The "Doomed" Indian

1a

-Since the 17th century, European-Americans believed that American Indianswere "doomed"to "succumb to the forces ofcivilization"-as more people painted and wrote about thedoomed Indian, it became less of aconception and more of a fact

1b

2nd Wounded Knee

2a

February 1973: A 71-day standoff betweenFeds & American Indians symbolized the"2nd Wounded Knee"and the rebirth ofNative America

2b

Allotment

3a

-Reservations-the government was responsible for food another assistance, education, and security-Forced change upon their way of life

3b

American Indian ceremony in paintings

4a

not always understood; emphasis was placedon heroics, comedy, exoticism and violence

4b

American Indian Gender Roles, post-Euro-Americans

5a

-When the Europeans came along, genderroles were switched-European behavior was imposed on themand women worked more in homes

5b

American Indian Gender Roles, pre-Euro-Americans

6a

-men=hunters-women=planted and harvested, shifted cultivation,resulting in higher crop yields and more sustainableecological practices-Women's participation in horticulture, gatheringhuts & berries, and fishing contributed to 85% of theAmerican Indian diet in New England (responsiblefor making sure tribe was fed well)

6b

American Indian's ecological knowledge

7a

Systemic, relational, and interactional

7b

American Indians & the FederalGovernment

8a

relationship was articulated throughgovernment services & the control and

investment of funds

8b

American Indians and Representation

9a

Are the representations of Indian lifeaccurate? Who is creating these images?

9b

American Indians in New Englandrelationship to land

10a

-corn, squash and beans provided daily sustenanceand played a central role in ceremonial ritual-worldview expressed in symbols they used, ritualsthey performed, and the way they engaged with theirnatural resources-symbols: shape in the "moods and motivations"within individuals, determining how they interactedwith nature (saw themselves as part of nature,fruitfulness came from nature)

10b

Assimilation

11a

-Removal didn't work, so allotments andassimilation became part of national policy-laws passed to aid assimilation includedthe Major Crimes Act (1885), the IndiansCitizenship Act (1924) and the Act of July31, 1882

11b

Assimilation/Acculturation

12a

-European-Americans believed thatAmerican Indians had to adopt the practicesand beliefs of the dominant culture-American Indians were seen as childish,justifying treaties and other efforts toassimilate them into the dominant culture.

12b

Birth of the Hollywood Injun

13a

-in the movies, they are often portrayed asspiritual, noble, and free-one of the first subjects for films, "silents"-in the movies, all natives are supremehorsemen, one with their horse, but thereality is that most natives actually cant ride

13b

Black Indians

14a

-1740's: The British introduced the idea of slavery tothe Indians, particularly the Five Nations.-Slavery worked differently among the Indians:enslaved Africans could intermarry and their childrenwere considered equal to other members of the tribe.-Land: During the period of Reconstruction, thefederal gov't allocated land to freed people. But not allIndian tribes accepted this practice.

14b

Bureau of Indian Affairs

15a

responsible for the administration andmanagement of 55,700,000 acres of landheld in trust by the U.S. for AmericanIndians

15b

Carrie and Mary Dann

16a

-sisters who belong to the Western ShoshoneNation

16b

Challenges of Land Distribution

17a

-American Indians living on the land had tobe removed-staffing issues at the Land Office-there were numerous new laws (over 375land laws passed alone) -surveyors couldn't match the pace ofsettlers

17b

Cherokee Nation Cases

18a

-involved the state of Georgia, the federalgovernment, & the Cherokee Nation in astruggle over rights to land & sovereignty-Two ideas emerged as a result: Tribes aredomestic dependent nations & therelationship between the government andtribes is that of ward & guardian.

18b

Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance

19a

-lived his whole life with a dark secret-hid his part black background-famous hollywood Indian star, how many ofus think of native americans-committed suicide

19b

Collapse of the Corn Mother

20a

ecological change came as a result of theintroduction of large domestic animals,disease, warfare, and dispute over land titles

20b

Conquest

21a

-a place where tensionsarose by the coming together of different racial &ethnic groups & where land evolved from matter intoproperty•Romanticized the history of native people and euro-Americans as the noble savages vs. noble pioneers•But in reality, they were fighting for their land-White Americans saw the acquisition of land as acultural imperative- divide, distribute, & register

21b

The Crying Indian

22a

-First appearing on television in 1971, The CryingIndian, played by Iron Eyes Cody, representedthe American Indian as caretakers of theenvironment-The image highlighted the fundamentaldifferences in the way White Americans andAmerican Indians think about and relate tonatural resources.

22b

Dann sisters vs. U.S. government

23a

-Fight for part of 60 million acres in Nevadaguaranteed to the Shoshone in the Treaty of RubyValley, 1863-Stakeholders: Bureau of Land Management (BLM),Shoshone people, Mining interests, local ranchers-Narrative: two different narratives, two differentcosmologies. Western civilization vs. "we are the oldworld"-Identity: Losing the land is losing themselves

23b

Differences between each culture'srequirements for production and

reproduction

24a

-Extractive technologies: Indians: hoe, fire,arrow, shifting agriculture, hunting, tribalterritories, equilibrium/sustainEuro-Americans: plow, saw, gun, settledagriculture, animal farming, domesticationof animals, private ownership, growth

24b

Diversity & Mobility vs. Property

25a

-American Indians took advantage of the lands diversity by beingmobile (they carried everything - wigwams, clothing, & tools)-Moving around made ecological sense, but Europeans saw this asthat they didn't own any land-The English criticized the Indian way of life deeming them lazy andundeserving providing justification for taking land away from them(had different ways of thinking about land, but English looked downon Indian way because they believed Indian's quality of life wasinferior because they didn't have as much, for Europeans quality oflife was measured on what they had)

25b

Ethnocentricity and Invisibility

26a

Seeing the American Indian through thelens of the dominant culture and not seeingthe impact European-Americans had ontheir lives

26b

European timber

27a

...

27b

European timber

28a

cut down trees to make money, deer andanimals were left uninhabited andnegatively impacted, this was food fornatives, natives had to look elsewhere forfood(Europeans really disrupted their life at afoundational level)

28b

European understanding of fires

29a

-Europeans believed that Native Americans didn't have good technology to setgood fires-Didn't understand that natives have a firm understanding on how to use firesas they have been using fires for years-Forest ecologists said fires were destructive and didn't want to see any fires inthe forest because they didn't understand the good things fire could do-1940's: Smokey the Bear icon made by Anglo-Americans to make the publicunderstand that fire was a bad thing "Only you can prevent forest fires" laterchanged to "only you can prevent wild fires" after understanding was graspedthat not all fires were bad-took awhile for Anglo-Americans to understand this though, whereas nativeAmerican's had understood this for years

29b

European- Americans in New Englandrelationship to land

30a

-saw fruitfulness as coming God-God created Adam and Eve-Tamed land: fields, gardening, controllingplants and animals-Brought disease-brought over different ecologicalconsciousness that clashed with the Indians

30b

European-Americans painting of AmericanIndians

31a

-European-Americans painted an idealizedIndian who embodied wilderness values-Paintings of the time reflected the beliefthat American Indians were romanticsavages ignoring how colonizationintroduced major problems for tribes

31b

Examples of images that have becomeingrained in our consciousness

32a

-The wise elder-the Indian princess-the aggressive drunk-the loyal sidekick-the New age mystic-the mascot-Tonto and the good Indian-the greedy Indian-the Big Chief.

32b

Fast Runner

33a

-most Native American movie, inside job, picked up the cameraand started recording their own history-Native guy running naked through the ice and the snow (that'snot an actor, he knows the story, he was willing to do thingsthat most people couldn't even do for the sake of representingthe iconic figure of the native image)-Point: Natives aren't asking to be represented as noble orbrave, they are asking to be represented as human

33b

Fences

34a

-Grazing animals vs. planting; protection of domestic animalsfrom predators, such aswolves-led to natives using fencing b/c european domesticatedanimals would eat their food -Fencing indicated property rights of a settlement, economicactivities and the people's ecological relationship to the land-Management of domestic animals became more explicit-Ownership of land became more explicit-Native relationship to land changed as they adopted europeantechniques

34b

Film: The Greatest Good

35a

about Forest service's managing ofwildlands and Gifford Pinchot

35b

Fires produced by American Indians

36a

-seen by Europeans as either a sign of "technological incompetence"or as damaging-Didn't understand that natives have a firm understanding on how to use fires as theyhave been using fires for years-Used fires to:• Improve subsistence • Create meadows to attract deer • Move animals • Set stage for new plant growth • To increase production of nuts & berries • To improve pastures • As a weapon • As a means of communication • To improve travel

36b

Francisco De Vitoria

37a

-advocated a philosophy stating thatSpaniards could not just "take" the landfrom American Indians because he believedthat American Indians were the true owners-wanted to remain civil/not wage war butstill get the land they wanted-did this through treaties

37b

The General Allotment Act (The Dawes Act)

38a

-passed in 1887 allowing the president to allot reservations•Allowed president to allot land to a family according to strictdetailed rules•Gave them land, told them they had to farm, but the land theygave them wasn't farmable, said if they don't farm, they will cuttheir rations, so they couldn't get food from the government,and a lot of them starved-Indian landholdings went from 138 million acres in 1887 to 48million acres in 1934-Nearly 20 million acres were desert and semi-arid

38b

Gifford Pinchot

39a

-Went to Yale, wanted to study forestry so moved to France andGermany, believed that American forests should reflectdemocratic values of nation "land for all" where policy in placewas to destroy land at the time, became chief of forest reserves,created forestry school at Yale, good friends with Roosevelt, alot of political power/used press to advocate his laws,Roosevelt set aside 80 million acres of land -"the greatest good, greatest number, for the longest time" -Chief forester from 1905-1910-founded conservation

39b

A Good Injin is a Dead Injun

40a

-Whites commit genocide against Indians-Acted like they weren't human beings-Indians were so busy trying to protect theidea of Native Americans, that they began tonot even recognize themselves as humanbeings

40b

The Groovy Injun

41a

-San Francisco is the birthplace of the hippie-one way to honor native people was to dresslike a native person-Created a fictionalized notion of nativesociety-Native Americans colonized Alcatraz tofight for respect as equals

41b

Guest Lecture

42a

Talked about baskets and ceremonial hats woven from willowroot/haregrass/fern stems from the Klamath River-Baskets important bc they show ecological knowledge that thepeople in this region have/ hats have spiritual meaning whichdictate how they are made-tribe has long understanding of fire management, controls theDouglas Firr that shades the Oak in which they depend upon forsurvival (Fire once every 7 years along Klamath)-Her job w/ Yurok: • Teach Yurok language in school, lobby forthings care about like salmon, try to continue culturalpractices; still some Yurok houses in those villages

42b

The Homestead Act

43a

-In 1862, this law was past, granting 160 acres of free land tosettlers-For the next 123 years over 270 million acres of land would besettled on the American landscape and affected public lands in30 out of 50 states.-Homesteaders were allowed up to 160 acres of federal land-Rules: had to be head of the household or over 21, had to builda home on the property during the first 5 years, had to beEuropean-Native Americans had to be removed as a result

43b

The Hualapi

44a

less than 2000 members who controlapproximately 1 million acres of land alongthe Colorado river. Tourism contributes to70% of their budget (small and poor tribe)

44b

Ignoble Savage

45a

-bloodthirsty cannibalistic and savage-These images influenced manyenvironmental organizations, including theBoy Scouts.

45b

Indian Removal Act

46a

1830, Congress believed that colonists andAmerican Indians could not live togetherand passed an act that justified the removalof Americans from their land

46b

Indian-white conflict in paintings

47a

-while Indian removal was brutal, you neversaw representations of what happened inpaintings -American Indians were cast as evil andsavage vs. the innocence of their victims;European-Americans were seen as victims-outnumbered and on the run

47b

Iron Eyes Cody

48a

-involved in 100 westerns-the classic plains Indian: fit image of whatAmerican Indians should be-the older he got, the more he confined himself tothe stereotypes-played his own movies of himself simultaneouslyall the time-he believed he was what he saw on the screen

48b

Klamath tribe

49a

-Named after Klamath River that flows through river-Have strong identity to river, and place-Fish is part of their ceremonies (maintains not only body but spirit)-Depletion of fish depletes their identity-River supports numerous tribes, provides water, fish, spiritual experience-Struggle over land ownership since 1800's-Stakeholders: Klamath, timber companies, local businesses,environmentalists, farmers-The federal government terminated their tribe in the 1950's and reinstated theKlamath in 1992, but not the land-By 1957, Klamath were left to 1/3 of their original holdings

49b

Landlord-tenant relationship

50a

-1800's: John Marshall a Supreme Court Justice, used hisopinion to support a decision that created a landlord-tenantrelationship between the government & American Indian tribes-what this decision did was create rules, regulations, etc for theIndians-the idea of this was for white settlers to have title over theland-this justified the government to make these laws and rules thatsuppressed Indians -American Indians were less interested in who owned the land,but more interested in the political process of the land

50b

Livestock & Property Rights

51a

Differences in American Indian and Englishrelationship to animals:-Indians: use of animals seasonally (wildhunting), natural, public land-Europeans: year-round (animal husbandry,captivation), animals as a fixed property right,raised crops and cattle, "improved" land byclosing it, private

51b

Manifest Destiny

52a

-the period between 1815-1860-belief that The United States was destined to expand from the Atlanticseaboard to the Pacific ocean-American Indians were "encouraged" to sell their lands so that there would bemore available land for homesteaders•Sometimes this meant war, or being forcibly removed from lands•Civilization Programs: justification for removing natives from their land•Thomas Jefferson believed that natives were the intellectual equals of whiteAmericans, but that if they don't live like we do, then we will push them out ofthe way•Believed they stood in the way of expansion•Wanted them to live separately •Hoped natives would just disappear

52b

The Meriam Report

53a

-1928-1945-an examination of American Indian lifewhich was unusually harsh on thegovernment for its failures (took 17 years)-the natives then did their own report andtook 8 years to come up with the sameresults

53b

Name Origin

54a

Columbus thought he was in India, but wasreally in North America, called them Indians

54b

Natural and Civil Ownership of land vs.Usufruct rights

55a

People who loved it much vs. people wholoved it little

55b

The Noble Savage

56a

-in conflict with white civilization,emotional and intuitive

-rational, vigorous and moral

56b

Pinchot vs. Muir

57a

There was a split between Pinchot and Muir Muir: preservationfor woods, no cutting, no mining, etc on these lands, naturewhere we go to understand the beauty Pinchot: conservation for people, national forest servicewouldn't be accepted by the people without them being able touse it, standing for democratic good and nature used to benefitthe most people, understood that they'd never solveconservation without addressing the business and social justiceof community (unlike Muir)

57b

Pineridge

58a

-poorest Indian Reservation in North America-These are the descendants of Crazy Horse-To native people Crazy Horse is a mystical warrior, just like inthe movies-The Black Hills are their homeland, their sacred grounds-Carved out of the sacred Black Hills, Crazy Horse's face will bethe largest carving of a man-Crazy Horse is an embodiment of the human spirit-The 7th Cavalry killed the last free natives at the Battle ofWounded Knee on Pineridge Reservation

58b

Property

59a

-Animal pelts and hides - who owned the buffalo and beaverwhile they still wore their hides? Who owned wildlife?-Valuable minerals - the issue was the control of the productionsite. So who owned the vein (oil) that ran underground?-Cattle & grazing territory - Who owned the grass needed tofeed the livestock?Transportation - who owned the roads? (tolls put in place)Issue of property is VERY complicated

59b

Railroads

60a

symbolized American progress; paintingsdepicted the assault on westward expansion

by "the forces of evil"

60b

San Francisco Mountain Reserve

61a

-established in 1898-in 1908 the Forest Reserve became part ofthe Coconino National Forest-recreation and tourism have become themost prominent land-uses of the Peaks

61b

The San Francisco Peaks

62a

-in Arizona, home to Leroux Springs, whereFlagstaff gets its water supply & FortMoroni, built for the Atlantic-PacificRailroad

62b

San Francisco Peaks and tribes

63a

-Considered sacred by thirteen American Indiantribes including the Hopi, Navajo, and the Zuni.-The Hopi and the Navajo only utilize themountain for ceremony and the collection ofmedicinal plants. All tribes believe that themountain should not be used for personalenjoyment, economic pursuits or scientific study.

63b

The Savage Indian

64a

-In the 1930's the Indian was transformed into a brutal savage-Stagecoach is the iconic western, one of the most damagingmovies for natives-Falsely portrayed Indians-they literally played English backwards to make their language-robbed nations of their identity and grouped them into one• act of Colonialism

64b

Self-determination

65a

-1961-present-Shift by government from focus ontermination to supporting self-determination in the form of social welfareprograms

65b

Skywalk

66a

-Grand Canyon West & the Hualapi-Tensions: the canyon landscape as sacredversus economic security-30 million dollars, glass overhang overcanyon to attract tourists

66b

Slavery vs. Conquest

67a

the subject of slavery is taken seriously innational debate while the subject ofconquest was one of entertainment &escapism

67b

Snowbowl

68a

-a ski lodge built by the Cococino National Forestin the 1930's -Today, the resort hosts 30,000 to 180,000visitors year.-A coalition of tribes and environmental groupshave filed multiple lawsuits against the U.S.Forest Service to stop further development

68b

The Southern Ute

69a

-700,000 acre reservation in Colorado sits on one the richestdeposits of methane in the world-Tribe is made up of 1400 members worth about 4 billiondollars (Was once poor, but now 1400 people are eachbillionaires)-Tensions: shift in power relations in community (Some saythey like the tribe better when it was poor)-Money has meant a $9.4 million recreation and communitycenter, a new elementary school & a way for the Ute to "takeback their reservation"

69b

Termination Era

70a

-1945-1961-Major losses of service and protection forAmerican Indian tribes-Changes in land ownership patterns-American government began withdrawing itselffrom Indian life-Conservatives believed that survival of the fittestwould take reign

70b

Trail of Tears

71a

1830's, mass migration of 16,000 Cherokeeswho walked from Georgia to Oklahoma, ideawas that the white vs. native problem wouldbe solved

71b

Treaties

72a

-became the vehicle that defined the legal and politicalrelationships between Europeans and American Indians-From 1778 to 1878 more than 600 treaties and agreementswere made with North American nations-American Indians were at a disadvantage during treaty-making: treaties were in English, interpreters were often biasedand treaties were amended which changed their meaning-Europeans privileged their own perspective and Natives lost alot in the process

72b

Tribal reproduction, post-Europeans

73a

When Europeans came to New England, thischanged. They brought their belief thatEuropean culture had precedent over Natureand extracted commodities for tradingoverseas.

73b

Tribal reproduction, pre-Europeans

74a

women were the biological and socialreproducers, while men were the primaryreproducers of the collective throughgovernance

74b

U.S. Census 2010

75a

-Approximately 5.2 million AmericanIndians & Alaska Natives-more than one third live in California,Arizona & Oklahoma-565 federally recognized tribes

75b

The White Vulcan Pumice Mine

76a

-covered 320 acres and provided pumice which wassold for horticulture, making cement block, andpreparing stone-washed denim-Operations at the mine destroyed five archeologicalsites; Secretary Bruce Babbitt joined forces withAmerican Indians to successfully close the mine in1999. -The Forest Service has filed a request to designatethe peaks as a Traditional Cultural Property.

76b

Will Samsun in One Flew Over the CooCoo's Nest

77a

-silent the whole movie but portrayed this stoicand strong Indian that represented his heritage -Indians were treated as people with all differentkinds of shadings, that's why Clint Eastwoodchose to film this movie (very humorous castingof the elder that surfaced many stereotypes)-comedy, humor, and the great spirit saved theNative Americans

77b

Wilma Mankiller

78a

-In 1985, Wilma Mankiller became the first femalechief of the Cherokee Nation-In 1956, her father moved their family from ruralOklahoma to San Francisco as part of a federalproject to move Indians to industrial areas (Trail ofTears)-In 1969, she joined a protest where AmericanIndians laid claim to Alcatraz in the name of allIndian tribes

78b

Wounded Knee

79a

Where: Pine Ridge Reservation, South Dakota, USAWhat happened: -The Lakota refused to sell the Black Hills, land they saw as sacred-Sitting Bull, a Lakota Tribal leader, was killed by Indian police-500 troops of the U.S. 7th Calvary surrounded an encampment of Lakota, chaos ensued and more than 300women, men and children diedResult: February 1890: -The Great Sioux Reservation was sized down to five smaller reservations to accommodate homesteaders•Separated into family units, tribes didn't operate around family units, they operated around tribal units•Then assimilated the children into boarding schools to change their way of life, perception, origins, beliefs-Indians were forced to farm-Farming was difficult for American Indians in this arid region, many starved b/c rations ran outNow: Wounded Knee has become a significant part of popular culture through movies & music

79b