Evolution of Pull Apart Basin

TECTONICS, VOL. 1, NO. 1, PAGES 91-105, FEBRUARY 1982

EVOLUTION OF PULL-APART BASINS AND THEIR SCALE INDEPENDENCE

Atilla Aydin 1 and Amos Nur

Department of Geophysics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305

Abstract. Pull-apart basins or rhomb grabens and horsts along major strike-slip fault systems in the world are generally associated with horizontal slip along faults. A simple model suggests that the width of the rhombs is controlled by the initial fault geometry, whereas the length increases with increasing fault displacement. We have tested this model by analyzing the shapes of 70 well-defined rhomb-like pull- apart basins and pressure ridges, ranging from tens of meters to tens of kilometers in length, associated with several major strike-slip faults in the western United States, Israel, Turkey, Iran, Guatemala, Venezuela, and New Zealand. In conflict with the model, we find that the length to width ratio of these basins is a constant value of approximately 3; these basins become wider as they grow longer with increasing fault offset. Two possible mechanisms responsible for the increase in width are suggested: (1) coalescence of neighboring rhomb grabens as each graben increases its length and (2) formation of fault strands parallel to the existing ones w•en large displacements need to be accommodated. The processes of formation and growth of new fault strands promote interaction among the new faults and between the new and preexisting faults on a larger scale. Increased displacement causes the width of the fault zone to increase resulting in wider pull-apart basins.

œNTRODUCT ION

Many rhomb grabens and rhomb horsts have been recognized along major strike-slip faults throughout the world (see Table 1). Pull-apart basins or rhomb grabens are depressional basins, while pressure ridges or rhomb horsts are uplifted terranes. Basins associated with active strike-slip faults can be readily identified because of their morpho- logical expressions as elongated lakes and sag ponds, which often contain young sedimentary deposits and sometimes involve volcanic and geothermal activities [Clayton, 1966; Freund, 1971; Elders et al., 1972; Clark, 1973; Crowell, 1974; Hill, 1977]. The horst-like ridges usually form conspicuous rectilinear hills along strike-slip faults and are characterized by en echelon folds [Sharp and Clark, 1972]. The geometry of some pull-apart basins and pressure ridges has been inferred from associated seismicity and focal mechanism solutions [Johnson and Hedley, 1976; Johnson, 1979] and from surface faulting associated with major earthquakes on strike-slip faults [Clark, 1972; Sharp, 1976, 1977; Arpat et al., 1977; Tchalenko and Ambrasyes, 1970]. Mechanical aspects of pull-apart basins and pressure ridges have been recently investigated by Segall and Pollard [1980] and Rodgers [1980].

1Now at Department of Geosciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette Indiana 47907

Copyright 1982 by the American Geophysical Union. Paper number 1T1784. 0278-7407/82/001T-1784510.00

92 Aydin and Nur: Evolution of Pull-Apart Basins

TABLE 1. Strike-Slip Faults Associated Grabens (G) or Horsts (H)and Their Dimensions

Fault and/or Location

Motagua, Guatemala

Polochic

Dead Sea Rift, Israel

Paran

Bir Zrir, Sinai Gulf of Elat

Dasht-e Bayaz, Iran

Hope, New Zealand

Hope, New Zealand

North Anatolian,Turkey

San Andreas, Calif., USA

Imperial

Elsinore

Garlock

San Jacinto,

Buck Ridge Coyote Creek

Olinghouse, Nevada

Bocono, Venezuela

Valencia E1 Pilar

Basin or Graben (G) or Dimension (M) Mountain Range Horst (H) Length Width Reference

Motagua Valley G 50,000 20,000 Rio E1 Tambor G 25 8

Lago de Izabal G 80,000 30,000

Hula G 20,000 7,000 Lake Kineret G 17,000 5,000 Ayun G 6,600 1,600 East of Timna G 1,000 250 North of Ayun G 1,200 400

G 1,200 400 G 1,600 450 G 5,000 1,200 G 2,000 500

South of Timna G 8,800 3,000 G 20,000 6,000

West of the Dead Sea G 3,500 750 G 3,000 750 G 3,000 800 G 6,000 1,500 G 7,500 1,800 G 3,000 750

East of the Dead Sea G 4,500 1,500 Karkom G 18,000 6,000

G 6,000 1,500 G 5,000 2,000

Elat G 45,000 i0,000 Aragonese G 40,000 9,000 Tiran-Dakor G 65,000 8,000

G 1,200 500

Medway-Karaka G 700 230 Glynnwye G 980 210 Glynnwye Lake G 1,800 550 Poplars Station G 2,300 900 Hanmer Plains G 13,000 3,500 Medway-Karaka H 90 30 Glynnwye Lake H 300 90 Poplars Station H 300 150 Hanmer Plains H 4,500 2,700

Niksar G 25,000 10,000 Erzincan G 40,000 12,000 Susehri G 23,000 6,000 Cholame Valley G 17,000 3,000 San Bernardino Mountains H 32,000 14,000 Brawley G 10,000 7,000

Elsinore Lake G 12,000 3,000 Koehn Lake G 40,000 11,000

G 300 150 G 600 110 G 600 100

West of Quail Mountain G 240 90 G 900 220

Searleys Valley G 1,600 380 East of Christmas Canyon G 1,250 250 Hog Lake G 680 170 Hemet G 22,000 5,000 Santa Rosa Mountain G 6,000 1,700 Ocotillo Badlands H 5,500 1,800 Borrega Mountain H 4,000 1,600 Bailey's Well G 500 200

G 190 80

Tracy-Clark Station G 70 40 G 160 90

G 450 175 G 980 250

La Gonzales G 23,000 6,200 Merida-Mucuchies G 6,200 1,700

G 700 200 G 280 70 G 1,000 280

Lake Valencia G 30,000 11,500 Casanay H 3,000 1,200

Schwartz et al. [1979]

Bonis et al. [1970]; Plafker [1976]; this study Freund et al. [1968]

Garfunkel et al. [1982]

Garfunkel [1982]

Bartov [1979]

Eyal et al. [1980] Ben-Avraham et al. [1979]

Freund [1974]

Freund [1971]

Freund [1974] Freund [1971]

Seymen [1975]; this s[•y Ketin [1969]

Jennings [1959]; Brown [1970] Dibblee [1975] Johnson and Hadley [1976]; Sharp [1976, 1977] Rogers !1965] Jennings et al. [1969]; Smith [1964]; Clark [1973]; this study

Clark [1973]

Sharp [1972] Sharp [1975] Sharp [1972] Sharp and Clark [1972]

Clark [1972]

Sanders and Slemmons [1979]; this study

Schubert[1980a] Schubert[1980b]

Schubert and Laredo [1979] Schubert [1979]

Aydin and Nur: Evolution of Pull-Apart Basins 95

In this paper, we first review the kinematics of strike-slip faulting from the viewpoint of basin and ridge formation in strike-slip environments. We then examine the scale dependence of the geometry of many pull-apart basins and pressure ridges. Finally, we suggest tectonic models for the growth and development of these basins and ridges.

KINEMATICS OF STRIKE-SLIP FAULTING AND BASIN AND RIDGE FORMATION

It is generally thought that both pull-apart basins and pressure horsts near strike-slip faults are associated with geometrical and possibly mechanical irregularities of these faults. This concept implies that motion on discrete fault strands within a strike-slip fault system is responsible for the creation of pull-aparts and horsts.

++ --

++ --

Fig. 1. (a) Extensional (minus) and compressional (plus) quadrants around a right lateral strike-slip fault; (b) tail cracks (open) in the extensional quadrant and pressure solutions or folds (zig-zag line) in the compressional quadrants; (c) rhomb graben on a right stepover; (d) rhomb horst on a left stepover for right lateral strike- slip faults; (e) normal faults (barbs on downthrown side) and major strike-slip fault segments with normal slip component bounding a rhomb graben at a left stepover; and (f) reverse faults (teeth on upthrown side) and major strike-slip fault segments with reverse slip component bounding a rhomb horst at a right stepover for left lateral strike-slip faults.


Horizontal slip on a single strike-slip fault will induce extension in two quadrants and compression in the other two quadrants (Figure la). Structures reflecting the extension (cracks) and compression (pressure solution and folds) are sometimes observed in the proper quadrants (Figure lb) in the field [Rispoli, 1981; P. Segall and D. D. Pollard, manuscript in preparation, 1982]. When strike-slip faults are arranged in en echelon pattern, the extensional or compressional quadrants of the neighboring faults partially overlap, thereby enhancing either extensional or compressional deformation. For example, right and left lateral strike-slip faults with right (Figure lc) and left (Figure le) stepovers, respectively, produce depressions at the stepover regions. While two sides of such depressions are bounded by the segments of the strike-slip faults that have significant normal slip components, the other two sides are defined predominantly by normal faults trending diagonally to the strike-slip faults [Clayton, 1966; Freund, 1971; Sharp, 1976, 1977].

Pressure ridges or rhomb horsts are associated with right and left lateral strike-slip faults with left stepover (Figure ld) and right stepover (Figure If), respectively. Like pull-apart basins, pressure ridges are bounded on two sides by segments of strike-slip faults and by reverse or thrust faults on the remaining two sides (Figure if).

DIMENSIONS OF PULL-APART BASINS

AND PRESSURE RIDGES

Pull-apart basins and pressure ridges of various sizes have been reported by several authors (reference list, see Table 1). Figure 2 illustrates some examples of basin and ridge structures ranging from 0.6 m to 80,000 m in length and from 0.17 m to 30,000 m in width. Figure 2a shows a small pull-apart structure in Sierra Nevada granite, which is similar to those studied by P. Segall and D. D. Pollard

a b c

t I I I I I 0 5 M I000 M 5000 M

Fig. 2. Some examples of pull-apart basins or rhomb grabens in various scales and one rhomb horst. (a) Courtesy of Paul Sega!l, (b) from Fruend et al. [1968], (c) from Sharp and Clark [1972], (d) from Ketin [1969]; •AF (inset): North Anatolian Fault; F: faults (arrows indicating sense of displacement on strike-slip faults and plus and minus indicating upthrown and downthrown blocks, respectively, on normal fault; HS: hot springs; VC: volcanic cones; Q: Quaternary; T: Tertiary; pM&M: pre-Mesozoic and Mesozoic, (e) slightly modified from Bonis et al. [1970] and Plafker [1976]; Q & T; Qua- ternary and Tertiary; and pT: pre-Tertiary.

Aydin and Nur: Evolution of Pull-Apart Basins 9S

e

•,,•- _ ....... _::•:•-:. ..... •:•:••.•:: .... -- . ......... -......:• ,

Fig. 2. (continued)

(manuscript in preparation, 1982). The pull-apart, which is well defined by quartz filling, is comparable in length to the horizontal offset of a preexisting vein. Figure 2b shows a graben in recent alluvium along the Dead Sea Fault near Timna, Isreal [Freund et al., ]_968]. Here the normal faults and normal component of the left lateral strike-slip faults bounding the graben are illustrated. Figure 2c is one of few examples of horst structure; the thrust nature of the bounding fault is supported by the observed displacement on the active breaks associated with the Borrego Valley earthquake of 1968 in southern California [Sharp and Clark, 1972]. Figure 2d is a large basin along the North Anatolian Fault at the Erzincan region, Turkey [Ketin, 1969]. The Erzincan Basin is filled with young detrital

15o•0 '

15o00 '


deposits and volcanic rocks. Several volcanic cones and hot springs conspicuously aligned along the major faults indicate high heat flow and thinning of the crust at the pull-apart region. The last example shown in Figure 2e includes two huge pull-apart basins, the Polochic Valley, mostly occupied by Lake Izabal, and the Motague Valley in Guatemala [Bonis et al., 1970; Plafker, 1976]. Both appear to be composite pull-apart basins, the former being about 80,000 m long and 30,000 m wide. Still larger features interpreted as structures somewhat analogous to pull-apart basins and pressure ridges were reported by Carey [1958].

One implication of the concept that pull-aparts and pressure ridges are formed by predominantly strike-slip motion along en echelon faults is that their length should increase proportionally to the amount of offset (Figure 5). In contrast, the widths of pull-aparts and ridges should remain roughly fixed at the initial value of fault strand spacing, which must be due to an earlier tectonic process, the nature of which is not well understood.

I00 000

I0 000

I000

I-.

z

ß J I00

i I ! i i i i i I _

.

i

&omo

+ o Z _

i I i I I i ill io

IOHOPE FAULT (NEW ZEALAND) • OLINGHOUSE FAULT (NEV., USA) -- $ DASHT-E BAYAZ FAULT ( I RAN) - • NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT ( TURKEY) _-

I•SAN ANDREAS FAULT SYSTEM (CALIF.,USA) - + DEAD SEA AND OTHER FAULTS (ISRAEL) - X DEAD SEA FAULT AT GULF OF ELAT (ISRAEL) - ß MOTAGUA AND POLOCHIC FAULTS (GUATEMALA) &•BOCONO,VALENClA AND EL PILAR FAULTS (VENEZUELA) '

I , I I till[ I I I I [ Ill[ I I , I tllll I I i I 'll• I00 I000 I0 000 I00 000

WIDTH , METERS

Fig. 3. Log length versus log width for 70 pull-apart basins or rhomb grabens and horsts associated with major strike-slip faults of the world. Full symbols grabens and empty symbols horsts.


The most cursory survey of known pull-apart basins indicates that their widths vary extensively from tens of meters in small sag ponds to tens of kilometers for large basins. The range suggests that the process responsible for the initial spacing between fault strands is spatially variable. Furthermore, because pull-apart basins of significantly different widths and lengths are often found along the same fault system (e.g., the San Andreas system), we conclude that new strands must be forming while slip occurs and that all of the basins were not formed during the onset of strike-slip motion.

These conclusions lead to a contradiction. On the one hand, we must invoke an independent process for the spacing between strands prior to the process responsible for slip on these strands. On the other hand, this independent process must be creating new strands while slip occurs on existing ones.

To resolve this apparent contradiction concerning the nature and origin of pull-aparts, horsts, and strike-slip fault systems in general, we examine the widths and lengths of 70 pull-apart basins and pressure ridges associated with the San Andreas Fault system and the Olinghouse Fault in the western United States, the Dead Sea Fault and other faults in Israel, the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey, the Dasht-e Bayaz Fault in Iran, the Polochic and Motagua faults in Guatemala, the Bocono, E1 Pilar, and Victoria faults in Venezuela, and the Hope Fault in New Zealand.

We have studied well-documented pull-apart basins or ridges along these fault systems, using data from written reports or detailed published geological maps (see Table 1) to determine the position of the bounding faults. Some of the data have been obtained from aerial photos and from direct field observations. For the 70 best documented

3O I I I I I I I I I

-

.

-

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: i i

>- 2o

o

o 2 4 $ 8 IO

LENGTH / •IDTH

Fig. 4. Frequency histogram for length/width ratio showing that most of the length-width ratios calculated directly from Table 1 fall between 2 and 5 and that the maximum frequency value is somewhere between the ratios 3 and 4.

98 Aydin and Nur' Evolution of Pull-Apart Basins

cases, we have measured the length, g, and width, w, of the basins or ridges and plotted them against each other, as shown in Figure 3. These data are analyzed by using a least square fit of the function

log g = c 1 log w + log c 2 (1) The best-fitting constants in equations (1) were found to be c 1 = 1.0 and c 2 = 3.2. The variance of c 1 at 95% confidence level is .04, and 95% confidence interval for c 2 is defined by an upper limit of 4.3 and a lower limit of 2.4.

By taking antilogs, equation (1) can be rewritten as

• = 3.2 w (2)

Equation (2) shows that a well-defined linear correlation exists between length and width, with a ratio of approximately 3. A 95% confidence interval for the ratio (2.4-4.3) obtained from the linear regression is in agreement with the most common range of ratios (3-4) illustrated graphically in Figure 4, a relative frequency histogram constructed by using ratios calculated directly from Table 1.

The persistence of this correlation ranging over scales from meters to 100 kilometers, not only between length and width within a given fault system, but also among systems, is particularly remarkable. The strong correlation leaves little doubt as to the reality and gener- ality of this observation: basins and ridges associated with strike- slip faults become wider as they grow longer due to increasing fault offsets with time.

This observation is inconsistent with the simplest model for the formation of basins and ridges, which dictates that their widths are initially fixed, whereas their lengths increase with offset (Figure 5). If this were the case, we would expect no correlation between width and length. We would expect to observe many very long and narrow basins and ridges. Furthermore, the results do not easily favor a model involving the development of strands independent of the slip along them. In that case, we would anticipate a random width distribution uncorrelated with the lengths of basins and ridges. The strong correlation implies that as slip along the strike-slip fault increases, so does the width as well as the length of the basin or ridge; there- fore, the process which controls the width is not independent of the slip but is an integral part of it.

MODELS

We propose two models for the evolution of pull-apart basins and ridges. A simple process with a constant ratio of length to width, a ratio that is independent of the magnitude of slip, is illustrated in Figure 6. We imagine, for example, a right lateral fault system

C w o

Fig. 5. A simple model illustrating increasing length (from •0 to •) with increasing fault offset. The width, w0, is constant.


a b c d

t

t

t

t t

Fig. 6. Model 1 showing coalescence of rhomb grabens associated with en echelon strike-slip faults. The end product is a composite pull-apart basin.

consisting of numerous right-stepping echelon strands (Figure 6a). Many small grabens appear initially (Figure 6b). As slip increases, the grabens begin to coalesce into composite ones (Figure 6c), finally leading to a large basin (Figure 6d) having a length comparable to the offset and the width that is the sum of the spacing between the fault strands involved in the process. Examples of basins that show the elements of this process are common and can be recognized easily based on the elbow-shaped geometry of the diagonal faults. The Koehn Lake Basin along the Garlock Fault in southern California (Figure 7)

Fig. 7. Koehn Lake basin on the Garlock Fault in southern California, envisioned as a composite pull-apart basin formed by coalescence of en echelon rhombs (insert). GF: Garlock Fault; SAF: San Andreas Fault; pT&T: pre-Tertiary and Tertiary; and Q: Quaternary.


can be thought of as a composite of at least three major strands, as is shown in the inset. Additional examples can be seen along the Elsinore Fault around Elsinore Lake in southern California [Rogers, 1965] and in the Gulf of Elat (Aqaba) in the Northern Red Sea [Ben- Avraham et al., 1979].

The second model-which is based on more random coalescense and

interaction processes is illustrated in Figure 8. The initial fault configuration (Figure 8a) develops gradually, or perhaps the sites of strike-slip faults are controlled by preexisting tensile fractures [Segall, 1981]. At the initial stage grabens and horsts are produced by interaction among closer and longer fault strands (Figure 8b). Faults that are further away grow longer as more slip is accommodated, and new strands form to promote further interaction and coalescense resulting in the formation of longer and wider complex basins and ridges (Figure 8c). Figure 9 shows a spectacular example of the development of a composite basin, as envisioned in this model, along the Olinghouse Fault in western Nevada (see Sanders and Slemmons [1979] for more information about the fault). Here exceptionally exposed smaller basins occur within larger basins and each basin has similar length/width ratio (Figure 3).

The two processes described above may operate separately, or they may operate more or less simultaneously at the same site complementing each other. Large structures, such as the Imperial Valley, California [Crowell and Sylvester, 1980; Fuis et al., 1981], exhibit not only coalescense of neighboring basins, but also a more intricate composite of basins within basins, horsts within basins, and perhaps basins within horsts. Figure 10 is a cartoon illustrating the main features of these tectonics, which, we believe, characterize a typical strike- slip environment. Strike-slip faults together with connecting normal and reverse or thrust faults divide the region into blocks or domains or terranes, which, while moving in the general direction of horizontal shear, also rise or subside depending on the nature of the interaction between the discrete fault segments that make up the system.

a b c

Fig. 8. Model 2 illustrates formation of composite pull-apart basin, which includes rhomb grabens and horsts of various size.

Aydin and Nur- Evolution of Pull-Apart Basins 101

I, I , METERS

500 I . ,I

Fig. 9. Small basins along the Olinghouse Fault, which is a left lateral strike-slip fault in the western Nevada (lower insert). Small basins wzthin basins (upper insert) on the top right of the figure appear to be formed by the second mechanism shown in Figure 8. OF: Olinghouse Fault; WLF Walker Lane Fault.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The clear, global correlation between the width and length of pull- apart basins and ridges associated with strike-slip systems suggests that smaller basins coalesce into bigger ones as slip continues to take place. This conclusion has important implications for our understanding of (1) fault systems and (2) formation of basins. The two mechanisms suggested for the growth of basins and ridges provide an understanding of the nature of strike-slip faulting as an evolu- tionary process. Basins and ridges of various sizes in the same strike-slip fault system should be expected if the interaction and coalescense processes leading to the formation of the basins and ridges occur in a long time span.

Faults that are traditionally classified into different groups such as strike-slip, dip-slip normal, and reverse or thrust, and which are believed to have distinct environments, can occur next to each other in the same tectonic environment under the same remote stress con-

dition. Normal and thrust faults associated with active strike-slip faults should be recognized as potential active faults.


o o

o

• o

o •

ß o

Aydin and Nur- Evolution of Pull-Apart Basins 10S

The processes of coalescense and interaction imply that the width of the fault system itself must also tend to grow with time, incorporating old and new fault strands as well as a complex arrangement of basins and ridges. These broad zones, which are broken by faults, are likely to be mechanically weaker than normal crust. The presence of a weak, brittle upper crust around major faults limits the shear stress level that can be supported by such faults. This limitation may account for the low stresses inferred, for example, from in situ stress measurement around the San Andreas Fault system [Zoback and Roller, 1979].

The dimensional and geometric features of the basins and ridges described in this study, together with the nature of deformation in these tectonic domains, can be used to interpret ancient basins and ridges in terms of strike-slip tectonics. The fact that pull-apart basins become wider as they grow longer may provide a mechanism for the initiation and the enlargement of sedimentary basins. Sedimentary basins and back arc basins probably develop as a result of crustal stretching [Sclater and Christie, 1980; Dewey, 1980] followed by the rise of hot and light mantle material. As this material cools, the surface above it subsides, creating a basin that is usually filled with sediments. The most viable process for crustal stretching is a pull-apart basin, which must be large enough (tens of kilometers in width) to interact with the upper mantle. Our observations suggest that a large pull-apart basin can develop from small ones if the associated fault displacements are large enough and the fault strands are numerous enough.

Acknowledgments. We thank D. D. Pollard, P. Segall, R. V. Sharp, M. M. Clark, R. E. Wallace, G. Mavko, G. Plafker, Z. Ben-Avraham, and G. Aral for many fruitful discussions and for their encouragement, C. Sanders, who loaned us the aerial photographs of the Olinghouse Fault, and Z. Garfunkel and G. Fuis, who have made available the preprints of their recent papers. The manuscript was reviewed by D. D. Pollard, R. V. Sharp, and C. Sanders. This study was supported by research grants from U.S. Geological Survey and NASA's geodynamics program.

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Bartov, Y. (Compiler), Israel-geological map, scale 1'500,000, Surv. of Israel, Tel Aviv, 1979.

Ben-Avraham, Z., G. Almagor, and Z. Garfunkel, Sediments and structure of the Gulf of Elat (Aqaba) - Northern Red Sea, Sediment. Geol., 23, 239-267, 1979.

Bonis, S., O. H. Bohnenberger, and G. Dengo (Compilers), Mapa geologico de la Republica de Guatemala, escale 1:500,000, Inst. Geograf. Nac. Guatemala, Guatemala, 1970.

Brown, R. D., Jr., Map showing recently active breaks along the San Andreas and related faults between the northern Gabilan Range and Cholame Valley, California, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Geol. Invest. Map, 1-579, 1970.

Carey, S. W., The Tectonic approach to continental drift, in Continental Drift: A_Ssnnposium Held in the Geology Department, University of Tasmania, March 1956, edited by S. W. Carey, pp. 177- 355, Univ. of Tasmania, Hobart, 1958.

Clark, M. M. Surface rupture along the Coyote Creek Fault, The Borrego Mountain Earthquake of April 9, 1968, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 787, 55-86, 1972.

Clark, M. M., Map showing recently active breaks along the Garlock

104 Aydin and Nur- Evolution of Pull-Apart Basins

and associated faults, California, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Geol. Invest. Map, 1-741, 1973.

Clayton, L., Tectonic depressions along the Hope Fault, a transcurrent fault in North Canterbury, New Zealand, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 9, 95-104, 1966.

Crowell, J. C., Origin of Late Cenozoic basins in southern California, Spec. Publ. Soc. of Econ. Paleontol. and Mineral., 22, 190-204, 1974.

Crowell, J. C., and A. G. Sylvester, Introduction to the San Andreas -Salton Trough juncture, Tectonics of the Juncture Between the San Andreas Fault System and the Salton Trough, Southern California -A Guidebook, edited by J. C. Crowell and A. G. Sylvester, Publ. 1-13, Univ. of Calif. Dept. of Geol. Sci., Santa Barbara, 1980.

Dewey, J. F., Episodicity, sequence, and style at convergent plate boundaries, Geol. Assoc. Can. Spec. Pap., 20, 553-573, 1980.

Dibblee, T. W., Jr., Late Quaternary Uplift of the San Bernardino Mountains on the San Andreas and related faults, Spec. Rep. Calif. Div. Mines. Geol., 118, 127-135, 1975.

Elders, W. A., R. W. Rex, T. Meidav, P. T. Robinson, and S. Biehler, Crustal spreading in southern California, Science, 178, 15-24, 1972.

Eyal, M., Y. Eyal, Y. Bartov, and G. Steinitz, Sinistral faulting in eastern Sinai, in Prosrams , Abstracts, Annual Reports, Explanatory Notes on the Excursions, Israel Geological Society, Jerusalem, 1980.

Freund, R., The Hope Fault, a strike-slip fault in New Zealand, N. Z. Geol. Surv. Bull., 86, 1-48, 1971.

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Aydin and Nur- Evolution of Pull-Apart Basins 10S

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(Received August 25, 1981; revised November 16, 1981; accepted November 16, 1981.)

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Evolution of Pull Apart Basin

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