IPV might typically cover issues such as seasonal fuel use, gaseous emissions, thermal/visual comfort, daylight utilisation, RE contribution etc.

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Figure 5: Multi-variate performance summaries support team working.

Citherlet (2001) has extended the integrated performance modelling approach by adding a life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) procedure. This supports the assessment of the energy use and environmental emissions corresponding to the manufacture, transport, assembly, maintenance and disposal of construction materials, in addition to those associated with building environmental control. Four environmental impact indicators are used to quantify the overall impact: global warming potential, acidification potential, ozone generation potential and the use of non-renewable energy. Such impacts may be estimated from the predicted energy demand given that suitable conversion factors are available. At the present time a significant number of modelling systems exist that may be used to address, in whole or part, the performance issues presented above. Details on these systems are available elsewhere (DOE 2002).

INTERNET ENERGY SERVICESThe Internet is now attaining a level of resilience and capacity that will enable it to support a wide range of beneficial information services. The challenge is to develop products that represent a value proposition to citizens and to establish new service providers to deliver these products. Insofar as these challenges can be met, services can be tailored to assist the process of good governance by providing real-time data to decision-makers on issues relating to sustainability. Examples include:

fuel use by time, type and sector in support of energy efficiency and RE systems deployments;

emissions monitoring in support of air quality and climate change targets attainment; and city performance profiling in support of energy/environment action planning.

Complementary services may also be established to provide direct links to citizens and to support their greater participation in sustainability issues. Examples include:home conditions monitoring (e.g. CO and temperature) in support of responsive care provision for vulnerable members of society;large scale, synchronised home appliance control in support of electricity base load management; andthe provision of personalised energy use data to encourage desirable changes in usage patterns.

In addition to the benefits to the service recipients, it is likely that new employment opportunities will arise, both in terms of the jobs associated with service provision and the establishment of new market opportunities for the telecommunications industry. Furthermore, the approach provides an

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efficient mechanism to implement (low cost) energy systems monitoring in order to track the effectiveness of actions taken in response to future legislation (such as the new European Directive on Building Energy Performance). An Internet service reaches many residences and organisations simultaneously so that decisions relate to the large, aggregate scale. While impacts at the home scale will be of interest to the occupant, the impacts at the large scale will be of interest to local authorities, utilities and government. There are many stakeholders involved in the chain of service delivery including home owners/occupiers and related organisations, property owners/managers/operators, energy suppliers/distributors, local/national authorities, service providers and telecommunications operators.

As an example, the EC funded SmartHomes Project (Clarke et al 2002) set out to develop and test, by real-scale field trial, a range of new energy/environment services. The aim was to demonstrate that homes could be adapted to acquire and transfer high frequency fuel, power, appliance operation and space temperature data in support of new services of benefit to home owners/occupiers, utilities and local authorities. Examples include:

environmental monitoring, e.g. detection of gas, smoke, temperature and humidity; smart metering, e.g. of gas, electricity and water consumption; appliance control, e.g. for heating, lighting and small power; weather related services, e.g. heating control, night cooling, use of rain water etc; performance evaluation, e.g. of city energy consumption by fuel type; remote switching of appliances, e.g. for load manipulation and HVAC control; and renewable energy trading, e.g. as a function of electricity prices and demand.

The expectation was that substantial energy savings could be achieved by increasing the energy awareness of home owners/occupiers by providing them with statistics on their energy use in relation to that of others in similar circumstances. Within the system, sets of related sensors and actuators exist to support the needs of particular energy services. A communications gateway device, or 'ebox', is employed to receive/send information from/to the sensors/actuators and send/receive data to/from an e-service centre located elsewhere on the Internet. All data are held within a central server database, with software agents acting to extract the aspect data-set corresponding to the particular energy services being supported at any time. Such a data set is either aggregate data, for onward transmission to an energy service provider (ESP), or actuation requests from an ESP for transmission back to homes (via embedded actuation devices). Typically, an ESP will add value by interpreting the data and providing the actual energy/environment service (e.g. by raising an alarm, instigating a home control action or by updating a secondary Web site). For example, information comprising home temperatures and CO levels would permit an ESP to provide a progressive care for the elderly service. Alternatively, information comprising fuel and power usage data would support two ESPs, one concerned with local action planning and the other with the routine dissemination of personalised consumption information to citizens. Figure 6 shows an example of a Web site corresponding to the delivery of personalised fuel use, environmental conditions and cost information to home owners/occupiers.

CONCLUSIONSThis paper has summarised the possibilities for the application of modelling and simulation tools in support of the rational use of energy within the built environment. These applications range from the routine monitoring of fuel use and emissions, through formal methods for selecting suitable means of energy supply, to detailed simulations to tests the robustness of particular schemes. Finally, some possibilities for Internet-enabled energy services were identified and one possible delivery scheme outlined.

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Figure 6: SmartHomes Web site for home owners/occupiers.

Figure 4: An example of a computational approach to design.


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4.3 Dissemination & Technology Transfer

TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT OF TAILORED DISSEMINATION & TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER STRATEGIES FOR EUROPEAN COMMISSION RESEARCHDr. Kirk Shanks, Energy Research Group, University College Dublin

IntroductionThis paper outlines the main Dissemination and Technology Transfer issues and proposes solutions to enhance uptake of European Commission research. In the context of European Commission objectives, Dissemination and Technology Transfer drive and facilitate uptake of research output. This study is based on experiences gained through the EnerBuild Network, from focused Workshops and discussions with Thematic Group and RTD Project Coordinators. The EnerBuild Network provided the opportunity to identify and explore the barriers to uptake of output from the European research community and industry.

For the purpose of this report dissemination is defined as the process of raising awareness with the aim of creating interest to adopt research output, and in this sense can be viewed as the first phase of commercialising research. Similarly, Technology Transfer is the fine-tuning or adaptation of research output for industrial application. The type of knowledge; format of information and actions required to drive each phase differs. Dissemination is primarily a marketing process where the concept is more important than the detail, but where the benefits and implications of adoption must be clearly identified, explained and communicated. Emphasis on particular benefits and implications will depend on the target audience. Technology Transfer requires detailed information to enable industry to evaluate the extent of development needed, and their ability, to commercialise, which is fundamentally influenced by their understanding of market potential.

Successful dissemination results in direct discussion with industry and commonly exposes the specific issues, which should be addressed to complete commercialisation of the research output. The actions required to address these form the technology transfer process. Technology transfer leads on from where dissemination ends.

EnerBuild RTD Projects: Technologies and TechniquesEnerBuild RTD Projects can be categorised as being research and development of a technique or technology, see Table 1. Technologies provide solutions to particular problems, whereas techniques are developed to integrate advanced knowledge or understanding, of how buildings or systems behave, into the design process. One way to view the relationship between technique and technology is that techniques expose case specific energy and environmental quality related characteristics of building projects, whereas technologies provide solutions to the particular problems that arise from these.

In a conventional approach industry practitioners use techniques to identify the extent of particular problems or risks in their designs. Once identified these are typically solved by a technology. Techniques therefore require a comparatively greater level of understanding amongst practitioners than technologies. The primary industry for techniques is design professionals, e.g. engineers and architects. Professional bodies, particularly through CPD, can support uptake by design professionals. However, the industries for technologies are the manufacturers and suppliers of construction industry products. The audience and therefore knowledge demands for commercialisation differ between technologies and techniques.

Currently, RTD projects cover a wide range of technologies that enhance building performance. These technologies range from components of systems to full systems. Components are of interest to system manufacturer/supplier whereas full systems are of interest to those responsible for whole building performance, i.e. the building commissioner or the architect, if it is a system that utilises an element of the fabric, or the engineer if it is a stand-alone system. Similarly, techniques aid design of buildings, systems or components. Techniques, or knowledge technologies, typically take the form of design tool software. Software can be commercialised as a product requiring input from software manufacturers to complete the transfer from research to industry.

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At the end of an RTD research project it is known if the technology or technique requires further research or is ready for wide spread use, either within the research community or the industry.

Success of D&TT varied across the projects. This was partially due to the variation in the extent and focus of dissemination methods employed. In some cases only the minimum amount of dissemination was achieved, whereas in others a wide range of methods were used. However, in some of these cases the same information was disseminated to different audiences. Within the research community, the minimum level of dissemination is typically publication of peer-reviewed papers in journals or at conferences. However, although disseminating the same type and format of information to various audiences, e.g. academic type papers to industry practitioners, is better than none, the impact is reduced by not tailoring the information for the particular audience.

One RTD Project with a highly successful D&TT strategy was WEB (Wind Energy for the Built Environment). This technology research investigated building integration of wind turbines. Initially dissemination was carried out through a book based on a publishable report, a published web book, articles in RE Focus and New Scientist and an International workshop at the prototype site to which press, researchers and practitioners were invited. After a few articles were written for industry publications, a ‘snowballing’ effect was created where articles were published in more mainstream magazines and newspapers. Within two years of the research being completed a number of practitioners are beginning to incorporate the proposed technology in their designs. To date there has been one follow up project and three possible commercial projects. The unprecedented dissemination success of WEB has been strongly influenced by the creation of iconic images and the notion that this is a new generation of renewable energy.

EnerBuild RTD Project Technology

Technique

EVAPCOOLSOLAR LOUVREIMAGECODECSPECTRUMSUITCASES.O.S.Heat Pipe Solar AbsorberAIRCOOLSMARTHOMESABSOCOMPPV CoolingAHP-NH3TIP-VentHEAHPSOLAR ROOF VENTILATIONPredictiveDIAL-EUROPEHIGH EFFICIENCY HOESMARTGLASSEULISPTRIPLESAVEARTHELIOSMART WINDOWWEBPRECisAIRinSTRUCTEMA ROOF COLLECTORSOLVENTRAPID

XX

X

XXXXXXX

XXX

XX

XXX

XXXX

X

XX

X

X

X

X

X

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TPVSPRIDEBIMODEBIPV ConvertPV en FaceIMPACTConcentrator Module with Bifacial CellsPRIDE – Prefabrication of Roof Integrated PV SystemsPRESCRIPTHIPERBEVAC GLAIRLESSPV-VENTDesign & Evaluation of Integrated FaçadeSolar Power EnvelopeHILITSolar Building FacadesTH DIODE WALLMulti-Functional Ventilated FaçadeSWIFTAPISCOURBVENTMATHISETIAQCLEAN-AIR

XXXXXXXX

XX

XXXXXXX

X

X

XX

XXXX

Table 1 EnerBuild RTD Project Classification

DisseminationDissemination should attract further interest, resulting in direct contact from industry or wider media coverage. This is most easily achieved where the research is on an aspect of building performance that has reached critical mass, where the industry is already looking for a technology or technique to address a particular issue. However, some research, particularly that which is earlier in the research cycle, addresses issues that the industry does not fully understand or appreciate. Research on such abstract issues is vital for sustainable evolution of the built environment but to create interest must also be accompanied by a description of not only the direct impact of addressing such problems but also of how they fit into the supply chain, i.e. which part of the supply chain has responsibility or is accountable for the issue that the research output addresses. For example, the Predictive RTD Project where an alternative to conventional control philosophy based on predicting building behaviour was investigated and developed dissemination had to provide a clear link between conventional control strategy and one based on the abstract notion of controlling building systems on the basis of what will happen in the future. This information needed to be formulated and packaged for a number of different audiences, i.e. elements of the supply chain. Architects would be interested in the broad benefits and the concept, whereas Control and Energy Consultants would be more interested in quantification of the benefits and costs, and finally Control System Manufacturers would require details of system components, to a degree that did not compromise copyright. For innovative techniques and technologies it is vital to describe the limits of current convention to support the new perspective addressed by the innovation.

Irrespective of the level of appreciation or understanding of the subject area of the research any particular method of dissemination should comprise the aspects listed below. The level of detail necessary in communicating these aspects is defined directly by the audience.

Holistic problem definition Benefits at point of integration Whole building benefits

o Operational

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o Life cycle Supply chain point

o Responsibility/accountabilityo How to integrate…

Holistic problem definitionThe problem or issue that the research addresses should be explained in a holistic manner. This problem definition should trace the problem from the particular scale (e.g. system, component or design attribute) to whole building and built environment scale. It should include both direct and indirect implications.

Benefits at point of integrationThe benefits to the particular system, process or building attribute to which the research is directly related should be described. These benefits should be related to the primary issues highlighted in the holistic problem definition, i.e. those at the particular scale.

Whole building benefitsWhole building benefits are an extrapolation of the benefits at point of integration and describe the impact on general building operation as well as how they effect and fit into the building life cycle. These benefits are of interest to those parties in control or at the end of the supply chain, e.g. building commissioners; users and architects.

Supply chain pointThe point at which the research fits into the supply chain should be described. This will identify which sector of the industry or practitioner/professional is responsible and accountable for the particular aspect of building performance the research addresses.

Target AudienceThe suitability of particular dissemination methods is dependent on the target audience. The target audience is those practitioners or the industry sector where the research output fits into the supply chain. These are made up of the following groups:

- Architects- Building Services Engineers- Structural Engineers- Civil Engineers- Quantity Surveyors- Energy Consultants- Environmental Design Consultants- Researchers- Building Commissioners

o Publico Private

- Construction Products Industryo Supplierso Manufacturers

Components Systems

In addition to targeting particular parties in the built environment supply chain, experience from EnerBuild has shown that there is value in dissemination directly to the public through mass media. Information requirements for this should relate the research to issues considered to have a high public profile, e.g. climate change; energy security; Kyoto Protocol; global warming; etc. Iconic images are effective and should be developed for this audience.

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Dissemination Methods & InformationThe first stage in dissemination is the preparation of information. A variety of textual descriptions should be developed for the various audiences. Similarly a set of images, diagrams and photographs (where possible), should be prepared with a level of detail determined by the target audience - these are as important as the textual descriptions. Dissemination methods should be selected in the context of the audience, these methods include:

- Brochures- Web sites- Peer reviewed Papers- Articles

o Industryo General Public

- Conferenceo Paperso Posters

- Seminars- Workshops- Newsletter- Exhibitions

The suitability and effectiveness of the different dissemination methods varies in relation to the target audience, see Table 2 below.

Audience Brochure Website PeerReviewedpapers

Industryarticles

Mass media

ConferencePapers/posters

Seminars Workshops Newsletter Exhibition

Architects X X X X X X XConsulting Engineers

X X X X X X X

QuantitySurveyors

X X X X X

Energy Consultants

X X X X X X X X X

EnvironmentalDesignConsultants

X X X X X X X X X

BuildingCommissioners

X X X

ConstructionProductsManufacturers& Suppliers

X X X X X

Researchers X X X X X X X X XTable 2 Dissemination methods

Technology TransferSuccessful technology transfer results in mass production and direct product marketing, whether as commercial design tool software (i.e. knowledge technology) or a construction industry product. Research output must have reached an appropriate level of maturity to enter the final phase of commercialisation. The main characteristics of this level of technological maturity are:

- Robust performance/operation- Ownership of concept and design- Efficient/optimised production- Meets appropriate standards- Defined limits of application

Specific actions required to achieve these characteristics are best identified and developed through direct input from an industrial partner and/or through example industrial application, i.e. pilot or demonstration projects. Specific actions will include:

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- Patenting to facilitate ownership of the concept and/or design- Certification of design and installation to provide quality standards- Accreditation from Industry Groups- Study of production/manufacturing process- Working with organisations to launch Pilot or Demonstration Projects

Facilitating D&TTThe Technological Implementation Plan (TIP) is an effective tool in directing the researcher through market issues. This process results in the researcher having an understanding of where the research output sits in the supply chain and if it is of sufficient maturity to begin the process of technology transfer. However, many researchers do not view this area of knowledge as being the responsibility of the research community. As this may be acceptable, considering the fundamental attribute of having a deep interest and focus in a particular subject to drive research, there is a clear role for a support framework/body to bridge the gap between researcher and industry. Such a framework/body should be more than a forum facilitating introductions and be equipped to direct and implement D&TT for researchers. The EnerBuild Network provided practical experience of how a framework/body can best be used to bridge the gap.

At RTD Project level the coordinator should develop various types and formats of information for use in the different types of dissemination methods. This will involve both textual descriptions and graphics/images tailored for particular audiences.

A Network should steer the coordinator through the development of the necessary information whilst also providing appropriate focussed forums for introductions between researchers and industry. Forums also facilitate direct dissemination and awareness raising.

A fundamental barrier to adoption of low-energy and energy efficient techniques and technologies in the built environment is the fragmented nature of the building process and similarly the industry as a whole. Although research has shown that there is much benefit to be gained from integration of systems and building form/fabric, these two areas of design are the responsibility of different professionals, i.e. architect and engineer, having different ways of thinking. Current trends indicate that those professionals at the forefront of the industry are developing a deeper understanding of the influential issues and approach to building of their counterparts. The rate of percolation of this trend through all the associated professions is restricted by the nature of business and need for economic efficiency. This indicates there is potential for a new entity, i.e. ‘honest broker’, who consults specifically on energy and environmental issues in the design process. Such an evolution of the building process would provide a direct channel for uptake of research output.

ConclusionsA primary conclusion is that D&TT is best directed and managed by an external party – an ‘honest broker’ - in conjunction with the researcher to identify and move results to the appropriate target audience. EnerBuild achieved this to some extent through the publication of RTD Project Information Leaflets; Network Newsletters; a comprehensive website and facilitating links with industry, e.g. Architects Council of Europe. The experience gained and issues identified of the complex nature of D&TT suggest there is potential to expand the EnerBuild role in future.

The main conclusions appropriate for the development of more effective tailored D&TT strategies include:

Dissemination Identify the target audience

o Stage in research cycle will influence identification Select dissemination method most appropriate for the target audience Create and develop textual descriptions and images for the target audience

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Dissemination to research community is the responsibility of the researcher Pursue all opportunities for mass media publication Use TIP to inform dissemination process

Technology Transfer Technology type and preferences of research team will dictate specific Technology

Transfer actions Technology Transfer is best conducted in direct collaboration with an Industry

partner A different set of skills are required for Technology Transfer actions

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4.4 The EnerBuild Strategy: A Sociological Commentary (Elizabeth Shove, University of Lancaster)

This paper provides a commentary on the Enerbuild RTD strategy from a broadly sociological perspective. In constructing this review, I make use of two quite different areas of sub-disciplinary expertise, commenting on the substance of the strategy with reference to the sociology of consumption and science and technology studies, and on its form with reference to recent work in research and science policy.

The purpose is to put the other sections of the document in context and position them in terms of a somewhat different way of thinking about technical change and how it comes about. I organise my contribution under four headings:

Energy as resource or service? Contexts of production and consumption Constructing need The uses and users of research

Under each heading, I introduce what I take to be a central theme for the development and design of a robust enerbuild RTD strategy. As noted above, the purpose is not to be critical but to provide a different way of seeing issues raised and addressed in the main body of the report.

Energy as resource or service?

It is not at all surprising that energy is conventionally viewed as a resource, the management and use of which has all manner of environmental consequences. In keeping with this view, energy policy has sought to influence demand and consumption through a variety of economic instruments and through information and persuasion, largely focused on 'using less'. Energy efficiency measures fall into this camp, making sense because they are, in simple technical terms, efficient: fewer resources, both of energy and money, are used in delivering a given end result. It is this approach that informs the discussion starting in section 2.3, 'Market Failure and Energy Efficiency in the Building Sector and the Role of the EnerBuild Network'.

The discourse of market failure is founded on a number of important assumptions both about the market (which are worth interrogating in their own right) and, more relevant for this discussion, about energy. Critically, this kind of analysis requires that we concentrate on energy as a commodity and as a resource - as something that is bought, that can be saved through the use of energy efficient technology, that is amenable to manipulation through pricing strategies and so forth.

It is, however, possible to argue that energy, and energy efficiency, are different (Patterson 2003), and that the regular economics of market operation and market failure do not apply to energy in a way that makes sense in the real world. The essence of this argument, and of the position outlined by Wilhite et. al. (2000), is that people do not consume energy, rather, they consume and value the services that energy makes possible: keeping cosy or cool, maintaining a certain style and level of lighting, freezing food, watching TV and so on. The market, such as it is, is therefore one for services, not resources. This switch of perspective changes the frame entirely.

What matters, in practice, is the provision of an extraordinarily wide variety of services. At the very least, this means that there is not one market, but many - for example, for the provision of lighting, for comfort, and so on. It also means that the notion of 'efficiency' has to be contextualised: its not energy efficiency, as such, that counts in the real world but, rather, the efficiency with which services are delivered and provided. The unit of enquiry and analysis has to move accordingly. In thinking in these rather broader terms it is, for instance, important to consider the performance of the whole technological complex through which resources are translated into services. This means paying attention as much to the fixed infrastructure as to the price of energy or the

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consequences this has for the cost-benefit ratios of specific elements, components or products. As Patterson explains:

“The structure itself delivers, among other things, energy services such as comfort, as and when you use the building. The energy service is not a commodity; you do not measure it or pay for it by the unit” (Patterson 2003:6)

Paradoxically, calculations couched in terms of energy savings, cost benefit and payback periods fail to capture the service element yet that is what energy use is all about.

There are two points to draw from this brief discussion. First, the standard repertoire of policy instruments concentrates on and supposes that it is energy (as a resource) that matters. In this there is a risk that policy makers, designers and research managers and funders consequently attend to the 'wrong' market. Second, and partly because of the resource-based focus, these methods make little difference to the dynamics that really count, namely the changing expectations of service that we have witnessed over the last century. In short it is not the price of energy or the failure to adopt more efficient technologies that is at stake but, rather, the transformation of what people take to be normal and necessary standards of service. Governments are understandably reluctant to get involved with the bigger question of what constitutes an ordinary and acceptable way of life but it is obvious that developments at this level draw unsustainable patterns of energy consumption in their wake.

By implication, the challenge for EnerBuild is not the narrow one of 'correcting market failure in energy efficiency' (a pursuit which is itself flawed for some of the reasons outlined above), but of consciously influencing and shaping the multiple markets for energy-related services. I say consciously because many of the technologies considered in this strategy already and inevitably have the effect of modifying the meaning of 'service' and of invisibly sustaining and structuring certain expectations and conventions of 'demand'. They are, like it or not, implicated in the construction and reproduction of these wider 'markets'.

Contexts of production and consumption

Reading through the sector strategies, and paying particular attention to the descriptions of the different 'industry structures' involved it is clear that even if we set the resource-service argument aside, the EnerBuild 'family' of technologies, measures and strategies is extraordinarily diverse. This prompts me to reflect on the qualities and characteristics of the different 'markets' to which EnerBuild relates.

When dealing with discrete products like solar collectors it is tempting to record sales and take this as an indicator of 'market penetration'. In fact, it is impossible to know what the 'market' is that is being penetrated: what assumptions are being made here about the 'optimal' uptake of specific devices against which current practice is evaluated? What is the imagined world in which all possible opportunities for using this technology are taken up, and what does that world look like? I say imagined because there is, I think another tension to consider, namely that between abstract assessments of technical potential and more pragmatic descriptions of the current complex of institutional, cultural and material circumstances in which things like solar collectors are actually designed, manufactured, bought and sold. In their different ways, most of the sector strategies embody something of a tension between the promises outlined under the 'state of research' and 'market situation', and the realities of production and consumption captured under the heading of 'industry structure'.

In thinking, at a European level, about the fate and future of specific technologies, it is worth paying attention to the localised conditions and contexts of production and consumption. The market for certain devices might be characterised as 'domestic and industrial' - and perhaps that is so in some rather general sense. But within that, where are the 'ideal' or most promising 'lead users' situated? Put another way, what are the social, organisational and economic conditions that really favour the adoption and use of the technologies in question? This way of thinking

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requires strategy writers to pay as much attention to the social and organisational contexts of consumption as they do, through their detailed analysis of supply chains and industry structure, to the social and organisational contexts of production. To give a specific example, a number of commentators note the significance of the refurbishment market. To go further here, and to better understand what might constitute appropriate and relevant energy saving technologies, it would be useful to know more about the rate at which different types of buildings are being renovated across Europe, and about the financial and institutional contexts in which this work is being undertaken. Likewise, and as noted in mechanical heating and cooling strategy (demonstration and dissemination), technical solutions that ‘work’ in one national context and economy may not ‘work’ in another.

Before finishing on this point it is worth noticing that some energy saving strategies have obvious industry-based sponsors, representatives and spokes persons, for example, lighting manufacturers, glazing producers, and so on. However other measures, like 'natural ventilation' do not. In what sense can we think and talk about the 'market penetration' of natural ventilation? Techniques for marketing and positioning commodities do not apply when dealing with passive design strategies that facilitate the use of 'free' resources like those of solar gain or natural ventilation. In these cases there are no organised lobby groups, no trade associations and no obvious source of profit. This is a non-trivial distinction given the observation that such methods 'continue to struggle against more conventional technologies' (passive solar cooling systems: conclusions). The more general point here is that figuring out who stands to profit (or lose) from the adoption of the proposed measures is a relevant part of RTD strategy making.

Constructing demand

A number of the sector strategies notice that the market is not yet developed. They consequently talk of ways in which it might be stimulated. This raises interesting questions about what that might involve and about the routes that might be taken. Three points are especially relevant in this regard.

First, buildings are complicated systems such that the adoption of some new element or technology is almost certain to have implications for other components that together make up the building as a whole. The business of stimulating demand for a specific element is therefore one creating a context in which the item in question makes sense and in which all other pre- and co-requisites are in place. In this context, stimulating the market means doing things in a different way, not just persuading people to buy one rather than another bounded product.

Taking this observation further, it is useful to distinguish between incremental innovation (for example involving the substitution of one material for another) and what Abernathy and Clark (1985) refer to as ‘architectural innovation’. In coining this phrase they do not mean innovation in architecture. Rather, they refer to innovation the success of which requires the transformation of the ‘architecture’ or established framework of how things are done and of the skills, competences and organisational relations that sustain these practices. Radical, breakthrough or in their terms ‘architectural’ innovations are therefore ones that have significant ‘reach’. In other words, they depend upon, require, and perhaps engender the rejigging of an interconnected raft of social and technical arrangements. For present purposes, this argument is relevant in that it highlights the existence of thresholds within the web of interdependencies out of which buildings are constructed. In other words some innovations change the landscape in which others do and do not take place. The development of embedded generation might be just such a case. When building owners become mini-utilities in their own right, many of the ‘rules’ of the energy efficiency game change: new priorities come into view, and different pressures, interests and values apply. The upshot is to ‘create’ new forms of demand where none existed before, and to obviate the ‘need’ for previously sensible solutions.

There is another sense in which technical systems are implicated shaping peoples’ sense of what a building is, what it is for and what it should contain. As Gail Cooper’s (1998) fine study of Air-Conditioning America demonstrates, various strategies were adopted to build consumer demand

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for mechanical cooling. These included the design of buildings that would fail without it, and, more important, the cultural construction of a new understanding of the indoor environment. This begs a question important for the EnerBuild strategy: what kind of cultural understandings are supposed by the research proposals outlined for each sector? What ways of life are tacitly taken for granted by these proposals? To give a specific example, are future users expected to adopt new or different practices (for example to wear more or less clothing, to open and close blinds, to adjust their building in accordance with the weather, etc.) or is the goal to deploy new technologies that sustain and reproduce current conventions? The issue here is at heart one about how social conventions, buildings and forms of technology co-evolve.

The uses and users of research

The last part of the strategy report identifies different modes and methods of technology transfer. Throughout, the emphasis is on techniques for the ‘end of pipe’ promotion of completed research.

In all the sector strategies there is a common assumption that good and worthwhile technologies are not being adopted because they face market barriers of one form or another. I do not want to embark on a debate about the concept of ‘barriers’ here (Shove 1998), only to make the point that what might seem to some to be a barrier is, for others, an entirely explicable consequence of a different set of priorities or a different interpretation of what buildings should be like and how they should be used.

Rather than investing effort in overcoming barriers it probably makes more sense to involve future users in the co-production of technologies that really do suit their needs and that really are appropriate. Should this be possible, emerging solutions will, by definition, not be thwarted by a host of unanticipated barriers. In this regard Bijker’s (1992) concept of innofusion is relevant. This concept, grounded in a detailed study of the development of fluorescent lighting, points to the simultaneous process of innovation and diffusion. His argument is that (at least with the fluorescent light), the ‘product’ was continually re-shaped not only ‘before’ it went to market but also through the process of diffusion. Translated back into EnerBuild terms, research can be seen as a process of learning about the market as well as about technology, and hence as a process not of isolated invention but of co-production involving future users. Understood in this way, technology development is itself a process of technology ‘transfer’.

This is so in another sense too. As de Laat (1996) and others have observed, designers and manufacturers work with and with reference to images of future user. The sense of what something is for and how it will be used has a powerful influence on its detailed design – as a result, products and technical systems contain what Akrich (1992) refers to as ‘inscribed’ users. Many ‘problems’ of technology transfer arise because there is a gap between actual and inscribed users. For EnerBuild, this serves to reinforce the importance of understanding the actual (rather than the fictional or the hoped for) markets for energy saving tools, techniques and technologies. The weakness of a top-down or research-led approach to research strategy building (now a necessary part of Framework 6) is that there is no institutional imperative for realism in this regard. The league tables of favoured research suggestions are interesting in their own right, but more interesting still are the kinds of assumptions, hunches and (market-related) guesses on which they depend.

References in Appendix A

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5. ASSESSMENT OF FUTURE PRIORITIES & ACTIVITIES NECESSARY

5.1 IntroductionThis report has thus far considered particular technology areas, and particular cross-technology (horizontal) areas; there is now a need to draw these together and somehow identify priorities for future research that are either common to several technological and horizontal areas (e.g. refurbishment) or are important due to the magnitude of the challenge they seek to address (e.g. energy efficient cooling).

While this is not an analysis in a quantitative sense, the assessment has been made using two crude instruments:

1) a review of the above in an effort to identify the issues that crop up regularly2) a crude system of Pareto voting by the Steering Committee, which identified and

prioritised the most important areas.

5.2 Review of aboveEmbedded in the above “state of research and future priorities” reports for each of the technology areas are the issues faced by Europe in addressing energy efficiency and sustainability in buildings. Solutions are advocated that are generally particular to that technology area. A review of the conclusions to the State of Research and Future Priorities reports was undertaken and the issues that occur repeatedly are:

Cooling – the rapid proliferation of electrically powered air conditioning to provide comfortable indoor temperature and humidity levels creates a huge challenge. This problem is amplified by the urban heat island effect, itself partially attributable to the use of air conditioning. Furthermore, passive cooling techniques (including natural ventilation) are often dismissed as not being suitable to the polluted urban environment. Finally, a worrying emerging trend is the specification of air conditioning in order to mitigate against possible future effects of global warming.

Refurbishment - the magnitude of existing stock, its predominantly low energy efficiency, its low replacement rate and the slow growth in new stock means that this is where much of the potential to introduce energy efficient measures lies. However, energy efficiency and sustainability is rarely considered as a design criterion during refurbishment.

Conservative and fragmented nature of the construction industry – while many technologies and systems have been developed, their application is hindered by a number of factors: the technology is evaluated in isolation, rather than as part of an overall integrated building design solution; the total cost of ownership is rarely assessed during building design; and there is a tendency to favour low risk, entrenched technologies.

Incumbency advantages – moving from the tendency to favour low-risk, entrenched technologies, the construction industry practices have evolved to meet the needs of established technologies. These practices are not necessarily well suited to emerging sustainable technologies.

Indoor environmental quality – while the importance of IEQ is increasingly recognised by that branch of the research community that is concerned with energy efficiency and sustainability in buildings, and also by building designers, the two (i.e. energy and IEQ) have not been effectively reconciled: researchers and designers request guidelines as to IEQ requirements and raise concerns about the effect of these on energy efficiency.

5.3 Pareto VotingAt the an EnerBuild Steering Committee meeting on 11 December 2002 a summary of conclusions of the State of Research and Future Priorities for each of the Technology Areas was presented.

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This was followed by a crude system of “Pareto voting” whereby a list of these conclusions was displayed and each meeting participant asked to identify the three activities they regarded as priorities for future action. The objective was not to provide definitive results, but to get an indication as to where priorities lie. The results of the exercise are displayed in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1

Using the voting, high (red), medium (yellow) and low (green) research priorities may be identified and categorised, as shown in Table 5.2:

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Solar Technologies Research IndustryActive Solar Heating 1Passive cooling 3Passive Solar Heating 1Natural ventilation 1

LightingUpdate standards and demonstrate lightin qualitye improevement with reduction in electric consumptionEfficient controlsAccelerate replacement incandescent and later CFL's with LEDsDevelop cheap, efficient daylighting systems 2

Mechanical Heating and CoolingIntegrated systems: Low temperature heating and cooling technologies 5Thermal storage 1 1Facilitating consumer adoption (e.g. online monitoring, cost-effectiveness, size) 1Mathematical modelling of systemsEnergy efficient mechanical ventilation

PV in BuildingsResearch coordination Link PV applications to building design, technology and operationStandards, guidelines & quality issuesMarket development measuresEducation to all levels of people involvedCost reduction 2Improve quality of BIPVIncrease efficiency

Building ComponentsIntegrated evaluation of performances - indoor climate and energy efficiency. 3 1Creating attractive market conditions - EPD 1 2Developing consisten assessment schemes for system with time variable propertiesFurther research in specific new technologies 1

Building & Urban DesignResearch into implications of climate change for building design 1Research into building design in urban context 2 1Research into occupant interaction with building operationTools to support energy efficient refurbishment 3 2Post-occupancy evaluation and online monitoring 2Facilitate the process of getting research knowledge into design guidelines or tools 1


Table 5.2

5.4 ConclusionBased upon the issues discussed in Section 5.2 and 5.3 and above, a number of priorities for future research and support activities for energy efficiency and sustainability in buildings have been identified, including:

5.1.1 Refurbishment of existing stock The needThe magnitude of existing stock, its predominantly low energy efficiency, its low replacement rate and the slow growth in new stock means that this is where much of the potential to introduce energy efficient measures lies. However, energy efficiency and sustainability is rarely considered as a design criterion during refurbishment.

Short-medium termActions demonstrating the refurbishment of existing stock with high potential for replication using a combination of state-of-the-art technologies. Potential for replication could be based upon:

standard building types (such as office buildings typical of particular vintage), or building uses (such as banks, supermarkets, etc.), or combinations of technologies that could be widely applied and are complimentary.

These demonstration actions should be fully evaluated in terms of cost-benefit in advance and actual performance monitored. Measures of performance should address IEQ, energy efficiency and sustainability.

Over the medium term this would result in the development of standard approaches, or a pattern book, of various refurbishment scenarios with predictable performance (cost-benefit) models that could be used as a tool to facilitate further refurbishment activities. These, in turn, must be widely disseminated so that a snow-balling effect occurs.

Projects should consist of a research partner to provide options, monitor results and develop model solutions, industry partners to provide technologies, and building occupants that have multiple sites suited for replication.

Medium-long termThe medium to long term emphasis should be on developing sophisticated performance models that encompass a wider range of considerations. These considerations include:

Embodied energy and how it relates to refurbishment cycle decision-making:

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High Medium Low OtherIntegrated systems: Low temperature heating and cooling technologies

Sustainable cooling Develop cheap, efficient daylighting systems

Passive and active solar heating

Integrated evaluation of performances - indoor climate and energy efficiency.

Creating attractive market conditions - EPD

Thermal storage Natural ventilation

Tools to support energy efficient refurbishment

Research into building design in urban context

Cost reduction of PV in Buildings

Facilitating consumer adoption (e.g. online monitoring, cost-effectiveness, size)

Post-occupancy evaluation and online monitoring

Further research in specific new technologiesResearch into implications of climate change for building designFacilitate the process of getting research knowledge into design guidelines or tools


Simple methods for evaluating the life-cycle energy implications of interventions; whether they are reversible or not; how one might plan for change over time; how to respond to changing work patterns and the effects of climate change. An emphasis should be placed on incorporating the results of the above short-medium term monitoring actions.

The development of tools to optimise refurbishment decisions:While new buildings can be optimised for energy, refurbishment carries a considerable amount of complexity associated with the option of retaining existing services and structures. For instance, to achieve a particular level of efficiency, one could use more energy-efficient boilers or improved insulation systems. In addition, the motives for refurbishment tend to be associated with comfort, aesthetics and changes in use, rather than energy performance; these motives will gain higher priority in the refurbishment decision-making process. Consequently, there is a need for design tools to assist in identifying and assessing the range of opportunities in this decision-making process. These tools must be general refurbishment tools, rather than simply energy-efficiency tools.

Naturally, short, medium and long term actions should build upon past European research into this area.

5.1.2 Low temp heating/cooling systems to interface with polygeneration & solar technologies

The needA number of important energy-efficient technologies are maturing both technically and economically (i.e. in terms of cost-benefit). These include heat pumps, solar thermal systems, a number of emerging small- and micro-scale CHP systems, and photovoltaics. In recognition of this, an emphasis should be placed on constructing buildings now that will need minimal refurbishment to incorporate these technologies in the future. In particular, efforts should focus on the interface between polygeneration and solar technologies, and low temperature heating/cooling systems. This will help prevent the current incumbency advantages (Section 5.2) of existing technologies being barriers to the deployment of polygeneration technologies in the future.

There are three aspects to the interface: Building heating delivery systems Building cooling delivery systems Grid connection and distributed generation.

Short-Medium TermLow temperature heating and cooling delivery systems:In the short to medium term, activities should focus on encouraging simple changes in construction practices rather than development of new technology. Facilitating a change to low temperature systems would involve the development of robust construction details and list of products that conform to these, and incorporating these into national building codes. Participants in this action would include national construction industry bodies, who develop these codes, as well as industry and the research community.

Grid connection and distributed generation:While this issue is generally being dealt with through the liberalisation of national electricity markets, and associated EU Directives, there is a need to ensure that national regulatory regimes take account of the benefits and the strategic importance of distributed generation. This includes the provision of simple, low cost grid access procedures and the use of net metering at a fair price.

In addition, there is a need to develop simple electrical codes that make the physical interface between distributed power generators and the grid for various technologies easily understood.

5.1.3 Integrated Evaluation of Performances: Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) and Energy Efficiency

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The needTo address the societal needs of improving health, comfort and safety of the European population, while simultaneously reducing energy demands, as laid down basically in WHO targets and the Kyoto protocol respectively, the integration of different sectors, disciplines, stakeholders and organisations for realisation on a European scale is a must.

A wide range of products and technical solutions are now available to support good indoor climate and energy performance. The market penetration of these solutions varies widely across the EU, but overall, acceptance has been poor. Products and technical solutions – from improved glazing systems to low energy lighting solutions – tend to be offered as isolated components. The challenge is for the architect and design engineer to choose an optimum combination of these so as to achieve an energy efficient solution while maintaining a comfortable and healthy indoor climate. While a component might work in one building, it is difficult to ascertain in advance how it will perform in another building with a different combination of components, different use, and different climate.

Short-Medium TermDesign (and Procurement) Support ToolsActivities should focus on the further development of existing design tools that facilitate integrated, performance-based design and the evaluation of a building’s IEQ and energy performance. The objectives would be to enhance functionality, improve performance and simplify user interface so that the design tools application becomes widespread, rather than a specialist activity.

DemonstrationActivities should also focus on buildings demonstrating a combination of solutions that are complimentary, with construction followed by post-occupancy evaluation and monitoring of performance, followed by the publishing of results in comparable format. These Eco-spaces should demonstrate balance between IEQ, energy efficiency and sustainability requirements.

DisseminationThe results of most recent research into IEQ have not reached building designers in a format that can be taken account of during the design phase. While the integrated performance evaluation tools discussed above are important, practical guidelines, diffused through national organisations, would complement these and facilitate the application of results into building design.

Medium-Long TermThe results of demonstration projects and associated post-occupancy evaluation and monitoring research should be harnessed to improve the performance of design tools. As discussed in Section 3.6, while energy simulation tools exist, they are useful for examining the variables and predicting the parameters; they are not good at predicting actual energy consumption. Their functionality should also be developed so that the robustness of design can be assessed, including likely occupant interaction and satisfaction with the building.

5.1.4 Sustainable CoolingThe needThe rapid proliferation of electrically powered air conditioning to provide comfortable indoor temperature and humidity levels creates a huge challenge. This problem is amplified by the urban heat island effect, itself partially attributable to the use of air conditioning. Finally, a worrying emerging trend is the specification of air conditioning in order to mitigate against possible future effects of global warming.

A number of technologies exist, some relating to polygeneration, some relating to renewable energy technologies, some relating to passive techniques. Active technologies relying on a heat source, such as absorption chilling, face minimum efficient scale issues. There is concern amongst building designers that passive cooling systems may not reliably meet occupant requirements. Furthermore, passive cooling techniques (including natural ventilation) are often dismissed as not being suitable to the polluted urban environment. Both passive and active sustainable cooling are

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losing the battle against convenient and reliable air conditioning, particularly electrically driven split systems.

Overall, an action programme supporting the development of sustainable cooling technologies, addressing both passive techniques and active technologies is necessary. The support of a sponsoring organisation, with a role similar to that of an industry trade body, could counterbalance industry support for electrically powered air conditioning.

Short-Medium TermActions are necessary to demonstrate that passive design techniques (minimising heat gains and maximising passive cooling techniques) can be effectively combined with active cooling technologies to meet the cooling needs of a building. Standard solutions with high replication potential in particular climates and urban environments should be given priority.

Demonstration should be complemented by deployment measures such as post-occupancy evaluation, including an assessment of indoor environmental quality, performance monitoring and dissemination of information. This includes the monitoring and dissemination of results from existing demonstration sites.

Medium-Long TermResearch should continue into the development of cost-effective micro-scale (<20kW) cooling technologies complementary to micro-CHP.

The development of a tool to identify which combination of sustainable cooling technique/technology is most appropriate in a particular building type and climate. This tool would be based upon the results of the monitored demonstration projects.

5.1.5 Creating Attractive Market Conditions If energy efficient technologies and techniques are to be deployed, it is essential that attractive market conditions are created. The effective implementation of the Energy Performance Directive, discussed in Section 2.4, is one important aspect of this. A number of supporting projects, such as EuroProsper and ENPER, are already underway and their continuance is essential.

5.1.6 Research into Building Design in the Urban ContextAs discussed in Section 3.6, a considerable amount of research has been undertaken into the urban environment on a macro scale, addressing such issues as the heat island effect, pollution levels in cities and transport modelling. In addition, there has been research into the energy performance of individual buildings.

However, once a building is put into an urban microclimate, a number of issues arise: noise, pollution, overshadowing, the heat island effect. Concerns about these frequently provide an excuse to abandon the energy-efficiency agenda. With the exception of overshadowing, little research has been undertaken into urban building energy performance. Were a greater understanding of this area developed, it might be possible to broaden the scope of existing building design tools to become urban building design tools.

Finally, issues related to urban design are particularly pertinent to municipalities and planners. While sustainable urban design is likely to consider transport issues, little research has been undertaken into the connections between aspects of urban design and transport; how urban planning regulations and strategies impact on energy consumption; effects of live/work patterns; the movement of people; the implications of the quality of the urban environment; indoor air quality related to the outdoor environment, etc. Those are seen as broad topics for mid to long-term research that will impact on energy demand in buildings.

5.1.7 Post-Occupancy Evaluation (POE) and Online Monitoring

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The gap between predicted (during design) and actual performance needs to be addressed: POE and monitoring provide the necessary feedback to the development of prediction tools. They also assist in understanding of which techniques/ technologies work in different situations. They provide feedback on specific building performance to designers. They allow case studies to be developed. Finally, there is little point in constructing buildings to demonstrate the performance of a number of technologies or techniques if their actual performance is not objectively appraised through a process of data collection and evaluation.

Short-Medium TermA programme for POE combined with online monitoring of a selection of demonstration buildings is required. The assessment must take account of perceived and actual comfort conditions. Whilst this is a short term action, it will be ongoing and the data gathered will be a source of medium and long term research analysis and actions. This is essentially a data gathering and analysis exercise supporting the demonstration process. Many of the technologies and techniques necessary for energy-efficient building have been developed, but gathering this actual performance data will give them credibility and provide the opportunity to refine/further develop them. Also, we need to develop a better understanding of the combinations of technologies and techniques that work, i.e. develop a more holistic approach to building design.

5.1.8 Comfort and IEQThe relevance of IEQ is reflected in many of the suggestions described above. In addition, there are medium/long term research requirements. These are primarily concerned with the development of models to address the relationship between human perceptions and physical quantities. In addition, there is a need for IEQ research to consider the effect of external sources of pollution on occupants, as this is perceived by designers as being important.

It is also essential that the communication and interaction between the various stakeholders, sectors, technologies, stages (design to production) and activities be further developed and guided through European support actions.

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6. FUTURE STRUCTURES

Introduction Having identified future research priorities (and activities that are necessary to support these), it is appropriate to now consider the structures most appropriate to their implementation. From a practical standpoint, due consideration is given to the FP6 funding instruments available. But first it is appropriate to reflect on the aspects of EnerBuild that did and did not work, and why, so that future structures will take account of this.

Lessons Learned from EnerBuild As discussed in Section 2.3, the key role of the EnerBuild RTD Thematic Network is in reducing information asymmetries and encouraging collaboration on R&D. Its core objective is to improve the flow of information on potential opportunities for improved energy efficiency in the building sector.

Its structure was intended to facilitate communication amongst the research community and liaison with industry and the Commission. While its network structure enabled it to complete its deliverables, more could have been achieved had the organisation the flexibility to adapt to evolving circumstances. Organisation structure must be distinguished from the people involved: this appraisal does not reflect on the capabilities or efforts of any individuals or the group as a whole.

Some considerations are: Cycle of Associated Projects – The circumstances of the Network were that many of the

participating RTD projects were already concluded by the time the Network began. This resulted in a drag on the Network.

There were weak links with/participation of industry. The presence of industry on the Steering Committee only gave industry a forum to communicate, but not the resources or role to effect real change.

Didn’t have a market-led approach – Reflecting the above, the EnerBuild project tended to be led by academic interests, rather than balancing this with industry participation to achieve a more market-led approach.

No particular goal – as a network, its objective was to facilitate communication, rather than achieve particular goal. This resulted in problems in achieving unity of direction and motivation. For instance, the Network was unable to help specific research projects or promising research areas advance to the next step, be it further research, demonstration or other activities, through the provision of material support. The suspension of EC support in this area further compounded the problem.

Need for a stronger economic/strategic approach – Reflecting the absence of a goal, an approach that was not market-led, and the absence of discretionary resources, there was no way of developing a strategy by which the network would achieve something tangeable.

However, it is important to also reflect upon the positive aspects of the network structure: Flexibility – while the original expectation was that Technology Groups would operate

independently of one another, it quickly became apparent that there was overlap between Technology Groups. A greater level of cross-group communication was facilitated by arranging Technology Group meetings simultaneously and the organisation had the flexibility to allow this.

Efficient Use of Resources – despite funding cuts to 1/3 of the initial budgetary application, the Network provided a range of activities and achieved a considerable amount of communication, particularly amongst the research community.

Growth & Development – the network succeeded in securing funding to incorporate a “Newly Associated States” component and was able to facilitate communication amongst the NAS and the EU research communities.

In conclusion, the EnerBuild Thematic Network could have achieved more had it been more fully resourced and had the discretion to evolve more according to future research priorities.

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FP6 Funding Instruments5

At time of writing the FP6 Funding Instruments have emerged. These are summarised briefly as, in order to be practical, recommendations must be considered in light of these.

Integrated Projects – provides support to objective-driven research, where the primary deliverable is new knowledge. It creates new knowledge by integrating the critical mass of activities and resources needed to achieve ambitious clearly defined scientific and technological objectives.

Networks of Excellence – provides for the strengthening of excellence by tackling the fragmentation of European research, where the main deliverable should be a durable structuring and shaping of the way that research is carried out on the topic of the network.

Specific Targeted Research Projects – these are an evolved form of the shared-cost RTD projects, which are intended to gain new knowledge, and demonstration projects, which are intended to prove the viability of new technologies, used in FP5.

Coordination Actions – are a continuation of the concerted actions/thematic networks used in FP5, with the objective of promoting and supporting the networking and coordination of research and innovation activities.

Specific Support Actions – are a continuation of the accompanying measures used in FP5, with the objective of supporting the implementation of the Framework Programme.

These actions may also be classified according to time-scale6:

Short and Medium Term ActionsFocus - Integrated demonstration actions.Impact – Accelerate market penetration with emphasis on 2010 energy policy objectives.Risks – Technological, but also market/financial.Policy Aims - Energy policy (serving research and associated policies)

Medium and Long Term ActionsFocus - Research, including prototypes and pilot plantsImpact - Technology development (wide exploitation beyond 2010)Risk - Scientific / technologicalPolicy Aims - Research policy (serving energy and associated policies)

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7. CONCLUSION: RESEARCH AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS

Short & Medium Term ActionsIn the short-medium term it is essential that actions focus on the demonstration of new and refurbishment standard solutions featuring a number of complementary technologies and with high replication potential. This will demonstrate the technologies and techniques that work.

Proposals to incorporate specific technologies in these demonstration buildings must illustrate that there is an opportunity for the technology to succeed in the market and will be assessed on this basis. For instance, the presentation of a technology by an industry-academic partnership with industry outlining plans to bring the technology to market and illustrating the value added by the EC-supported demonstration project in facilitating this.

Making the most of this experience is essential: gathering of detailed cost and energy information during construction and post-occupancy is essential. Online monitoring is an important support tool. This should be followed by the analysis and targeted dissemination of this information so that the potential for replication is realised. Target audiences for dissemination include:

Research community, who can use the information to enhance understanding of building performance and adjust energy performance models accordingly.

Building designers, where working cases will provide reassurance that particular combinations work.

Manufacturers, who will become aware of new innovative technologies or how their innovative products actually perform.

Occupants, who will become aware of options and demand them from clients.

This action would provide input into a number of research areas: Refurbishment – demonstration, data gathering to develop refurbishment tools. Comfort and IEQ – data gathering Energy efficient cooling – demonstration of technologies and techniques that exist Integrated solutions

Based on our experience of structures and the funding instruments that are available, we believe that an integrating project in eco-buildings and polygeneration to build, monitor/gather data and disseminate. There should be clear division of responsibilities between design and technology selection; and monitoring, evaluation and dissemination. In addition, there should be a budget for discretionary spending to support such activities as dissemination.

Medium & Long Term ActionsIn the medium-long term focus should be on cooling technologies and developing robust design support tools for the integrated evaluation of energy performance, but also take account of the urban context and indoor environmental quality. The development of the underpinning knowledge on urban issues and indoor environmental quality is an important precursor to this.

EpilogueThis report has adopted a “bottoms-up” approach in developing a strategy for the future. An alternative approach would be to adopt a “tops-down” approach by identifying key categories of Europe’s building stock (eg. office buildings, dwellings, etc.) and assessing their energy consumption per square meter across Europe. Then identifying target energy consumption per square meter over the next 20 years. From these targets, each technology area could be evaluated in terms of its ability to contribute to this target (eg. target office lighting power densities of 6 W/m2) and funding allocations based upon these.

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