Ese Ed Qp Answer Key

8/13/2019 Ese Ed Qp Answer Key

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Reg. No.

[13ECU101]

KARPAGAM UNIVERSITY(Under Sec!on 3 o" UGC Ac 1#$%&

Co!')ore * %+1 0,1(-or e c)nd!d)e/ )d'!ed "ro' ,013 on)rd/&

.Sc 2EGREE EAMINATI4N5 N4VEMER ,013

-!r/ Se'e/er

E6ECTR4NICS AN2 C4MMUNICATI4N SYSTEMS

E6ECTR4NIC 2EVICES

T!'e7 3 8o9r/ M):!'9' M)r;/7 %0

ANSec!"? e co@o9r code "or e "o@@o!ng re/!/or )@9e/.

i) 2.7 5% = RED, VIOLET, GOLD, GOLD

ii) 6.8M 20% = BLUE,GREY,GREEN,NONE

,. e/ o" e@ecro/)!c c)>)c!or/B

Thee !e " #i$$ee& &'(e *$ E+e&*&!&i -!(!i&* !e !!i+!/+e. The' !e

+!&i #ie+e&i &'(e

Mi! #ie+e&i &'(e

-e!1i #ie+e&i &'(e

3.


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Gie:

VT= ;0V I2=501ie i& i ! >eie i3i& *, &he 3e& #*( !& R2 i++ /e &he -3e& ?+*i4 &he i3i&.

%. A /!n9/o!d)@ /!gn)@ )/ ) '):!'9' o" ,0'V5) !/ e r.'./ )@9e/ o" e /!gn)@.

The i3*i#!+ i4!+ (e! *+&!4e V1 = 20M

RM> !+3e *$ &he i3*i#!+ i4!+ i V1 = @

= A200")@C2 =0.0

F. S)e K!rco""/ o@)ge @).

ih*$$ *+&!4e +! &!&e &h!& &he !+4e/!i 31 *$ *+&!4e i ! +*e# (!&h i !+!' Fe*.

H. S)e S9>er >o/!!on eore'

I ! +ie! e&* *&!ii4 ee!+ *3e Ai+3#i4 #e(e#e& *3e ),&he *e!++e(*e A/!h 3e& * *+&!4e)i !' /!h i &he e&* e93!+ &he !+4e/!i 31 *$e(*e *$ e!h i#ii#3!+ *3e *i#ee# e(!!&e+' i&h !++ *&he *3e 1!#e i*(e!&ie .i.e e(+!e# /' i&e!+ ei&!e * i1(e#!e.

#. S)e een!n/ eore'B


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*e+!( i&h &h*e *$ e+e&* *$ie# &* ei4h/*i4 !&*1. The !3+i E+3i* ii(+e#*e *& !++* &he e+e&* ee4' +ee+ &* /e &he !1e * &h!& *e */&!i ! e& *$ +*e+'(!e# ee4' +ee+, $*1i4 ! ee4' /!#. The ee4' /!# 1*#e+ i 3i!+ &* !' #e&!i+e#&e!&1e& *$ e1i*#3&* #eie. I& (*i#e &he $!1e* ee#e# &* 3#e&!# &he *e(&*$ ! ee4' /!# 4!( !# &h!& *$ *#3&i* i ! !+1*& $i++e# /!# ! #ei/e# /' &he e1(&'

&!&e.

ENERGY AN2 2IAGRAM

11. 2r) e /?'o@ )nd Sr9c9re o" ener d!ode

SYM46 4- ENER 2I42E STRUCTURE 4- ENER 2I42E

1,.


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PART ($:H=+0 M)r;/&

1%.

)& 2e/cr!e e 2!""eren ?>e/ o" C)>)c!or/.

The C)>)c!or, *1e&i1e e$ee# &* ! ! Conden/er, i ! i1(+e (!ie #eie. The!(!i&* i ! *1(*e& hih h! &he !/i+i&' * H!(!i&'H &* &*e ee4' i &he $*1 *$ !e+e&i!+ h!4e (*#3i4 ! (*&e&i!+ #i$$eee AStatic Voltage) !* i& (+!&e, 13h +ie !1!++ eh!4e!/+e /!&&e'. I i& /!i $*1, ! !(!i&* *i& *$ &* * 1*e (!!++e+*#3&ie A1e&!+) (+!&e hih !e *& *e&e# * &*3hi4 e!h *&he, /3& i e+e&i!++'e(!!&e# ei&he /' !i * /' *1e $*1 *$ i3+!&i4 1!&ei!+ 3h ! (!(e, 1i!, e!1i *(+!&i !# hih i *11*+' !++e# &he !(!i&* 2!e@ecr!c. The #ie+e&i *3+# /e !i, 1i!,(!(e * (*+'e&e

T?>e/ o" c)>)c!or/

The !(!i&* !e 4ee!++' !&e4*iFe# ! &*, &he' !e ?ie# !(!i&* V!i!/+e !(!i&*

-!:ed c)>)c!or/7

The !(!i&!e !+3e !*& /e h!4e#, i& i $ie# !*#i4 &* &he #ie+e&i.

The $ie# !(!i&* ! /e #ii#e# i&* 2 &'(e 4ee!++'

i. E+e&*+'&iii. N* E+e&*+'&i &'(e

E@ecro@?!c T?>e C)>)c!or/7

E@ecro@?!c C)>)c!or/ !e 4ee!++' 3e# he e' +!4e !(!i&!e !+3e !ee93ie#. ee i&e!# *$ 3i4 ! e' &hi 1e&!++i $i+1 +!'e $* *e *$ &he e+e&*#e, ! e1i+i93i# e+e&*+'&e *+3&i* i &he $*1 *$ ! e++' * (!&e i 3e# hih ee ! &he e*#e+e&*#e A33!++' &he !&h*#e). The #ie+e&i i ! e' &hi +!'e *$ *i#e hih i 4*

e+e&*he1i!++' i (*#3&i* i&h &he &hie *$ &he $i+1 /ei4 +e &h! &e 1i*. Thii3+!&i4 +!'e i * &hi &h!& i& i (*i/+e &* 1!e !(!i&* i&h ! +!4e !+3e *$ !(!i&!e$* ! 1!++ (h'i!+ iFe ! &he #i&!e /e&ee &he (+!&e, # i e' 1!++.

The 1!*i&' *$ e+e&*+'&i &'(e *$ !(!i&* !e Po@)r!ed, &h!& i &he D- *+&!4e!((+ie# &* &he !(!i&* &e1i!+ 13& /e *$ &he *e& (*+!i&', i.e. (*i&ie &* &he (*i&ie&e1i!+ !# e4!&ie &* &he e4!&ie &e1i!+ ! ! i*e& (*+!iF!&i* i++ /e! #* &he


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i3+!&i4 *i#e +!'e !# (e1!e& #!1!4e 1!' e3+&. )c!or/!e 4ee!++' 3e# i D- (*e 3((+' i3i& #3e &* &hei +!4e

!(!i&!e !# 1!++ iFe &* he+( e#3e &he i((+e *+&!4e * $* *3(+i4 !# #e*3(+i4!((+i!&i*. Oe 1!i #i!#!&!4e *$ e+e&*+'&i !(!i&* i &hei e+!&ie+' +* *+&!4e!&i4 !# #3e &* &he (*+!iF!&i* *$ e+e&*+'&i !(!i&*, i& $*++* &he &h!& &he' 13& *& /e3e# * )c!or/!# T)n)@9' E@ecro@?!c C)>)c!or/.

A@9'!n9' E@ecro@?!c C)>)c!or/

Thee !e /!i!++' &* &'(e *$ A@9'!n!9' E@ecro@?!c C)>)c!or, &he (+!i $*i+ &'(e !# &hee&he# $*i+ &'(e. The &hie *$ &he !+31ii31 *i#e $i+1 !# hi4h /e!#* *+&!4e 4ie&hee !(!i&* e' hi4h !(!i&!e !+3e $* &hei iFe. The $*i+ (+!&e *$ &he !(!i&* !e!*#iFe# i&h ! D- 3e&. Thi !*#iFi4 (*e e& 3( &he (*+!i&' *$ &he (+!&e 1!&ei!+ !##e&e1ie hih i#e *$ &he (+!&e i (*i&ie !# hih i#e i e4!&ie.

The e&he# $*i+ &'(e #i$$e $*1 &he (+!i $*i+ &'(e i &h!& &he !+31ii31 *i#e * &he!*#e !# !&h*#e $*i+ h! /ee he1i!++' e&he# &* ie!e i& 3$!e !e! !# (e1i&&ii&'.Thi 4ie ! 1!++e iFe# !(!i&* &h! ! (+!i $*i+ &'(e *$ e93i!+e& !+3e /3& h! &he#i!#!&!4e *$ *& /ei4 !/+e &* i&h&!# hi4h D- 3e& *1(!e# &* &he (+!i &'(e.


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E&he# $*i+ e+e&*+'&i !e /e& 3e# i *3(+i4, D- /+*i4 !# /'(! i3i&hi+e (+!i $*i+ &'(e !e /e&&e 3i&e# ! 1**&hi4 !(!i&* i (*e 3((+ie. B3& !+31ii31e+e&*+'&i i H(*+!iFe#H #eie * eei4 &he !((+ie# *+&!4e * &he +e!# i++ !3e &hei3+!&i4 +!'e i&hi &he !(!i&* &* /e*1e #e&*'e# !+*4 i&h &he !(!i&*.

T)n)@9' E@ecro@?!c C)>)c!or/

T)n)@9' E@ecro@?!c C)>)c!or/!# T)n)@9' e)d/!e !!i+!/+e i /*&h e& A$*i+) !# #'A*+i#) e+e&*+'&i &'(e i&h &he #' * *+i# &!&!+31 /ei4 &he 1*& *11*. >*+i# &!&!+31!(!i&* 3e 1!4!ee #i*i#e ! &hei e*# &e1i!+ !# !e (h'i!++' 1!++e &h! &hee93i!+e& !+31ii31 !(!i&*. The #ie+e&i (*(e&ie *$ &!&!+31 *i#e i !+* 13h /e&&e&h! &h*e *$ !+31ii31 *i#e 4ii4 ! +*e +e!!4e 3e& !# /e&&e !(!i&!e &!/i+i&'hih 1!e &he1 3i&!/+e $* 3e i /+*i4, /'(!i4, #e*3(+i4, $i+&ei4 !# &i1i4!((+i!&i*.

)c!or/hih 3e (*+'&'ee, (*+'!/*!&e * Te$+* ! &hei #ie+e&i !e*1e&i1e !++e# LP@)/!c c)>)c!or/L.The *&3&i* *$ (+!&i $i+1 !(!i&* i i1i+! &*&h!& $* (!(e $i+1 !(!i&* /3& 3e ! (+!&i $i+1 i&e!# *$ (!(e. The 1!i !#!&!4e *$(+!&i $i+1 !(!i&* *1(!e# &* i1(e4!&e#(!(e &'(e i &h!& &he' *(e!&e e++ 3#e*#i&i* *$ hi4h &e1(e!&3e, h!e 1!++e &*+e!e, ! e' +*4 eie +i$e !# hi4h


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e+i!/i+i&'. E!1(+e *$ $i+1 !(!i&* !e &he e&!43+! 1e&!+iFe# $i+1 !# '+i#i!+ $i+1 $*i+ &'(e ! h* /e+*.

?i+1 &'(e !(!i&* !e !!i+!/+e i !(!i&!e !4e $*1 ! 1!++ ! $>- o )/ @)rge)/ 1009-

The $i+1 !# $*i+ &'(e *$ !(!i&* !e 1!#e $*1 +*4 &hi &i( *$ &hi 1e&!+ $*i+ i&h &he#ie+e&i 1!&ei!+ !#ihe# &*4e&he hih !e *3# i&* ! &i4h& *++ !# &he e!+e# i(!(e * 1e&!+ &3/e.

Thi $i+1 &'(e e93ie ! 13h &hie #ie+e&i $i+1 &* e#3e &he i *$ &e! * (3&3e i &he$i+1, !# i &hee$*e 1*e 3i&e# &* +*e !(!i&!e !+3e !# +!4e !e iFe.

Ceramic Capacitors

Cer)'!c C)>)c!or/!e 4ee!++' !++e# ! 2!/c C)>)c!or/ !e 1!#e /' *!&i4 &* i#e *$! 1!++ (*e+!i * e!1i #i i&h i+e !# !e &he &!e# &*4e&he &* 1!e ! !(!i&*.?* e' +* !(!i&!e !+3e ! i4+e e!1i #i *$ !/*3& "611 i 3e#. -e!1i!(!i&* h!e ! hi4h #ie+e&i *&!& Ai4h) !# !e !!i+!/+e * &h!& e+!&ie+' hi4h!(!i&!e ! /e */&!ie# i ! 1!++ (h'i!+ iFe.


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-e!1i -!(!i&*

The' ehi/i& +!4e *+ie! h!4e i !(!i&!e !4!i& &e1(e!&3e !# ! ! e3+& !e 3e#! #e*3(+i4 * /'(! !(!i&* ! &he' !e !+* *(*+!iFe# #eie. -e!1i !(!i&*h!e !+3e !4i4 $*1 ! $e (i*$!!# &* *e * &* 1i*$!!# /3& &hei *+&!4e !&i4 !e

4ee!++' 93i&e +*.

-e!1i &'(e *$ !(!i&* 4ee!++' h!e ! "#i4i& *#e (i&e# *&* &hei /*#' &* i#e&i$' &hei!(!i&!e !+3e i (i*$!!#. Gee!++' &he $i& &* #i4i& i#i!&e &he !(!i&* !+3e !#&he &hi# #i4i& i#i!&e &he 31/e *$ Fe* &* /e !##e#. ?* e!1(+e, ! e!1i #i !(!i&*i&h &he 1!i4 0" *3+# i#i!&e 0 !# " Fe* i (i*$!!# hih i e93i!+e&&* 0,000 (? *0?.

Lieie, &he #i4i& 0; *3+# i#i!&e 0 !# ; Fe* i (i*$!!# hih i e93i!+e&&* 00,000 (?* 00? !# * *. The * &he i1!4e *$ ! e!1i !(!i&* !/*e &he31/e 5; i#i!&e 5 !# ; Fe* i (i*$!!# hih i e93i!+e& &* 50,000 (? * 50?.Le&&e *#e !e *1e&i1e 3e# &* i#i!&e &hei &*+e!e !+3e 3h !: = 5%, = 0% * M= 20% e&.

VARIA6E CAPACIT4R

< !i!/+e !(!i&* i *&3&e# i 3h 1!e &h!& i& !+3e *$ !(!i&!e ! /e !ie#. o/!!on7

C)ron Re/!/or/!e &he 1*& *11* &'(e *$ Co'>o/!!on Re/!/or/. -!/* ei&* !e !he!( 4ee!+ (3(*e ei&* 3e# i e+e&i!+ !# e+e&*i i3i&. Thei ei&ie e+e1e& i1!3$!&3e# $*1 ! 1i&3e *$ $ie+' 4*3# !/* #3& * 4!(hi&e Ai1i+! &* (ei+ +e!#)!# ! **#3&i4 e!1i A+!') (*#e &* /i# i& !++ &*4e&he.

The !&i* *$ !/* #3& &* e!1i A*#3&* &* i3+!&*) #e&e1ie &he *e!++ ei&ie !+3e*$ &he 1i&3e !# &he hi4he &he !&i* *$ !/*, &he +*e &he *e!++ ei&!e. The 1i&3e i1*+#e# i&* ! '+i#i!+ h!(e i&h 1e&!+ ie * +e!# !e !&&!he# &* e!h e# &* (*i#e &hee+e&i!+ *e&i* ! h*, /e$*e /ei4 *!&e# i&h ! *3&e i3+!&i4 1!&ei!+ !# *+*3

*#e# 1!i4 &* #e*&e i& ei&ie !+3e.

The C)ron Co'>o/!e Re/!/ori ! +* &* 1e#i31 &'(e (*e ei&* hih h! !+* i#3&!e 1!i4 &he1 i#e!+ $* hi4h $e93e' !((+i!&i* /3& &he' ! !+* 3$$e $*1*ie !# &!/i+i&' he h*&. -!/* *1(*i&e ei&* !e 4ee!++' (e$ie# i&h

C4R4N C4MP4SITI4N TYPE RESIST4R


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! H-RH *&!&i* Ae4, -R0P ) !# !e !!i+!/+e i E6 A 20% &*+e!e A!3!') ), E2 A 0% &*+e!e) !# E2; A 5% &*+e!e) (!!4e i&h (*e !&i4 $*1 0.25 * @; *$ !!&& 3( &* 5 !&&.

Film Type Resistors

-!/* *1(*i&e ei&* !e e' he!( &* 1!e !# !e &hee$*e *11*+' 3e# ie+e&i!+ i3i&. *ee, #3e &* &hei 1!3$!&3i4 (*e !/* &'(e ei&* h!e e'+!4e &*+e!e * $* 1*e (eii* !# hi4h !+3e ei&!e, "!@' ?>e re/!/or/!e 3e#i&e!#.

The 4eei &e1 H-!@' Re/!/orH *i& *$Metal Film, Carbon Film!#Metal OxideFilmei&* &'(e, hih !e 4ee!++' 1!#e /' #e(*i&i4 (3e 1e&!+, 3h ! ie+, * !*i#e $i+1, 3h ! &i*i#e, *&* ! i3+!&i4 e!1i *# * 3/&!&e.

The ei&ie !+3e *$ &he ei&* i *&*++e# /' ie!i4 &he #eie# &hie *$ &he#e(*i&e# $i+1 4ii4 &he1 &he !1e *$ ei&he H&hi$i+1 ei&*H * H&hi$i+1 ei&*H.Oe #e(*i&e#, ! +!e i 3e# &* 3& ! hi4h (eii* (i!+ he+i 4**e &'(e (!&&e i&* &hi$i+1. The 3&&i4 *$ &he $i+1 h! &he e$$e& *$ ie!i4 &he *#3&ie * ei&ie (!&h, ! /i& +ie&!i4 ! +*4 +e4&h *$ &!i4h& ie !# $*1i4 i& i&* ! *i+.

Thi 1e&h*# *$ 1!3$!&3e !++* $* 13h +*e &*+e!e ei&* A% * +e) !*1(!e# &* &he i1(+e !/* *1(*i&i* &'(e. The &*+e!e *$ ! ei&* i &he #i$$eee/e&ee &he (e$ee# !+3e Ai.e, 00 *h1) !# i& !&3!+ 1!3$!&3e# !+3e i.e, 0".6 *h1,!# i e(ee# ! ! (ee&!4e, $* e!1(+e 5%, 0% e&, !# i *3 e!1(+e &he !&3!+&*+e!e i ".6%. ?i+1 &'(e ei&* !+* !hiee ! 13h hi4he 1!i131 *h1i !+3e*1(!e# &* *&he &'(e !# !+3e i ee *$ 0MP A0 Mi++i* PQ) !e !!i+!/+e.

Me)@ -!@' Re/!/or/h!e 13h /e&&e &e1(e!&3e &!/i+i&' &h! &hei !/* e93i!+e&,+*e *ie !# !e 4ee!++' /e&&e $* hi4h $e93e' * !#i* $e93e' !((+i!&i*. Me)@4:!de Re/!/or/h!e /e&&e hi4h 34e 3e& !(!/i+i&' i&h ! 13h hi4he &e1(e!&3e !&i4&h! &he e93i!+e& 1e&!+ $i+1 ei&*.

C4R4N -I6M TYPE RESIST4R


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The' !e !+* !/+e &* h!#+e 13h hi4he e+e&i!+ 3e& &h! *&he ei&* *$ &he!1e *h1i !+3e i&h (*e !&i4 i ee *$ "00 !&&. Thee hi4h (*e ei&* !e1*3+#e# * (ee# i&* ! !+31i31 he!& i /*#' i&h $i !&&!he# &* ie!e &hei *e!++3$!e !e! &* (*1*&e he!& +* !# **+i4. Thee &'(e *$ ei&* !e !++e# H-h!iM*3&e# Rei&*H. The' !e #ei4e# &* /e (h'i!++' 1*3&e# *&* he!& i * 1e&!+ (+!&e&* $3&he #ii(!&e &he 4ee!&e# he!& ie!i4 &hei 3e& !'i4 !(!/i+i&ie ee $3&he.


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The *i#3&ie ei&!e ie i *3# !*3# ! e!1i * (*e+!i &3/e *ee# i&h1i! &* (ee& &he !++*' ie $*1 1*i4 he h*&. ie *3# ei&* !e !!i+!/+e i !!ie&' *$ ei&!e !# (*e !&i4 i&h *e 1!i 3e *$ (*e ie *3# ei&* i i &hee+e&i!+ he!&i4 e+e1e& *$ ! e+e&i $ie hih *e& &he e+e&i!+ 3e& $+*i4

&h*34h i& i&* he!& i&h e!h e+e1e& #ii(!&i4 3( &* 000 !&&, A) *$ ee4'.

Thee !e &he !i*3 &'(e *$ $ie# ei&* !!i+!/+e.

1F.

)& >)ren Poer

!& Re)@ >oer7

I ! 3e Rei&ie -i3i& !++ &he ee4' #e+iee# /' &he >*3e i Dii(!&e# i &he

$*1 *$ he!& /' ei&!e I ! Re!&ie i3i&, !++ &he ee4' #e+iee# /' &he *3e i &*e# /' &he i#3&* *

!(!i&* i i& 1!4e&i * e+e&i $ie+# #3i4 ! (*&i* *$ &he *+&!4e '+e !# &he ie&3e# &* &he *3e #3i4 !*&he (*&i* *$ '+e. >* &h!& * e& ee4' i!+&e!&ie+' &*e# !# e&3e# /' &he e!&ie (!& !# ! (!& i #ii(!&e# /' ei&!e


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The !1*3& *$ ee4' #ii(!&e# i #e&e1ie# /' &he e!&ie !+3e *$ ei&!e !#e!&!e

-*i#e ! *1(+e i1(e#!e $3&i* *$ &he 4ie i3i&

VA&) = V1-* S&

I A&) = I1 -* AS& ) 2

The e93 , 2 !e &he V*+&!4e !# -3e& !+3e

The (*e !& !' i&!& *$ &i1e i

A&) = V A&)I A&) "

= V1-* S& I1 -* AS& )

A&)= ;

The E93 ; e(ee& I&!&!e*3 (*e.I& -*i& *$ &* !&. Oe i ?ie#!# !*&he *e &i1e !'i4 hih h! $e93e' .

The *+&!4e !# 3e& !e $*1 !e h* i $i4


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>* &h3 &he I&!&!e*3 (*e A&) i !++e# ! Re)@ >oer . I !>9re re/!/!e c!rc9!&he(h!e #i$$eee /e&ee &he 3e& !# *+&!4e i 0 * &h3 &he Re!+ (*e $* Rei&ie i3i&i

A&) = V1 I1 -*2 S&

I$i ie!e# &he e4!&ie (*&i* *$ &he (*e '+e i ie!e# !# +ee (*e i#ii(!&e#.

I$= &he &he (*e *$ &he 4ie i3i& i Fe*.

!!. A>>)ren Poer

I ! i1(+e !+&e!&i4 3e&A


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VA&) = V1-* S&

I A&) = I1 -* AS& ) 2

The e93 , 2 !e &he V*+&!4e !# -3e& !+3e

The &he


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Gie : V="0V

R=20R2=0 R"= 70

The V*+&!4e Diii* R3+e i

Thi i3i& i eie i3i& * &he T*&!+ Rei&!e R& = RR2R" i

R&= 20070 =00

The *+&!4e D*( !& Rei&* R i V=A

=6V

The *+&!4e D*( !& Rei&* R2 i V2=A

= "V

The *+&!4e D*( !& Rei&* R" i V2=A

= 2V

>* &he *+&!4e #*( !+3e !e V=6V

V2="V

V"=2V


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8. ). /)e )nd e:>@)!n Noron eor'.

Noron Teore'

N*&* &he*e1 &!&e &h!& ! +ie! &*&e1i!+ e&* ! /e e(+!e# /' !e93i!+e& i3i& *i&i4 *$ ! 3e& *3e IN i (!!++e+ i&h ei&* RNhee IN i &heh*&i3i& 3e& &h*34h &he &e1i!+ !# RN &he i(3& * e93i!+e& ei&!e !& &he&e1i!+ he &he i#e(e#e& *3e !e &3e# *$$. I$ *e #*e *& ih &* &3 *$$ &hei#e(e#e& *3e, &he RN i &he !&i* *$ *(e i3i& *+&!4e &* h*&Ki3i& 3e& !& &he&e1i!+ (!i.

?i43e ! h* N*&* e93i!+e& i3i& ! ee $*1 &he &e1i!+ !/ *$ &he *i4i!+i3i& h* i ?i4 /. >ie &hi i &he #3!+ *$ &he Theei i3i&, i& i +e! &h!& RN=RT8 !#IN =( V)DRT8&.I $!&, *3e &!$*1!&i* *$ Theei e93i!+e& i3i& +e!# &* N*&*

e93i!+e& i3i&.

Proced9re "or "!nd!ng Noron/ e9!)@en c!rc9!:A) I$ &he e&* *&!i ei&* !# i#e(e#e& *3e, $*++* &he i&3&i* /e+*: A!) De!&i!&e &he *3e !# $i# RN/' i3i& e#3&i* &ehi93e. A/) ?i# INi&h *3e !&i!&e#.A2) I$ &he e&* *&!i ei&*, i#e(e#e& !# #e(e#e& *3e, $*++* &he &e( 4ie/e+*:

A!)De&e1ie &he h*&i3i& 3e& INi&h !++ *3e !&i!&e#.

A/) ?i# &he *(ei3i& *+&!4e V) !#. RN=RT8

?* e!1(+e *i#e &he $*++*i4 i3i& !# *&*iFe# i& i&h &he !/*e 3+e

Pro@e'7

)&4RIGINA6 CIRCUIT& N4RT4NS EUIVA6ENT CIRCUIT


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Find the Norton equivalent for the circuit of Fig

STEP 17e1*e RL !# >h*& i3i& &he &e1i!+ < !# B

STEP ,7 "!nd e /or c!rc9! c9rren

The h*& i3i& 3e& IN= V@R

="6V@"

IN=2*1ee1i*#3&* 3&i*, *1(*e# *$ (ei!+ he1i!+ *1/i!&i*, e1i& !#i!& ee4'i&hi &he (e&31 *$ ii/+e +i4h& ! &he e+e&* h!4e ee4' +ee+. >i1(+' (3&, &hee3&i*glowhe $*!# /i!e#. < #i*#e i&e&i*!++' #ei4e# &* 4+* +ie ! +!1( i !++e#! light-emitting diode, *LED.

?*!# /i!e# i+i* #i*#e 4ie *$$ he!& ! e+e&* !# h*+e $*1 &he N&'(e !# &'(e e4i*, e(e&ie+', e*1/ie !& &he 3&i*. I ! $*!# /i!e# LED, &he

e*1/i!&i* *$ e+e&* !# h*+e i &he !&ie e4i* i ?i43e/e+*A) 'ie+# (h*&*. Thi(*e i * ! electrolmine!cence. T* 4ie *$$ (h*&*, &he (*&e&i!+ /!ie &h*34hhih &he e+e&* $!++ 13& /e hi4he &h! $* ! i+i* #i*#e. The $*!# #i*#e #*( !!4e &* ! $e *+& $* *1e *+* LED.

Di*#e 1!#e $*1 ! *1/i!&i* *$ &he e+e1e& 4!++i31, !ei, !# (h*(h*3 A!++e#gallim-ar!enide-pho!phide) 4+* /i4h& e#, !# !e *1e *$ &he 1*& *11* LED1!3$!&3e#. B' !+&ei4 &he he1i!+ *&i&3e' *$ &he N 3&i*, #i$$ee& *+* 1!' /e*/&!ie#. E!+' 4ee!&i* *$ LED ee e#, 4ee, 'e++*, *!4e, !# i$!e#, +!&e4ee!&i* i+3#e# /+3e !# 3+&!i*+e&, i&h i*+e& /ei4 &he +!&e& *+* !##e# &* &he e+e&i*.O&he *+* 1!' /e */&!ie# /' *1/ii4 &* * 1*e (i1!'*+* Ae#, 4ee, !# /+3e)

LED &*4e&he i &he !1e (!!4e, h!i4 &he !1e *(&i!+ +e. Thi !++*e# $* 13+&i*+*LED, 3h ! &i*+* LED A*11ei!++' !!i+!/+e i &he 80) 3i4 e# !# 4ee Ahih! e!&e 'e++*) !# +!&e RGB LED Ae#, 4ee, !# /+3e), hih *e &he e&ie *+*(e&31.
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The he1!&i '1/*+ $* ! LED i ! e43+! #i*#e h!(e ii#e *$ ! i+e, i&h &* 1!++!* (*i&i4 !!' Ai#i!&i4 e1i&&e# +i4h&), h* i ?i43e/e+*.

LED" Light Emitting Diode# $a% !chematic !&mbol' $b% Flat !ide and !hort lead o( device

corre!pond to cathode' $c% Cro!! !ection o( Led die'

Thi *&!&i* *$ h!i4 &* 1!++ !* (*i&i4 !!' $*1 &he #eie i *11* &*&he he1!&i '1/*+ *$ !++ +i4h&e1i&&i4 e1i*#3&* #eie. -*ee+', i$ ! #eie i+i4h&activatedA1e!i4 &h!& i*1i4 +i4h& &i13+!&e i&), &he &he '1/*+ i++ h!e &* 1!++!* (*i&i4 towardi&. LED ! ee +i4h&. The' 4ee!&e ! 1!++ *+&!4e he e(*e# &*+i4h&, 13h +ie ! *+! e++ * ! 1!++ !+e. Thi (*(e&' ! /e 4!i$3++' !((+ie# i ! !ie&'*$ +i4h&ei4 i3i&.

Be!3e LED !e 1!#e *$ #i$$ee& he1i!+ 3/&!e &h! i+i* #i*#e, &hei$*!# *+&!4e #*( i++ /e #i$$ee&. T'(i!++', LED h!e 13h +!4e $*!# *+&!4e #*(&h! e&i$'i4 #i*#e, !'hee $*1 !/*3& .6 *+& &* *e " *+&, #e(e#i4 * &he *+*.T'(i!+ *(e!&i4 3e& $* ! &!#!#iFe# LED i !*3# 20 1>@!c)!on/7

LED h! ! +*& *$ !((+i!&i*. ?*++*i4 !e $e e!1(+e. Deie, 1e#i!+ !((+i!&i*, +*&hi4, &*'

Re1*&e -*&*+ ATV, V-R)

Li4h&i4

I#i!&* !# i4

O(&*i*+!&* !# *(&**3(+e

TUNNE6 2I42E
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) 9nne@ d!ode i! a pn *nction that exhibit! negative re!i!tance between two vale! o(

(orward voltage Ai'e'" between pea+-point voltage and valle&-point voltage).

< *e&i*!+ #i*#e ehi/i& (*i&ie ei&!e he i& i $*!# /i!e# * eee/i!e#. *ee, i$ ! e1i*#3&* 3&i* #i*#e i he!i+' #*(e# i&h i1(3i&ie, i& ehi/i&

e4!&ie ei&!e Ai'e. 3e& #ee!e ! &he *+&!4e i ie!e#) i e&!i e4i* i &he$*!# #ie&i*. >3h ! #i*#e i !++e# tnnel diode'

Teor?7 The &3e+ #i*#e i /!i!++' !pn3&i* i&h he!' #*(i4 *$p&'(e !# n&'(e>e1i*#3&* 1!&ei!+. I $!&, ! &3e+ #i*#e i #*(e# !((*i1!&e+' 000 &i1e ! he!i+' !! *e&i*!+ #i*#e. Thee he!' #*(i4 e3+& i ! +!4e 31/e *$ 1!*i&' !ie. Be!3e*$ &he +!4e 31/e *$ !ie, 1*& !e *& 3e# #3i4 &he ii&i!+ e*1/i!&i* &h!& (*#3e&he #e(+e&i* +!'e. ** &he &3e+i4 e$$e& i e#3e# !# 3e& $+* &!& &* decrea!e ! &he $*!# *+&!4e!* &he #i*#e i ie!e#. The &3e+ #i*#e i !i# &* h!e e&ee# &he e4!&ie ei&!ee4i*. h* &he VI h!!&ei&i *$ ! &'(i!+ &3e+ #i*#e.

(i&


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Ai) VI h!!&ei&i *$ &3e+ #i*#e ii) '1/*+

(iii& he $*!# /i! i ie!e# /e'*# !++e'(*i& *+&!4e VV A= 0.7 V), &he &3e+ #i*#e/eh!e ! ! *1!+ #i*#e. I *&he *#, $*1 (*i& V *!#, &he #i*#e 3e& ie!ei&h &he ie!e i $*!# *+&!4e i'e', &he #i*#e ehi/i& (*i&ie ei&!e *e !4!i. ?i4.Aii) >h* &he '1/*+ *$ &3e+ #i*#e. I& 1!' /e *&e# &h!& ! &3e+ #i*#e h! ! hi4h eee3e& /3& *(e!&i* 3#e &hi *#i&i* i *& 4ee!++' 3e#.

Thee !e &he *(e!&i* *$ LED !# T3e+ Di*#e.

,0. ). ! ) ne) d!)gr)' e:>@)!n e or;!ng o" reg9@)ed >oer /9>>@!e/ 9/!ng enerd!ode.

ener 2!ode )/ Vo@)ge Reg9@)or/

The $3&i* *$ ! e43+!&* i &* (*i#e ! *&!& *3&(3& *+&!4e &* ! +*!# *e&e# i(!!++e+ i&h i& i (i&e *$ &he i((+e i &he 3((+' *+&!4e * &he !i!&i* i &he +*!# 3e& !#

&he Fee #i*#e i++ *&i3e &* e43+!&e &he *+&!4e 3&i+ &he #i*#e 3e& $!++ /e+* &he1ii131 IXA1i)!+3e i &he eee /e!#* e4i*. I& (e1i& 3e& &* $+* i &he $*!##ie&i* ! *1!+, /3& i++ !+* !++* i& &* $+* i &he eee #ie&i* he &he *+&!4e i!/*e ! e&!i !+3e &he /e!#* *+&!4e * ! &he Xee *+&!4e. The Xee #i*#e(ei!++' 1!#e &* h!e ! eee *+&!4e /e!#* !& ! (ei$i *+&!4e. I& h!!&ei&i !e*&heie e' i1i+! &* *11* #i*#e. I /e!#* &he *+&!4e !* &he Xee #i*#e i+*e &* *&!& *e ! i#e !4e *$ 3e& &h3 1!i4 i& 3e$3+ ! ! h3& *+&!4e e43+!&*.


31/40

The (3(*e *$ ! *+&!4e e43+!&* i &* 1!i&!i ! *&!& *+&!4e !* ! +*!# e4!#+e *$!i!&i* i &he !((+ie# i(3& *+&!4e !# !i!&i* i &he +*!# 3e&. < &'(i!+ Xee #i*#eh3& e43+!&* i h* i ?i43e ". The ei&* i e+e&e# * &h!& he &he i(3& *+&!4e i !&VINA1i)!# &he +*!# 3e& i !& ILA1!)&h!& &he 3e& &h*34h &he Xee #i*#e i !& +e!& IFA1i).The $* !++ *&he *1/i!&i* *$ i(3& *+&!4e !# +*!# 3e& &he Xee #i*#e *#3& &he

ee 3e& &h3 1!i&!ii4 ! *&!& *+&!4e !* &he +*!#. The Xee *#3& &he +e!&3e& he &he +*!# 3e& i &he hi4he& !# i& *#3& &he 1*& 3e& he &he +*!#3e& i &he +*e&.

-!g : Xee #i*#e h3& e43+!&*

I$ &hee i * +*!# ei&!e, h3& e43+!&* ! /e 3e# &* #ii(!&e &*&!+ (*e &h*34h&he eie ei&!e !# &he Xee #i*#e. >h3& e43+!&* h!e ! ihee& 3e& +i1i&i4!#!&!4e 3#e +*!# $!3+& *#i&i* /e!3e &he eie ei&* +i1i& ee 3e&.

< Fee #i*#e *$ /e! #* *+&!4e VFi eee *e&e# &* ! i(3& *+&!4e *3e Vi!* ! +*!# ei&!e RL!# ! eie ei&* R>. The *+&!4e !* &he Fee i++ e1!i&e!#' !& i& /e! #* *+&!4e VX$* !++ &he !+3e *$ Fee 3e& IX! +*4 ! &he 3e&e1!i i &he /e! #* e4i*. ee ! e43+!&e# D- *3&(3& *+&!4e V 0 = VXi */&!ie#!* RL, heee &he i(3& *+&!4e e1!i i&hi ! 1ii131 !# 1!i131 *+&!4e.

B!i!++' &hee !e &* &'(e *$ e43+!&i* 3h !:

)& 6!ne Reg9@)!on

I &hi &'(e *$ e43+!&i*, eie ei&!e !# +*!# ei&!e !e $ie#, *+' i(3& *+&!4e ih!4i4. O3&(3& *+&!4e e1!i &he !1e ! +*4 ! &he i(3& *+&!4e i 1!i&!ie# !/*e !1ii131 !+3e.

ee&!4e *$ +ie e43+!&i* ! /e !+3+!&e# /' =


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hee V0i &he *3&(3& *+&!4e !# VINi &he i(3& *+&!4e !# ZV0i &he h!4e i *3&(3&*+&!4e $* ! (!&i3+! h!4e i i(3& *+&!4e ZVIN.

& 6o)d Reg9@)!on

I &hi &'(e *$ e43+!&i*, i(3& *+&!4e i $ie# !# &he +*!# ei&!e i !'i4. O3&(3& *+&e1!i !1e, ! +*4 ! &he +*!# ei&!e i 1!i&!ie# !/*e ! 1ii131 !+3e.

ee&!4e *$ +*!# e43+!&i* =

hee i &he 3++ +*!# ei&* *+&!4e !# i &he $3++ +*!# ei&* *+&!4e

CIRCUIT 2IAGRAM

?i4. >h* &he *1(+e&e i3i& *$ ! e43+!&e# (*e 3((+' 3i4 Fee #i*#e ! ! *+&!4ee43+!&i4 #eie. e*#+', i& ee( &he

*3&(3& *+&!4e AVot) e!+' *&!& he&he &he +*!# 3e& h!4e * &hee i h!4e ii(3& !.. *+&!4e.

4>er)!on7

The Fee i++ 1!i&!i *&!& *+&!4e !* &he +*!# i(i&e *$ h!4e i +*!#3e& * i(3& *+&!4e.


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The i3i& i++ !+* *e& $* &he h!4e i i(3& *+&!4e. >h*3+# &he i(3& *+&!4e Vinie!e, 1*e 3e& i++ $+* &h*34h &he Fee, &he *+&!4e #*( !*.Si++ ie!e /3&+*!# *+&!4e *3+# e1!i *&!&. The eee *3+# /e &3e h*3+# &he i(3& *+&!4e#ee!e.

6!'!)!on/7

< Fee #i*#e e43+!&* h! &he $*++*i4 #!/! :

(i& I& h! +* e$$iie' $* he!' +*!# 3e&. I& i /e!3e i$ &he +*!# 3e& i +!4e, &heei++ /e *i#e!/+e (*e +* i &he eie +i1i&i4 ei&!e.

(ii& The *3&(3& *+&!4e +i4h&+' h!4e #3e &* Fee i1(e#!e ! Vot = V/I///. -h!4e i+*!# 3e& (*#3e h!4e i Fee 3e&. -*e93e&+', &he *3&(3& *+&!4e !+* h!4e.

Thee$*e, &he 3e *$ &hi i3i& i +i1i&e# &* *+' 3h !((+i!&i* hee !i!&i* i +*!#3e& !# i(3& *+&!4e !e 1!++.

. r!e noe/ on 7

!& C@!>>!ng c!rc9!/ !!& c@)'>!ng c!rc9!/

C@!>>!ng c!rc9!/7

I& i $e93e&+' ee!' &* 1*#i$' &he h!(e *$ !i*3 !e$*1 $* 3e iI&31e&!&i*, *&*+, *1(3&!&i*, !# *113i!&i*. !e h!(i4 i *$&e !hiee# /'

e+!&ie+' i1(+e *1/i!&i* *$ #i*#e, ei&*, !# *+&!4e *3e. >3h i3i& !e !++e#+i((e, +i1i&e * !1(+i&3#e e+e&*. The 1*& i#e+' 3e# !e h!(i4 i3i& i &hee&i$ie.

Thee " &'(e *$ +i((e !e !!i+!/+e. The' !e *i&ie -+i((e !# Ne4!&ie -+i((e Bi!e# *i&ie -+i((e !# Bi!e# Ne4!&ie -+i((e

-*1/i!&i* -+i((e

Positive Diode Clipper

I ! (*i&ie +i((e, &he (*i&ie h!+$ '+e *$ &he i(3& *+&!4e i++ /e e1*e#. The i3i&!!4e1e& $* ! (*i&ie +i((e !e i++3&!&e# i &he $i43e 4ie /e+*.


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V*+&. Th3 !3e &he (*i&ie h!+$ '+e &* /e +i((e# *$$. D3i4 &he e4!&ie h!+$ '+e *$ &hei(3&, &he #i*#e i $*!# /i!e# !# * &he e4!&ie h!+$ '+e !((e! !* &he *3&(3&.

I ?i43e A/), &he #i*#e i e(& i (!!++e+ i&h &he +*!#. Thi i &he #i!4!1 *$ ! (*i&ie h3&+i((e i3i&. D3i4 &he (*i&ie h!+$ '+e, &he #i*#e [D i $*!# /i!e# !# &he #i*#e !&

! ! +*e# i&h. Thi !3e &he #i*#e &* *#3& he!i+'. Thi !3e &he *+&!4e #*( !*&he #i*#e * !* &he +*!# ei&!e RL &* /e Fe*. Th3 *3&(3& *+&!4e #3i4 &he (*i&ie h!+$'+e i Fe*, ! h* i &he *3&(3& !e$*1. D3i4 &he e4!&ie h!+$ '+e *$ &he i(3&i4!+ *+&!4e, &he #i*#e D i eee /i!e# !# /eh!e ! ! *(e i&h. -*e93e&+' &hee&ie i(3& *+&!4e !((e! !* &he #i*#e * !* &he +*!# ei&!e RLi$ R i 13h 1!++e&h! RL


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The e4!&ie +i((i4 i3i& i !+1*& !1e ! &he (*i&ie +i((i4 i3i&, i&h *+' *e#i$$eee. I$ &he #i*#e i $i43e A!) !# A/) i e*e&e# i&h eee# (*+!i&', &he i3i&i++ /e*1e $* ! e4!&ie eie +i((e !# e4!&ie h3& +i((e e(e&ie+'. The e4!&ieeie !# e4!&ie h3& +i((e !e h* i $i43e A!) !# A/) ! 4ie /e+*.

I !++ &he !/*e #i3i*, &he #i*#e i *i#ee# &* /e i#e!+ *e. I ! (!&i!+ #i*#e, &he/e!#* *+&!4e i++ ei& A0.7 V $* i+i* !# 0." V $* Ge1!i31). he &hi i &!ei&* !*3&, &he *3&(3& !e$*1 $* (*i&ie !# e4!&ie +i((e i++ /e *$ &he h!(e h*i &he $i43e /e+*.

Ne4!&ie !# *i&ie -+i((i4 !e$*1

!)/ed Po/!!e C@!>>er )nd !)/ed Neg)!e C@!>>er
http://www.circuitstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/Output-Waveform-Positive-Clipper-and-Negative-Clipper.jpg


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< /i!e# +i((e *1e i h!#' he ! 1!++ (*&i* *$ (*i&ie * e4!&ie h!+$ '+e *$ &hei4!+ *+&!4e i &* /e e1*e#. he ! 1!++ (*&i* *$ &he e4!&ie h!+$ '+e i &* /ee1*e#, i& i !++e# ! /i!e# e4!&ie +i((e. The i3i& #i!4!1 !# !e$*1 i h* i &he$i43e /e+*.

TI ! /i!e# +i((e, he &he i(3& i4!+ *+&!4e i (*i&ie, &he #i*#e [D i eee/i!e#.Thi !3e i& &* !& ! ! *(ei&h. Th3 &he e&ie (*i&ie h!+$ '+e !((e! !* &he+*!#, ! i++3&!&e# /' *3&(3& !e$*1 \$i43e A!)]. he &he i(3& i4!+ *+&!4e i e4!&ie /3*e *& eee# /!&&e' &he *+&!4e [V, &he #i*#e [D e1!i eee/i!e# !# 1*& *$ &hei(3& *+&!4e !((e! !* &he *3&(3&.

he #3i4 &he e4!&ie h!+$ '+e *$ i(3& i4!+, &he i4!+ *+&!4e /e*1e 1*e &h! &he/!&&e' *+&!4e V, &he #i*#e D i $*!# /i!e# !# * *#3& he!i+'. The *3&(3& *+&!4e ie93!+ &* [ V !# &!' !& [ V ! +*4 ! &he 1!4i&3#e *$ &he i(3& i4!+ *+&!4e i 4e!&e&h! &he 1!4i&3#e *$ &he /!&&e' *+&!4e, [V. Th3 ! /i!e# e4!&ie +i((e e1*e i(3&*+&!4e he &he i(3& i4!+ *+&!4e /e*1e 4e!&e &h! &he /!&&e' *+&!4e. -+i((i4 ! /eh!4e# /' eei4 &he /!&&e' !# #i*#e *e&i*, ! i++3&!&e# i $i43e A/).

>*1e *$ *&he /i!e# +i((e i3i& !e 4ie /e+* i &he $i43e. hi+e #!i4 &he !eh!(e *$ &he *3&(3& /!i (ii(+e #i3e# !/*e !e $*++*e#. The #i*#e h! /ee *i#ee#! ! i#e!+ *e.

Co'!n)!on C@!>>er
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he ! (*&i* *$ /*&h (*i&ie !# e4!&ie *$ e!h h!+$ '+e *$ &he i(3& *+&!4e i &* /e+i((e# A* e1*e#), *1/i!&i* +i((e i e1(+*'e#. The i3i& $* 3h ! +i((e i 4ie i&he $i43e /e+*.

The !&i* *$ &he i3i& i 311!iFe# /e+*. ?* (*i&ie i(3& *+&!4e i4!+ he i(3&*+&!4e eee# /!&&e' *+&!4e [ V[ #i*#e D*#3& he!i+' hi+e #i*#e [D2[ i eee#/i!e# !# * *+&!4e [ V[ !((e! !* &he *3&(3&. Thi *3&(3& *+&!4e [ V[ &!' ! +*4!. &he i(3& i4!+ *+&!4e eee# [ V[. O &he *&he h!# $* &he e4!&ie i(3& *+&!4ei4!+, &he #i*#e [D[ e1!i eee /i!e# !# #i*#e [D2[ *#3& he!i+' *+' he i(3&*+&!4e eee# /!&&e' *+&!4e [V2[ i 1!4i&3#e. Th3 #3i4 &he e4!&ie h!+$ '+e &he *3&(3&&!' !& [ V2[ * +*4 ! &he i(3& i4!+ *+&!4e i 4e!&e &h! [V2[.

2r))c;/ o" Ser!e/ )nd S9n 2!ode C@!>>er/

I eie +i((e, he &he #i*#e i i [O?? (*i&i*, &hee i++ /e * &!1ii* *$i(3& i4!+ &* *3&(3&. B3& i !e *$ hi4h $e93e' i4!+ &!1ii* *3 &h*34h#i*#e !(!i&!e hih i 3#ei!/+e. Thi i &he #!/! *$ 3i4 #i*#e ! ! eiee+e1e& i 3h +i((e.

I h3& +i((e, he #i*#e i i &he [*$$ *#i&i*, &!1ii* *$ i(3& i4!+ h*3+#&!e (+!e &* *3&(3&. B3& i !e *$ hi4h $e93e' i(3& i4!+, #i*#e !(!i&!e!$$e& &he i3i& *(e!&i* !#ee+' !# &he i4!+ 4e& !&&e3!&e# A&h!& i, i& (!e&h*34h #i*#e !(!i&!e &* 4*3#).

!!& C@)'>!ng C!rc9!/

< +!1(i4 i3i& i 3e# &* (+!e ei&he &he (*i&ie * e4!&ie (e! *$ ! i4!+ !& ! #eie#+ee+. The # *1(*e& i i1(+' !##e# * 3/&!&e# &*@$*1 &he i(3& i4!+. The +!1(e i!+* e$ee# &* ! ! I- e&*e !# ! i4!+ +ee+ hi$&e.

I *1e !e, +ie ! TV eeie, he &he i4!+ (!e &h*34h &he !(!i&ie *3(+i4e&*, i& +*e i& # *1(*e&. Thi i he &he +!1(e i3i& i 3e# * ! &* ee&!/+ih&he &he # *1(*e& i&* &he i4!+ i(3&. Th*34h &he # *1(*e& &h!& i +*& i &!1ii*
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i *& &he !1e ! &h!& i&*#3e# &h*34h ! +!1(i4 i3i&, &he eei&' &* e&!/+ih &hee&e1i&' *$ &he (*i&ie * e4!&ie i4!+ e3i* !& *1e e$eee +ee+ i i1(*&!&.

< +!1( i3i& !## &he (*i&ie * e4!&ie # *1(*e& &* &he i(3& i4!+ * ! &* (3h i&ei&he * &he (*i&ie i#e, ! i++3&!&e# i $i43e A!) * * &he e4!&ie i#e, ! i++3&!&e# i

$i43e A/).The i3i& i++ /e !++e# ! (*i&ie +!1(e, he &he i4!+ i (3he# 3(!# /' &he i3i&.he &he i4!+ 1*e 3(!#, ! h* i $i43e A!), &he e4!&ie (e! *$ &he i4!+ *ii#ei&h &he Fe* +ee+.

The i3i& i++ /e !++e# ! e4!&ie +!1(e, he &he i4!+ i (3he# #*!# /' &he i3i&.he &he i4!+ i (3he# * &he e4!&ie i#e, ! h* i $i43e A/), &he (*i&ie (e! *$ &hei(3& i4!+

*ii#e i&h &he Fe* +ee+.

?* ! +!1(i4 i3i& !& +e!& &hee *1(*e& ! #i*#e, ! !(!i&* !# ! ei&* !ee93ie#. >*1e&i1e ! i#e(e#e& # 3((+' i !+* e93ie# &* !3e ! !##i&i*!+ hi$&. Thei1(*&!& (*i& e4!#i4 +!1(i4 i3i& !e:

(!&The h!(e *$ &he !e$*1 i++ /e &he !1e, /3& i& +ee+ i hi$&e# ei&he 3(!# *#*!#,


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(!!&Thee i++ /e * h!4e i &he (e!&*(e! * 1 !+3e *$ &he !e$*1 #3e &* &he+!1(i4 i3i&. Th3, &he i(3& !e$*1 !# *3&(3& !e$*1 i++ h!e &he !1e (e!&*(e! !+3e &h!& i, 2V1!. Thi i h* i &he $i43e !/*e. I& 13& !+* /e *&e# &h!& !1ee!#i4 i++ /e */&!ie# i &he ! *+&1e&e $* &he i(3& *+&!4e !# &he +!1(e# *3&(3&*+&!4e.

(!!!&Thee i++ /e ! h!4e i &he (e! !# !e!4e !+3e *$ &he !e$*1. I &he $i43e h*!/*e, &he i(3& !e$*1 h! ! (e! !+3e *$ V1!!# !e!4e !+3e *e ! *1(+e&e '+e iFe*. The +!1(e# *3&(3& !ie $*1 2 V1!!# 0 A* 0 !# 2V1!). Th3 &h (e! !+3e *$ &he+!1(e# *3&(3& i 2V1!!# !e!4e !+3e i V1!.

(!& The !+3e *$ &he ei&* R !# !(!i&* - !$$e& &he !e$*1.

(&The !+3e $* &he ei&* R !# !(!i&* - h*3+# /e #e&e1ie# $*1 &he &i1e *&!&e93!&i* *$ &he i3i&, & = R-. The !+3e 13& /e +!4e e*34h &* 1!e 3e &h!& &he *+&!4e!* &he !(!i&* - #*e *& h!4e i4i$i!&+' #3i4 &he &i1e i&e!+ &he #i*#e i *

*#3&i4. I ! 4**# +!1(e i3i&, &he i3i& &i1e *&!& & = R- h*3+# /e !& +e!& &e&i1e &he &i1e (ei*# *$ &he i(3& i4!+ *+&!4e.

I& i !#!&!4e*3 &* $i& *i#e &he *#i&i* 3#e hih &he #i*#e /e*1e $*!# /i!e#.

-+!1(i4 i3i& !e *$&e 3e# i &e+eii* eeie ! # e&*e. The i4!+ &h!& ie& &* &he TV eeie 1!' +*e &he # *1(*e& !$&e /ei4 (!e# &h*34h !(!i&ie+'*3(+e# !1(+i$ie. Th3 &he i4!+ +*e i& /+! !# hi&e e$eee +ee+ !# &he /+!i4+ee+. Be$*e (!i4 &hee i4!+ &* &he (i&3e &3/e, &hee e$eee +ee+ h!e &* /e e&*e#.Thi i #*e /' 3i4 +!1(e i3i&. The' !+* $i# !((+i!&i* i &*!4e *3&e, !!+*4$e93e' 1e&e, !(!i&!e 1e&e, #ii#e !# &!i!e !e$*1 4ee!&*.

-*i#e ! e4!&ie +!1(i4 i3i&, ! i3i& &h!& hi$& &he *i4i!+ i4!+ i ! e&i!+#*!# #ie&i*, ! h* i &he $i43e /e+*. The #i*#e D i++ /e $*!# /i!e# !# &he!(!i&* - i h!4e# i&h &he (*+!i&' h*, he ! i(3& i4!+ i !((+ie#. D3i4 &he(*i&ie h!+$ '+e *$ i(3&, &he *3&(3& *+&!4e i++ /e e93!+ &* &he /!ie (*&e&i!+ *$ &he #i*#e,V0!# &he !(!i&* i h!4e# &* AV K V_). D3i4 &he e4!&ie h!+$ '+e, &he #i*#e /e*1eeee/i!e# !# !& ! ! *(ei3i&. Th3, &hee i++ /e * e$$e& * &he !(!i&* *+&!4e.The ei&!e R, /ei4 *$ e' hi4h !+3e, !*& #ih!4e - ! +*& #3i4 &he e4!&ie (*&i**$ &he i(3& !e$*1. Th3 #3i4 e4!&ie i(3&, &he *3&(3& *+&!4e i++ /e &he 31 *$ &hei(3& *+&!4e !# &he !(!i&* *+&!4e !# i e93!+ &* K V K AV V0) * K A2 V K V0). The !+3e*$ &he (e!&*(e! *3&(3& i++ /e &he #i$$eee *$ &he e4!&ie !# (*i&ie (e! *+&!4e +ee+

i e93!+ &* V0\A2VV0)] * 2 V.The $i43e h* /e+* ! 1e 1*#i$ie# i&* ! (*i&ie +!1(i4 i3i& /'

e*e&i4 &he #i*#e i&h eee# (*+!i&'. The (*i&ie +!1(i4 i3i& 1*e &he *i4i!+i4!+ i ! e&i!+ 3(!# #ie&i*. < (*i&ie +!1(i4 i3i& i h* i &he $i43e /e+*. I&*&!i ! #i*#e D !# ! !(!i&* - ! !e *&!ie# i ! e4!&ie +!1(e. The *+' #i$$eeei &he i3i& i &h!& &he (*+!i&' *$ &he #i*#e i eee#. The e1!ii4 e(+!!&i* e4!#i4 &he*i4 *$ &he i3i& i &he !1e ! i& i e(+!ie# $* &he e4!&ie +!1(e.


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*i&ie -+!1(i4 -i3i&
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