i

IMPACT OF URBANISATION ON

GROUNDWATER IN KARAPAKKAM VILLAGE

A THESIS

Submitted by

R. SUBALAKSHMI

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

CENTRE FOR WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

MAY 2011

ii

ANNA UNIVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this report titled “IMPACT OF URBANISATION ON

GROUND WATER IN KARAPAKKAM VILLAGE” is the bonafide work of

Ms. R. SUBALAKSHMI (Roll No. 2009262018) who carried out the work

under my supervision. Certified further, that to the best of my knowledge the

work reported herein does not form part of any other thesis or dissertation on the

basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or

any other candidate.

Dr. K. ILAMPARUTHI Mr.V.LENIN KALYANA SUNDARAM

Professor and Head Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering Centre for Water Resources

Anna University Anna University

Chennai - 600 025. Chennai - 600 025.

iii

ABSTRACT

Urbanisation in India has resulted in population increase and

infrastructure development which in turn have led to a large demand for water.

The demand for water and population growth has increased exponentially in

Karapakkam, whereas water availability (surface and ground water potential) has

decreased. Most of the agricultural lands have rapidly converted in to hotels and

IT sectors. During the last 8 years, over exploitation of groundwater for

industrial, domestic and irrigation purpose has occurred in a large scale.

An attempt has been made to study and delineate the land use changes

for the selected years and to study the impact of urbanisation on groundwater

quality and quantity using Remote Sensing and GIS. Land use and land cover

classification is applied to delineate entire study area with the help of ground

truth verification. Groundwater potential is calculated using long term trend

analysis method. Ground water quality assessment is an important factor to

ensure safe and sustainable use of water. Groundwater quality of the surrounding

area is analysed for physical and chemical parameters. Water quality index is

calculated based on the water quality parameters. Based on these index values,

groundwater quality index map was generated. Land use changes, groundwater

quality and groundwater potential are used to assess the environmental changes

which affect the livelihood of people. Focus group discussions and questionnaire

survey are used to evaluate the livelihood changes.

iv

The results indicate that the effects of urbanisation has affected

agriculture, groundwater condition and livelihood changes. In 2002, 38% of the

land was used for agricultural purpose whereas now, there are no agricultural

activities in the village. This is because of scarce water sources, agricultural

labour and demand of agricultural land for urban uses. Urbanisation has greatly

affected the groundwater condition. Okkium Maduvu and Renganathan Street

wells were unfit for drinking purpose, because these two wells are located

nearby Okkium Maduvu River, which is very near to Pallikaranai swamp. The

contaminant from the Pallikaranai swamp passes through this river and drains at

Buckingham canal. In 2002, the well water condition was very good. Now, 78%

of the well water is not fit for drinking purpose. 51% of people are using

portable water and other’s use panchayat water and water from nearby villages.

On the other hand, urbanisation has created many employment opportunities.

66% of people are now earning more than Rs. 7000 and 21% of people earn

more than Rs. 10000

From the results, urbanisation has led to a great economic growth and

growth of commercial actives but unplanned urbanisation has led too many

problems and pathetic situations such as flooding, traffic, unhygienic and poor

environment. The groundwater resource has also witnessed a rapid decrease in

quantity and quality. Management measures have to be adopted in order to

conserve this resource. Also, opportunities should be created within rural areas

to prevent migration to cities and minimize the urbanisation effects and increase

the benefits.

v

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vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost I am grateful to GOD ALMIGHTY for having given

me a wonderful life and infinite blessings. My sincere and heartfelt gratitude to

Mr. V. LENIN KALYANA SUNDARAM, Assistant Professor, Centre for

Water Resources, Anna University for his expert guidance, valuable suggestions,

continued help and constant encouragement.

I express my sincere thanks to Dr. K. ILAMPARUTHI, Head,

Department of Civil Engineering, Dr. N. K. AMBUJAM, Professor and

Director, Centre for Water Resources for their keen and continued interest

during my project work.

I would like to express my special thanks to, Dr. S. RAVICHANDRAN,

Professor in-charge, Integrated Water Resources Management,

Dr. N. G. ANUTHAMAN, Associate Professor, Mr. M. BALAMURUGAN

Assistant Professor, Dr. R. SARAVANAN Assistant Professor and

Dr. PRAKASH NELLIYAT, Research Co-ordinator, Centre for Water

Resources, for their illuminating suggestions and constructive criticisms.

I express my heartfelt and deep sense of gratitude to all our Department

staff members, also I extend my thanks to The Government of Netherlands

and SaciWATERS for the fellowship provided. And I would like to thank

Karapakkam Village People for their supports.

Finally I express my gratitude to my FAMILY MEMBERS and

FRIENDS for their valuable support and encouragement during this project

work.

SUBALAKSHMI R

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT (ENGLISH) iii

ABSTRACT (TAMIL) v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT vii

LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF FIGURES xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiv

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 GENERAL 1

1.1.1 Groundwater 1

1.1.2 Characteristic of Groundwater 1

1.1.3 Urbanisation 2

1.1.4 Urbanisation in India 2

1.1.5 Urbanisation in Tamil Nadu 3

1.1.6 Effects of Urbanisation 5

1.2 NEED FOR THE STUDY 6

1.3 OBJECTIVES 7

1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS 7

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 9

2.1 GENERAL 9

2.1.1 Urbanisation 9

2.1.2 Groundwater 9

ix

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

2.1.3 Water Quality 9

2.1.4 Livelihood 10

2.2 LAND USE CHANGES 10

2.3 GROUNDWATER QUALITY 11

2.4 GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL 14

2.5 LIVELIHOOD ASSESSMENT 16

2.6 SUMMARY 18

3 STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY 19

3.1 GENERAL 19

3.2 STUDY AREA 19

3.2.1 Climate and Rainfall 19

3.2.2 Description of the Study Area 20

3.3 METHODOLOGY 22

3.3.1 Reconnaissance Survey 23

3.3.2 Data Collection 24

3.3.3 Data Analysis 25

3.3.4 Land Use Changes 25

3.3.5 Groundwater Quality 26

3.3.6 Groundwater Potential 28

3.3.7 Livelihood Assessment 30

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 31

4.1 GENERAL 31

4.2 CHANGES IN LAND USE PATTERN 31

4.3 GROUNDWATER QUALITY 36

4.3.1 Temporal Variation of Groundwater

Quality Parameters 36

x

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

4.3.2 Water Quality Index (WQI) 36

4.3.3 Generation of Water Quality Index Map 39

4.4 GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL 42

4.4.1 Analysis of Water Level 42

4.4.2 Groundwater Quantity 44

4.5 LIVELIHOOD ASSESSMENT 47

4.5.1 Source of Drinking Water 47

4.5.2 Analysis of Groundwater Quality 48

4.5.3 Agricultural Status 51

4.5.4 Economic Status 51

4.5.5 Sanitation and Health Status 52

4.5.6 Impact of Urbanisation 53

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 55

5.1 SUMMARY 55

5.2 CONCLUSION 56

REFERENCES 58

ANNEXURE

xi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

Table 1.1 Urban Population of Tamil Nadu 4

Table 3.1 Categories of Water Quality Index 28

Table 4.1 Land use Pattern for the Years 2002, 2004,

2006, 2008 and 2010 32

Table 4.2 Water Quality Parameters, BIS Standards and

Weighting factor 37

Table 4.3 Water Quality Classification based on WQI of

September 2010, January, February and

March 2011 38

Table 4.4 Water Level Data for the Years 2002 and 2006 42

Table 4.5 Groundwater Quantity for January and

February 2011 46

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

Figure 1.1 Effect of Urbanisation 6

Figure 3.1 Index Map of Karapakkam Village 21

Figure 3.2 Details of Study Area 22

Figure 3.3 Flowchart for Methodology 23

Figure 3.4 Flowchart for Land Use Changes 26

Figure 3.5 Well Location Map of Karapakkam Village 27

Figure 4.1 Land use Map of Karapakkam Village -2002 33

Figure 4.2 Land use Map of Karapakkam Village -2004 33

Figure 4.3 Land use Map of Karapakkam Village -2006 34

Figure 4.4 Land use Map of Karapakkam Village -2008 34

Figure 4.5 Land use Map of Karapakkam Village -2010 35

Figure 4.6 Water Quality Index Map-September 2010 40

Figure 4.7 Water Quality Index Map-January 2011 40

Figure 4.8 Water Quality Index Map-February 2011 41

Figure 4.9 Water Quality Index Map-March 2011 41

Figure 4.10 Water Level Fluctutation 42

Figure 4.11 Water level Contour-January 2011 43

Figure 4.12 Water level Contour-February 2011 43

Figure 4.13 Water level Contour-March 2011 44

Figure 4.14 Theissen Polygon Map 45

Figure 4 15 Groundwater Quantity 45

Figure 4.16 Sources of Drinking Water 48

Figure 4.17 Amounts Spend for Drinking Water 48

Figure 4.18 Reasons for Water Quality Deterioration 49

Figure 4.19 Water Quality Map- 2002 49

xiii

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

Figure 4.20 Water Quality Map- 2005 50

Figure 4.21 Water Quality Map- 2010 50

Figure 4.22 Agricultural Status 52

Figure 4.23 Economic Status 52

Figure 4.24 Sanitation Facility Status 52

Figure 4.25 Health Impact 52

Figure 4.26 Major Health Problem 53

xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

BGL Below ground level

GIS Geographic Information System

GWQI Groundwater Quality Index

MCM Million Cubic Meter

MoHA Ministry of Home Affairs

MRC Master Recession Curve

OIF Optimum Index Factor

SOI Survey of India

WQI Water Quality Index

WTF Water Table Fluctuation

HCO3 Bicarbonate

Ca Calcium

CO3 Carbonate

ERDAS Earth Resources Data Analysis System

E East

EC Electrical conductivity

ha Hectare

Km Kilometer

Mg Magnesium

µs/cm Micro-siemens/cm

mg/l Milligram per litre

N North

% Percent

pH Potential of hydrogen ions

Na Sodium

TDS Total Dissolved Solids

TH Total Hardness

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

1.1.1 Groundwater

In India, groundwater plays a crucial role in increasing food and

productions, providing drinking water and facilitating industrial development.

Groundwater is a major source of water which meets agricultural, industrial and

drinking water requirements. Groundwater forms one of the important sources of

water supplies in many areas, as it is believed to be safe and free from

pathogenic bacteria and from suspended matter. The pace of groundwater

withdrawal in many fertile regions is increasing phenomenally due to the fast

pace of population growth accompanied by agricultural and industrial

development.

1.1.2 Characteristic of Groundwater

i) It is almost universally available, with variation in levels, quality

and quantity.

ii) It is common property resource as no single person or organisation

can own it.

iii) It is dynamic equilibrium between rain water, surface water bodies

including ponds, lakes, wetlands, rivers, tanks and groundwater.

2

Forest and trees are part of this system as both forests and trees

play crucial role in groundwater recharge.

iv) Many aquifers are to offer natural protection from contamination,

so untreated groundwater is usually cleaner and safer than its

untreated surface water equivalent.

v) Groundwater is relatively easy and cheap to use. It can be brought

on stream progressively with little capital outlay and boreholes can

often be drilled close to where the water supply is needed.

vi) It is a resource that is organisationally easy to develop.

1.1.3 Urbanisation

Urbanisation refers to a process in which an increasing proportion of an

entire population lives in cities and change in land use from agriculture to

human settlements, commercial sectors and industries. In developing country

urbanisation and population pressure are two main challenges to water resource

management especially in cities of developing countries. The interaction

between urban development and demand to water are affecting the quantity and

quality of groundwater. Generally the change in groundwater quantity and

quality are caused by increase in groundwater abstraction and the existing new

sources of recharge.

1.1.4 Urbanisation in India

India is the most populous country in the world after China. Population

of India is 1.14 billion (MoHA, India 2008). All developmental sectors are in

growing state, villages which once did not have the basic amenities for water

and electricity even after several years of independence are being provided with

these facilities in recent years through several government-sponsored programs.

Despite these efforts to improve rural facilities, there is a rapid migration of rural

3

population to urban areas possibly for better work opportunities and living

conditions. The urban areas are fast getting densely populated and are expanding

rapidly to adjoining areas putting unwanted stress on the natural resources.

Agricultural lands around the urban areas are rapidly decreases and converted to

hotels and tall buildings. Value of these lands is also increasing and the

environmental health around these areas is on the decrease.

The improvement in infrastructural facilities and increase in trained

manpower, several small to large-sized industries are being rapidly established

with no proper disposal facilities for their effluents. It creates an environmental

chaos especially in the rapidly expanding towns and cities across the country.

Groundwater quality is soon getting deteriorated due to seepages from unlined

sewerage lines and effluent channels. The impact of urbanisation on the

groundwater in an urban area depends on geographical location and the

economic status of the city or even the country (Naik et al. 2005).

1.1.5 Urbanisation in Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu is the first urbanisation state among the fifteen major states

in the country. Urbanisation has been increasing since 1961. Tamil Nadu has

emerged as the state with the highest level of urbanisation (43.86 percent) in the

country. The total population of Tamil Nadu is 6.21 cores according to 2001

census. Out of the total population 2.72 core people are living in urban areas.

Urban population of Tamil Nadu require a wide range of urban services

including water supply, sewerage, solid waste management and streets as well as

social infrastructure like schools, hospitals, markets and so on. Urban population

of Tamil Nadu listed in Table 1.1.

Tamil Nadu has a much dispersed pattern of urbanisation with

municipalities in virtually every district (excluding Ariyalur and Perambalur).

The boundaries of Chennai District are contiguous with the Chennai Municipal

Corporation. However, the Chennai Metropolitan area is a larger area which

4

includes several municipalities and town panchayats in Tiruvallur and

Kancheepuram Districts.

Table 1.1 Urban Population of Tamil Nadu

Year No.of

towns

Urban

population

Urban

population (%)

Decadal

growth (%)

Annual growth

rate (%)

1981 434 159.5 32.95 27.98 2.47

1991 469 190.77 34.15 19.59 1.79

2001 832 272.42 43.86 42.79 3.56

Source: (Census of India, 2001)

The spatial distribution (by district) of the six corporations, 104

municipalities and 611 town panchayats, clearly illustrates that urbanisation is

not limited to anyone part of the State. However the urban population is

concentrated along certain urban corridors. Poor persons are estimated during

1999-2000 as 49.97 lakhs in the urban areas according to census of India.

i) Water supply

An increasing urban population has been creating a huge gap between

demand and supply of water every year. According to 2001 census, 30 percent

of urban towns have not access to safe drinking water. The minimum per capita

supply of water required in urban areas varies from 70 lit/day to 130 lit/day and

this requirement of water supply varies according to the land use classification

of the towns. The government spends 141.69 cores to urban water supply on

2003 -2004 (TWAD, 2005).

ii) Pollutants

Due to high influx of population in urban areas the consumption

patterns, unplanned urban and industrial development has led to the problem of

5

air and water pollution. Many urban centres and industrial units are located in

densely populated areas. The large industries have very high aggregate pollution

potential. Due to these aspects the large numbers of people are affected.

Due to increase in urbanisation the density of motor vehicles per km2

has increased from 22 to 52 percent in 1996 to 2004. This has led to traffic

congestion and release of many toxic air pollutants into the atmosphere.

Particularly, the growth of two wheelers is increasing in a steep manner and

contributing to 50.6 percent of the pollution load. Results of poor maintenance

of vehicles are spewing out of noxious fumes into the atmosphere. Apart from

the concentration of vehicles in urban areas and the other reasons for increasing

vehicular pollution are the types of engines used, age of vehicles, congested

traffic, poor road conditions and outdated automotive technologies and traffic

management systems. Vehicles are a major source of pollutants in major cities.

1.1.6 Effects of Urbanisation

Due to urbanisation flood can be occurred and create more pollution.

The pollutions are air pollution, water pollution, solid pollution and congestion.

Air pollution is particularly noticeable in rapidly urbanising villages, where

industry tends to be located within or adjacent to the settlements. In the absence

of industrial electricity, low-grade coal is used to fire the furnaces, which causes

many factories to emit black smoke. Traffic is considered the most important

source of air pollution.

Water pollution is caused by industry and households. Main problem

was lacking of good sewage system. Some villages still have open sewage

drains, even though the population densities are becoming very high. Solid

pollution is including households and industries waste. Household wastes are

mostly organic and contain few toxic substances; industrial wastes are more

dangerous. Hence more drainage facilities have to be constructed with proper

6

planning. The extraction of water in urban areas is more compared to rural areas.

Figure 1.1 shows that the effect of urbanisation.

Figure 1.1 Effect of Urbanisation

1.2 NEED FOR THE STUDY

Water resources are vital inputs to livelihood production activities in a

wide variety of ways. Urbanisation and population pressure are two main

challenges to water resource management, especially in cities of developing

countries. Urbanisation reduces infiltration of groundwater due to the

impermeable nature of the catchments by paved areas, buildings and roads.

The runoff from the increased pavement goes into storm sewers, which

then goes into streams. Usually this runoff is used to soak into the ground. But

now due to urbanisation it goes to the streams and causing flood. Changing a

stream channel can cause flooding and erosion along the stream banks. Also

more sewage is discharged into the streams.

The groundwater recharge may be decreased as a result of urbanisation.

Groundwater recharge is often linked with dry-season flows and groundwater

contributes as much of the river discharge during the dry season. Also the

groundwater is recharged from waste water, sewage mixed water and septic

More water use

Compare to rural

More drainage

More pollution

Less recharge

More floods

Urbanisation

7

tank, so groundwater gets polluted. People cannot access that water for drinking

purpose.

Chennai and urban villages have faced continuous drought leading to a

serious decline in the water table and water yields. Urbanisation has created

serious livelihood problems in the villages.

As far as groundwater is concerned it is mentioned that urbanisation

affects both the quantity and quality of groundwater systems and livelihood

impact of the people in the village. Remote sensing and geographical

information system have been used for a long time to study land use patterns,

groundwater quantity and quality and collecting spatial information.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

Due to increasing population most of the lands are converted to

infrastructure for urbanisation. Unplanned urbanisation creates the problem in

groundwater quality, quantity and livelihood. Objectives are framed in order to

study these problems.

The objectives of the study are:

i) To delineate the land use changes for different periods using

satellite imagery;

ii) To study the impact of urbanisation on groundwater quality and

quantity; and

iii) To assess the environmental changes which affect the livelihood of

people through questionnaire survey.

1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

i) Chapter 1 includes introduction, need for the study and the

objectives framed for the present study.

8

ii) Chapter 2 describes the previous work done by various

researchers in the relevant field that come within the scope of the

present study and the earlier studies carried out in the study area

are also considered.

iii) Chapter 3 deals with the methodology adopted in the present

study for attaining the objectives which was based on the literature

survey. Also the location and background information about the

study area are also included.

iv) Chapter 4 covers the results of the analysis done and the

discussions carried out in this regard.

v) Chapter 5 gives the summary and conclusions for this study.

9

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 GENERAL

This chapter describes the previous work done by various researchers in

relevant field that comes within the scope of the present study and the earlier

studies carried out in the area under consideration. Review of literature helps to

frame the methodology to be adopted towards the attainment of objectives which

is discussed in this chapter. The basic definitions of few important terms are

given below.

2.1.1 Urbanisation

According to the United States Postal Service, Urbanisation is an area,

sector or development within a geographic area. Urbanisation is the name for the

movement of people from rural to urban areas, and the resulting growth of cities.

Urbanisation is a process that has occurred, or is occurring, in nearly every part

of the world that humans have inhabited.

2.1.2 Groundwater

Groundwater is one of the most valuable natural resources, which

supports human health, socio - economic development and functioning of

ecosystems (Zektser 2000).

2.1.3 Water Quality

The quality of water is defined in terms of its physical, chemical and

biological parameters, and ascertaining its quality is important before use for

10

various intended purposes such as potable, agricultural, recreational and

industrial water usages, etc ., (Sargaonkar 2003)

2.1.4 Livelihood

A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material

and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood

is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and

maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while

not undermining the natural resource base. (Scoones 1998).

2.2 LAND USE CHANGE

Generally population growth is increase and the availability of land

resources is limited. So land use planning is essential. Aim of land use planning

is achieve a systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for

land use, and the economic and social conditions required to select and adopt the

best land use options. Effective land use planning often involves local

communities, scientific information on land resources, appropriate technologies,

and integrated evaluation of resource use Following papers are describes the

various land use planning done various places

Palaniyandi et. al, (1997) had detected the change in land use in

Chengai MGR district, Tamil Nadu, using IRS- 1A-LISS II digital data of 1990,

Landsat 5 TM digital data of 1986 and SOI toposheet and other secondary data.

He observed build-up area and agricultural land use, forest and waste land has

delineated each category using Remote Sensing and GIS technique. Using

digital planimeter each category area has been calculated.

Jaiswal et. al, (1999) had detected the change in land use mid-western

part of Gohparu Block, Shahdol district, Madhya Pradesh using IRS- 1C-LISS

III digital data of 1996 and Survey of India (SOI) toposheet 1967 and other

11

secondary data. From visual analysis of satellite imagery and reconnaissance

survey, major vegetation types and land cover classes were mapped. He had

analysed post-classification comparison techniques.

Brahmabhatt et. al, (2000) used Remote Sensing and GIS technique to

analyze the land use pattern in Mahi Right Bank Canal (MRBC) command area

in Kheda district of Gujarat using Survey of India (SOI) toposheet. Pre-

interpretation field visits and reconnaissance survey, crop types, crop condition,

extent of salinity, water logging, and land cover classes were mapped. Area of

various land cover classes was measured using electronic planimeter.

Jayakumar et. al, (2003) had detected the change in land use in Kolli

Hill, Tamil Nadu, using IRS- 1C-LISS III digital data of 1999, Landsat TM

digital data of 1990 and SOI toposheet and other secondary data. He had

analysed the changes in the cropping pattern and causes for the changes. Matrix

technique was used to interpret the maps in GIS Interpreting module in ERDAS

Imagine Software.

Raturi et. al, (2004) had used Remote Sensing and GIS technique in

Rudraprayag district of Uttaranchal to analyze the vegetation pattern over a

period of time. IRS-1C-LISS III was overlaid on the survey of India (SOI)

toposheet. From visual analysis of satellite imagery and reconnaissance survey,

major vegetation types and land cover classes were mapped. Interpretation was

made based on the tonal variation and textural pattern. The areas sensitive to

landslides, the degraded forest zones that needed special attention during the

developmental activities were identified.

2.3 GROUNDWATER QUALITY

Groundwater is very important natural resources. Due to urbanisation

the groundwater quality is rapidly changed. Various methods are used to

12

evaluate the groundwater quality. Some of the papers are described below about

groundwater quality.

Landwehr et. al, (1974) studied an objective of water quality index. He

described, it is an interesting application of Kendall’s nonparametric

classification procedure for the development of a water quality index. The

authors are completely analysing of results from a survey taken in the fall of

1973. That work shows old and new experts rate water quality was same. Again

ratings were given by experts from different regions. It should be noted that the

form of water quality index as it was published by Brown et al, and the author

has been changed. That form of an index was an excellent estimator of the mean

opinion of the panal.

Graniel et. al, (1999) studied the groundwater quality in the city of

Merida, Yucatan, Mexico, where dependence on groundwater supply is 100%, is

affected by urbanisation. In this study, sampling was carried out in 1991 of 39

samples and recorded the water level. Groundwater samples were analysed by

laboratory techniques. Analytical results provide a baseline to compare with the

earliest available chemical data for 1970. After comparison he suggests, that the

most affected areas coincide with urbanisation.

Anbazhagan et. al, (2004) assess the groundwater quality of Panvel

Basin, Raigarh district, Maharashtra, India using the Geographic Information

System (GIS). GIS based groundwater quality mapping has been carried out in

the region with the help of data generated from chemical analysis of water

samples collected from the basin. In this area the groundwater samples show

quality of groundwater was exceedence in terms of chloride, hardness, TDS and

salinity. These parameters indicate the level of quality of groundwater for

drinking and irrigation purposes. Piper diagram is used to understand the

problems concerning the geochemical of groundwater. Idrisi 32 GIS software

was used for generation of various thematic maps and for spatial analysis and

13

integration to produce the final groundwater quality map. In this study, the

concentration of chloride for post monsoon (390 mg/l) exceeds the desirable

limits (250 mg/l). He suggested groundwater quality is desirable and undesirable

for drinking and irrigation purposes.

Sarkar et. al, (2006) assessed the water quality of a groundwater basin

in Bangladesh for irrigation use. The objectives of the study were to determine

different water quality constituents in groundwater in the study area and to

assess in Pabna district which belongs to the Ganges river floodplain. Common

problems for quality irrigation water were cited and the water quality parameters

indices determined were precisely evaluated and interpreted. From the analytical

result it was observed that the compositions of the groundwater samples were

within the permissible range of irrigation use, except increased chloride values

responsible for toxicity problem. Standard water quality parameter indices like

pH, EC, SAR, SSP, RSBC, TH were found within the acceptable range of crop

production. RSC values were higher (3.26 to 4.16 meq/l) than the permissible

limit (>2.5 meq/l) due to HCO3 – content in the irrigation water that may induce

some permeability problem. Arsenic was traced and at one location it was found

(0.2 to 0.3 mg / l) above the danger limit (> 0.05 mg/l). However, except these

minor discrepancies the groundwater of the study locations was categorized as

excellent to good quality and seemed to be suitable for crop production.

Hameed et. al, (2010) has assessed Evaluating Raw and Treated Water

Quality of Tigris River within Baghdad by Index Analysis. Water quality index

(WQI) is a single value indicator of the water quality determined through

summarizing multiple parameters of water test results into simple terms for

management and decision makers. In this paper, thirteen parameters were

considered. On the basis of these data, raw and treated drinking water from

Tigris River within Baghdad were analysed. Cluster analysis conducted on the

WQI data in this area was applied to detect the fluctuation of water quality. This

paper describes, WQI showed that Tigris water never reached “Excellent” levels

14

nor fallen to “Unsuitable” condition, except in occasional untreated water

samples. Effects of various sources of pollution were evident and the needs for

intensive studies on WQI became evident.

Machiwal et.al, (2010) has focused on a GIS-based assessment and

characterisation of groundwater quality in a semi-arid hard-rock terrain of

Rajasthan, western India using long-term and multi-site post-monsoon

groundwater quality data. Spatio-temporal variations of water quality parameters

were analysed by GIS techniques. Groundwater quality was evaluated based on

a GIS-based Groundwater Quality Index (GWQI). A Potential GWQI map was

also generated by Optimum Index Factor concept. Optimum Index Factor (OIF)

was developed to select an optimum combination of three bands in a satellite

image in order to create a color composite. The Potential Groundwater Quality

Index was then computed by using rank maps of three parameters obtained from

the best Optimum Index Factor (OIF) combination. The groundwater quality

parameter group of Ca, Cl and pH were found to have the maximum value (6.6)

of Optimum Index Factor (OIF). The most influential water quality parameters

were identified by performing a map removal sensitivity analysis among the

groundwater quality parameters. GIS analysis revealed that sulfate and nitrate

ions exhibit the highest (CV > 30%) temporal variation, but groundwater pH is

stable. He suggested the groundwater quality of the study area is generally

suitable for drinking and irrigation (median GWQI > 74).

2.4 GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL

Due to urbanisation groundwater potential is varying place to place.

Some places have more water table and some places have low water table. Some

methods are used to estimate the groundwater potential. Following papers are

described some of the methods are used to estimate the groundwater potential.

Lenters (2001) studied the Long – term Trends in the Seasonal Cycle of

each of the Great Lakes (Lakes Superior, Michigan-Huron, Erie and Ontario)

15

water levels from 1860 -1998. objectives of the study is to find out monthly

changes in water level (∆L), to find the monthly changes in the Great Lakes

water level varied over the period since 1860, to find the variations imply

regarding the seasonal cycle of Great Lakes water levels and find out the differs

from one lake to another. The monthly changes in water level ∆L were

calculated for all the months from the year 1860 -1998 and for all the four

locations and plotted against time. Few plots of ∆L as a function of time over the

139 year period exhibited significant striking trends. It was found that significant

positive trends in one month were nearly balanced by significant negative trends

in another month. This indicated important changes in seasonality of ∆L over

time, but with little or no change in the annual mean ∆L

The author mentioned that there were a number of times where monthly

lake level changes exhibited considerable decadal scale variability but with no

significant linear trend over the 139 year period. Therefore the linear trend

presented in the study are only meant to approximate the real long term changes

and more extensive time series analysis for precise inter annual to decadal

variations are left for future study.

Delin et. al, (2007) he describes the Ground-water recharge was

estimated across Minnesota using a water-table fluctuation method as part of a

recent U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Groundwater Resources Program

recharge study (Delin and others, 2006). Water-level data used in the water

table fluctuation (WTF) method. Data were collected from various sites across

Minnesota. The USGS has conducted intensive, long-term research at five sites

that yielded 1 to 10 years of continuous water-level data were obtained from the

Minnesota Department of Resources (MDNR) observation well network. Thirty-

four MDNR wells at 31 sites met these criteria, with most of the data collected

before 1980. Where data were available only in analog form, one value from

every fifth day was entered manually into a database.

16

The Master Recession Curve (MRC) approach used in the WTF method

is an automated or semi-automated procedure for calculating DH (tj) from water-

level data. MRC can be used to predict the slope of the hydrograph in the

absence of recharge. Once the MRC is established, positive deviations of the

hydrograph from the MRC are attributed to recharge, allowing recharge to be

quantified even during periods of falling groundwater levels.

Naik et. al, (2008) assess Impact of urbanisation on the groundwater

regime in a fast growing city,solapur,in central India. Objective of this paper is

find out the groundwater quantity and quality. Groundwater recharge is

estimated from four basis.

i) Recharge due to rainfall infiltration,

ii) Recharge due to transmission losses,

iii) Recharge due to irrigation from wastewater and

iv) Recharge due to percolation from surface water tanks

Hill piper diagram (piper 1944) is used to estimate the groundwater

quality. He suggested Urbanisation has thus increased the groundwater recharge

in Solapur city. The groundwater recharge estimated in 1980 was 5.33 MCM

(Million Cubic Meter), while in 1994, it is estimated at 5.60 MCM and he

estimated future demand on water. Solapur is expected to have a groundwater

recharge of 41 MCM during 2020 as estimated previously.

2.5 LIVELIHOOD ASSESSMENT

A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for

a means of living. Livelihood depends upon access to many different types of

assets. The assets are human, physical, financial, social and natural. To

understand this well, assess the livelihood and all the diverse assets it depends

upon skills, access to transport, equipment, telecommunications and the social

networks. Following papers are described about the livelihood assessment.

17

Quang et.al, (2005) describes impact of urbanisation on agricultural in

Hanoi. He conducted interviews with district and municipal officials to analyse

the impacts of urbanisation on agricultural livelihood, used timeline analysis to

identify the changes that took place over the period of urbanisation. And he used

seasonal calendar to know about the cultivation of crops in a year by the people

who still continue to be in farming activity. During group discussions, tools such

as mapping timelines, pie chart, free listing, ranking, transect walking and Venn

diagram were used for analysing the impacts of urbanisation. This paper

describes urbanisation brings about better living conditions for those living

nearby newly urbanised areas by giving opportunities to higher cash income jobs

compared to work in agriculture.

Anantha et al, (2010) had described the impact and potential opportunities

of groundwater irrigation on rural farm households. He focused on the size and

pattern of the groundwater economy in selected villages located in the hard rock

areas of Karnataka, India. He consists of 225 farmers selected from different

categories based on their degree of dependency on groundwater based

agriculture. Using participatory rural appraisal (PRA), wells (both functional and

non-functional), well depth, distance between wells, farm size and farmers’

names were mapped in each village. The information gathered includes, among

other things, a socio-economic profile, details of irrigation wells, information on

access to groundwater irrigation and information about agricultural inputs and

outputs. He suggested that the groundwater scarcity affects the livelihoods of

rural communities based groundwater economy and agricultural economy.

Mandere et. al, (2010) assess the livelihood change and household

income in Nyahururu, Kenya. Objective of this paper is to assess the impact of

the peri-urban development dynamics to household income. The data for this

study was collected through questionnaires and interviews with individual

households in the peri-urban Nyahururu and local government officers to get

details about that village. From the study peri-urban development to accomplish

18

a reduction in poverty for the households not only depends on the infrastructural

developments but rather the socio-economic opportunities that arise from the

developments, which will be dependent on the developers involved and the

government policy.

2.6 SUMMARY

The literature review provided guidelines as to what methods are

available for performing analysis related to this study and also give an idea of

the various data required for the same. Also it could be seen that groundwater

problems quantity, quality and livelihood changes due to urbanisation are seen

throughout the world.

Review of the above literatures helped in framing the methodology of

this study. The land use pattern was delineated using superimposing method and

the water quality index map was generated through GIS contouring method.

Long term trend analysis method and water level fluctuation method was used to

calculate groundwater potential. Finally questionnaire survey and focus group

discussion were used to evaluate the livelihood changes.

19

CHAPTER 3

STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 GENERAL

This chapter discusses with the description of the study area, its

location, climate and rainfall and the methodology adopted for this study. The

methodology shows the input information, analysis method and output.

3.2 STUDY AREA

Kancheepuram is in the northeast coast of Tamil Nadu and located

adjacent to the Bay of Bengal. It is bounded in the west of Vellore and

Thiruvannamalai districts, north by Thiruvallur and Chennai districts and in the

south by Villupuram district. The district has a total geographical area 439,337

ha with a coastal line of 57 km. For administrative reasons, it has been divided

into 4 revenue divisions comprising of 10 taluks with 1137 revenue villages. For

developmental activities, the district has been divided into 648 village

panchayats. Level of urbanisation in Kancheepuram is 53.48% according to

2001 census.

3.2.1 Climate and Rainfall

Kancheeepuram has a tropical climate with a uniform temperature

round the year. The maximum temperature during summer is 36.6oC and

minimum is 21.1oC respectively and the same are 23.7oC and 19.8oC during

winter respectively. The pre monsoon rainfall is almost uniform throughout the

district. The coastal taluks get more rainfalls rather than the interior regions.

This district mainly depends on seasonal rainfalls. Distress conditions prevail in

20

the event of the failure of rains. Northeast and southwest monsoons are the

major sources of rainfall with 54% and 36% contributions each to the annual

rainfall.

3.2.2 Description of the Study Area

The study area selected for the study is Karapakkam village.

Karapakkam village is located on Sholinganallur taluk, of St.Thomas mount

block of the Kancheepuram district in Tamil Nadu at 12°54'51.01"N latitude and

80°13'45.77"E longitude. The village has Injampakkam, Pallikaranai, Okkiam

Thoraipakkam and Sholinganallur as its boundaries in the East, West, North and

South respectively. There are three wards which hold three members and all are

female. The total village extent is 244.48 ha with 1500 households. The total

population of this village as per 2009 census is 7565 comprising of 4265 most

backward classes, 2479 backward classes, 593 scheduled caste and 56 scheduled

tribes. It is about 10 km away from Thiruvanmiyur. Karapakkam have one

Government well, which is under the control of Public Work Department and it

has nine panchayat well under the control panchayat. Buckingham canal flows

on eastern side of the village. There are few private engineering colleges located

nearby village.

In this area agricultural activities was done before 8 years where paddy

was cultivated in this area. Land owners are sold the agricultural lands to IT

sector due to inadequate water for irrigation purpose. So the people are not

intersested to make agricultural activities. Karapakkam has a secular religious

mix. Hindus, Muslims and Christians live side by side. Like all other Indian

regions Hindus are more in number than Muslims who are slightly more than

Christians. Figure 3.1 depicts the location of Karapakkam village at India level.

Figure 3.2 depicts the location of Karapakkam village.

21

Figure 3.1 Index Map of Karapakkam Village

22

Figure 3.2 Details of Study Area

3.3 METHODOLOGY

The objectives of the study as mentioned earlier in Section 1.3. The

methodology has been framed and showed in flow chart as indicated in

Figure 3.3. The stepwise procedure followed to achieve each objective of this

study is explained in this section.

23

Figure 3.3 Flowchart for methodology

3.3.1 Reconnaissance Survey

As an initial step, a reconnaissance survey was carried out to ascertain a pre-

hand knowledge of the study village. From the walk through survey, the land use

patterns and the agricultural lands, where the impact of urbanisation on

groundwater were identified through physical observation and also from people

through informal interviews.

Study area visit

Survey of India toposheet No: 66D/1 and D/5

Study area delineation Village map

Water level

fluctuation method

Groundwater

Quality Map Groundwater

Quantity

Collection of well

water Samples

Questionnaire survey

Analyses of Water

Quality Parameters

Focus Group Discussion

Land use changes

Groundwater

Quality index Map

Image

Measures for

livelihood changes

24

3.3.2 Data Collection

The data required for this study has been collected under two

subdivisions, namely primary data and secondary data. The field data collection,

questionnaire survey and GPS survey are conducted through survey. Some of the

water level, water quality data, maps and other information are collected from

government and NGO which presented in detail the following sections.

i) Primary Data Collection

a) Fieldworks

As a first step, observation wells were selected randomly. Fieldworks

were carried. Fieldworks included water level measurement, collection of water

sample and measure elevation of the well. Water samples were analyse physical

and chemical parameters in the laboratory.

b) Questionnaire survey

Second primary data was collected through questionnaire survey. The

questionnaire is attached in the Annexure. The information collected based on

the people occupation, changes in land use pattern, drinking water source,

groundwater quality and quantity, agricultural status and health aspects their

opinion regarding the changes in groundwater condition and livelihood due to

urbanisation. The information like occupation status, its income with respect to

change in land use pattern was gathered from village people.

c) GPS survey

The GPS was used to survey the Karapakkam village. During the

survey, the readings were taken at all observation wells and temples in different

places. It is necessary to know about the geographical location and elevation of

the well to calculate groundwater quantity.

25

ii) Secondary Data Collection

Survey of India toposheet number: 66D/1 and D/5 were obtained and

Village map was obtained from Karapakkam Panchayat office. Images were

downloaded from Google earth for 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010 with the

help of time line tool. Water level and water quality data for the period 2000 -

2009 were collected from Public Work Department and Central Groundwater

Board at the respective offices.

3.3.3 Data Analysis

The primary data thus obtained from the questionnaire were analysed

using the Microsoft excel. It was used to encode and analyse the quantitative

data and qualitative data information converted to numerical data. Data and

information are presented in appropriate charts to answer clearly the research

questions.

3.3.4 Land Use Changes

Images were downloaded from Google earth for 2002, 2004, 2006,

2008 and 2010 with the help of Google Earth Timeline option. Village map was

obtained from Karapakkam Panchayat office. ArcGIS was used for the analysis

and display of land use map. Geo referencing was done the five images using

GIS tool. The process of geo referencing was done using Survey of India (SOI)

topo map by giving the coordinates, create base map. Land use/ land cover status

was visually interpreted for current year and delineate the land use changes, but

the current year map will be finalized after ground truth verification. The base

map and delineate land use maps was superimposed to delineate present study

area map. Finally the land use/ land cover map of 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and

2010 were digitized and incorporated into GIS domain for change analysis. The

methodology for delineation of land use was framed and showed in flow chart as

indicated in Figure 3.4.

26

Figure 3.4 Flowchart for Land use Changes

3.3.5 Groundwater Quality

The groundwater quality parameters of Karapakkam village such as pH,

EC, TDS, Turbidity, CO3, HCO3, TH, Ca, Mg, Cl, Na, K, SO4 and NO3 for the

years 2000, 2009 were collected from the respective departments. For the year

2010 and 2011, eleven groundwater samples were collected in the domestic

wells from the Karapakkam village during the month of September 2010,

January 2011, February 2011 and March 2011. The well location map is

presented in Figure 3.5. The groundwater quality parameters was analysed in the

laboratory following the standard procedure (APHA 1997) for pH, EC, TDS,

Turbidity, CO3, HCO3, TH, Ca, Mg, Cl, Na, K, SO4 and NO3. The pH, EC and

TDS were measured by using pH meter and conductivity meter, respectively.

Total hardness and calcium hardness were determined by titration with EDTA.

Magnesium hardness obtained from subtraction of total hardness and calcium

hardness. Estimation of alkalinity and chlorides were determined by titrimetric

method. Sulphate and nitrate were estimated by spectrophotometer. Sodium and

Geo referencing and

create Base map

Land use map change

for different periods

Geo referencing

Delineate the land use

changes

Superimposing Map

Village

Map

Image Field visit

and mark

control

points for

the current

year

Survey of India

toposheet No: 66

27

potassium were estimated by flame photo meter and turbidity was measured by

turbid meter.

Figure 3.5 Well Location Map of Karapakkam Village

i) Analysis of water quality index for drinking purposes

The procedure adopted by Landwehr (1974) by developing Water

Quality Index (WQI) to determine the suitability of groundwater. WQI is a very

useful tool for communicating the information on overall quality of water.

The WQI is computed by adopting the following formula,

WQI =

)(1

ii

n

ii pTa (3.1)

Where,

ia - the weight of the ith parameter,

iT - a function that transforms the measured value of ith

parameter into a quality rating,

ip - the measured value of the ith parameter,

28

Based on the WQI values, the groundwater quality are rated as

excellent, good, poor, very poor and unfit for human consumption as presented

in Table 3.1. Based on the above procedure, WQI is calculated for the study

village and checked for its usefulness.

Table 3.1 Categories of Water Quality Indices

Water Quality Index Description

0-25 Excellent

26-50 Good

51-75 Poor

76-100 Very Poor

>100 Unfit for drinking

ii) Generation of water quality index map

The various thematic layers were generated using GIS contouring

methods. The natural neighbourhood interpolation method was used for

generating the contour needed for creation of thematic layer. WQI values for

each sample was calculated using equation 3.1. Based on the WQI values WQI

map was derived in GIS environment.

3.3.6 Groundwater Potential

The groundwater potential was calculated in Karapakkam village.

Water level was monitored from each well. To study the changes in the water

level the procedure followed by Lenters (2001) is also adopted to study the long

term trend of water fluctuation and change in storage. The period taken for the

study is from 2002 to 2010.

29

For determining the temporal variation, the monthly changes in the

water level, ∆L was calculating using equation 3.2.

∆L = Lt+1 – Lt, (3.2)

Where, Lt - Monthly water level of the current month (m)

Lt+1- Monthly water level of the following month (m)

For a particular location, the ∆L will be calculated for all the months of

the year

i) Then the net (annual) ∆L is calculated by summing up the ∆L of

the individual months.

ii) The same procedure is then carried out on the data of the

remaining years i.e. 2002-2010.

iii) Then the ∆L obtain for each month and the net (annual) ∆L is

plotted against month (January, February, and March 2011) from

which a number of striking trends were noticed.

The steps described above to calculate ∆L will be performed using the

Excel spread sheet. Graphs are drawn between the ∆L obtained for each month

and time.

Theissen polygon was created to find out the area corresponding to each

well. Well elevation found out from the GPS survey. Based on the well

elevation, calculate groundwater level. The monthly changes in the water level

∆L were calculating using equation 3.2. Groundwater quantity was calculated

using water level fluctuation method.

30

Groundwater quantity is calculated by water level fluctuation method

adopting the following formula,

Q = A*∆L* Sy (3.3)

Where,

Q = Volume of water (m3)

A = Influence area of well (m2)

∆L= Water level fluctuation (m)

Sy = Specific yield of the well (6% for clayey soil according

to Report of the Groundwater Resource Estimation Committee, 2009).

3.3.7 Livelihood Assessment

Livelihood assessment was analysed based on land use changes,

groundwater quality and groundwater potential. Focus Group Discussion and

questionnaire survey was used to analyse the livelihood changes. Questionnaire

survey is an essential tool, which can give details of actual situation of the study

area. The survey was conduct to study the socio economic impact of

groundwater quality and quantity due to urbanisation and also to understand the

status of groundwater quality and quantity changes. The questionnaire format

has been prepared mainly aiming for a comparison of change of groundwater

quality and quantity in pre and post monsoon over a period of time.

The questionnaire addresses the following aspects:

i) Sources of domestic water including drinking water.

ii) Socio and economic status of the people.

iii) About the groundwater quality and quantity conditions in the

wells.

iv) Uses of well water at different places.

v) Health problem in the area due to urbanisation, land use changes,

deterioration of water quality, drainage facilities, etc.,

31

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 GENERAL

This Chapter discusses the results of the analysis carried out on i)

changes in the land use pattern between 2002 and 2010 ii) changes in

groundwater quantity and quality variation over the years and (iii) assess the

livelihood changes due to land use pattern, groundwater quantity and quality

through the focus group discussion and questionnaire survey.

4.2 CHANGES IN LAND USE PATTERN

The static land use / land cover distribution for each study year as

derived from the maps are presented in the Table 4.1. Figure 4.1 to Figure 4.5

shows the land use map 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010 respectively.

From this Table 4.1, it is clear that the Residential area was increased

from 4.51% in 2002 and also increased a little to 6.31%, in 2010 it was about

10.4%. The reason was that increase in land value, due to proximity to the city,

induced the conversion of cultivated land as residential plots. In past years,

Karapakkam village is an agriculture oriented village, in 2002, the agricultural

land was 38.1% at that time the area of cultivation was more when comparing

this in 2006 to that of 2008 it was reduced to 30.4% and 7.81%. The reason for

the decline in agriculture was labour scarcity; the landless agricultural labourers

went to the nearby city for want of employment and the land value was raised.

Fallow land was increased from 4.97% in 2002 and also increased a little to

6.78%, in 2010 it was about 36%.

32

Table 4.1 Land use Pattern for the Years 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010

Land use categories

2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Area

(ha)

Area

(%)

Area

(ha)

Area

(%)

Area

(ha)

Area

(%)

Area

(ha)

Area

(%)

Area

(ha)

Area

(%)

Agricultural land 93.24 38.14 80.47 32.92 74.39 30.43 19.10 7.81 0.00 0.00

Aquifer recharge zone 24.59 10.06 24.59 10.06 24.59 10.06 24.59 10.06 24.59 10.06

Fallow Land 12.15 4.97 13.64 5.58 16.56 6.78 70.24 28.73 87.99 35.99

Buckingham canal 10.24 4.19 6.86 2.81 6.86 2.81 5.40 2.21 5.10 2.09

Cemetery 1.85 0.76 1.85 0.76 1.85 0.76 1.85 0.76 1.85 0.76

Collage 1.26 0.52 1.41 0.58 1.41 0.58 1.41 0.58 2.01 0.82

Grass land 7.01 2.87 4.32 1.77 3.29 1.35 2.65 1.08 2.10 0.86

Industries 11.72 4.80 14.22 5.82 14.46 5.91 20.50 8.38 25.22 10.31

Pond 1.17 0.48 1.18 0.48 1.62 0.66 2.43 0.99 1.84 0.75

Residential Area 11.03 4.51 12.82 5.24 15.42 6.31 18.58 7.60 25.52 10.44

School 0.71 0.29 0.71 0.29 0.71 0.29 4.03 1.65 4.03 1.65

Small industries 0.26 0.11 0.35 0.14 0.44 0.18 0.50 0.20 0.55 0.23

Temple 0.74 0.30 0.77 0.31 0.82 0.33 0.86 0.35 0.92 0.38

Total Area 244.48 244.48 244.48 244.48 244.48

32

33

Figure 4.1 Land use Map of Karapakkam village -2002 Figure 4.2 Land use Map of Karapakkam village -2004

33

34

Figure 4.3 Land use Map of Karapakkam village -2006 Figure 4.4 Land use Map of Karapakkam village -2008

34

35

Figure 4.5 Land use Map of Karapakkam village-2010

There is no change in the Aquifer recharge zone and Cemetery.

Regarding the water bodies the Buckingham canal area was reduced from 4.19%

to 2.09%. In 2002, the Industrial area was increased from 4.8% and also

increased 5.91% in 2010 it was about 10.3%. Colleges, schools, and temples

36

were slightly increased. Small industries also slightly increased. Grass land was

slightly reduced.

4.3 GROUNDWATER QUALITY

4.3.1 Temporal Variation of Groundwater Quality Parameters

Groundwater quality parameters were analysed in the laboratory for

four month. Groundwater quality parameters are pH, EC, TDS, Turbidity, CO3,

HCO3, TH, Ca, Mg, Cl, Na, K, SO4 and NO3 for which WHO has prescribed

maximum desirable limits for drinking purpose were analysed. The pH of the

water samples in the study area ranged between 6.0 to 8.0. The desirable limit of

Electrical conductivity was 2000µs/cm. The water quality in Kalaimagal nagar is

within the desirable limit. The concentration of total dissolved solids in most of

the areas exceeds the permissible limits except at Kalaimagal nagar, which has

found to be below 1000 mg/l at all the months.TDS in groundwater also

originate from natural sources, dense residential area, sewage, urban run-off and

industrial wastes. The concentration of Chloride in most of the areas is within

the permissible limits except at Near Okkium Maduvu, Mahatma Gandhi Street,

and Sadagopan Street. High concentration of Total Hardness is found in

Rangasamy street, Indragandhi street and Near Okkium Maduvu. The other

samples showed a moderate range of hardness values which is of common

contamination from dense residential human activities and weathering and

leaching of salts into the groundwater. In all the month, samples shows moderate

range of Sodium and Potassium values which is due to natural geology. The

other parameters like Bicarbonates, Nitrates Sulphates and Turbidity were found

to be within the permissible limits.

4.3.2 Water Quality Index (WQI)

To analyse the groundwater quality changes in the study area, water

quality index was developed. WQI was computed by weighted index method to

37

determine the suitability of groundwater for drinking purpose. The estimated

quantitative values of water quality parameters and their standards are used to

calculate water quality index using equation 3.1. The WQI calculated by

Landwehr (1974) was used for assessing the suitability of groundwater for

drinking purposes, which is found to be more appropriate for the current study.

Based on the procedure as explained earlier, indices were calculated for the

month of September 2010, January 2011, February 2011 and March 2011. The

calculated Weighting factors (ai) are shown below in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Water Quality Parameters, BIS Standards and Weighting

factor (ai)

Parameters BIS Standards Weighting factor (ai) pH 8.5 0.24

TDS (mg/l) 500 0.0041 Turbidity (NTU) 50 0.41

HCO3 (mg/l) 500 0.0041 Ca (mg/l) 75 0.027 Mg (mg/l) 30 0.0681 Cl (mg/l) 250 0.0082 Na (mg/l) 200 0.0102 K (mg/l) 20 0.102

SO4 (mg/l) 250 0.0082 NO3 (mg/l) 45 0.045

It is inferred that, during the month of January 2011 in most of the

places the quality of water seems to be good compared to other months. During

September 2010, February 2011 and March 2011 few places of poor quality

water are identified. The Water quality classification is done based on the WQI

of September 2010, January 2011, February 2011 and March 2011 and presented

in Table 4.3.

38

Table 4.3 Water Quality Classification based on WQI of September 2010, January, February and March 2011

ID Name Latitude and Longitude

WQI (Sep)

WQ Rating

WQI (Jan)

WQ Rating

WQI (Feb)

WQ (Rating)

WQI (Mar)

WQ Rating

Well 1 Renganathan street

12° 55' 14.74"N, 80° 13' 51.09"E 95.8 Very

poor 61.84 Poor 113 Unfit for drinking purposes

125 Unfit for drinking purposes

Well 2 Near Okkium Maduvu

12° 55' 7.07"N, 80° 14' 2.33"E 141

Unfit for drinking purposes

77.31 Very poor 112

Unfit for drinking purposes

121 Unfit for drinking purposes

Well 3 Indragandhi street

12° 55' 1.01"N, 80° 13' 55.37"E 63.6 Poor 42.73 Poor 93.3 Very Poor 99.8 Very

Poor

Well 4 Kupusamy street

12° 54' 54.04"N, 80° 14' 2.15"E 62.9 Poor 56.3 Poor 66.8 Poor 69.6 Poor

Well 5 Kalaimagal nagar

12° 54' 48.69"N, 80° 14' 4.60"E 54.7 Poor 42.4 Good 49.4 Good 56.8 Poor

Well 6 Government well

12° 54' 50.47"N, 80° 13' 55.19"E 52.3 Poor 49.3 Good 58.8 Poor 62.3 Poor

Well 7 Muthamil nagar

12° 54' 54.05"N, 80° 13' 42.17"E 100 Very

poor 82.7 Very poor 93.78 Very Poor 101

Unfit for drinking purposes

Well 8 Mahatma Gandhi street

12° 54' 43.34"N, 80° 13' 48.06"E 45.3 Good 32.4 Good 42.9 Good 56.2 Poor

Well 9 Vendraai amman kovil steet

12° 54' 42.43"N, 80° 13' 56.11"E 87.6 Very

Poor 64.3 Poor 91.46 Very Poor 99.3 Very Poor

Well 10 Rangasamy street

12° 54' 41.55"N, 80° 14' 2.15"E 73.5 Very

Poor 62.6 Poor 71.8 Poor 76.8 Very Poor

Well 11 Sadagopan street

12° 54' 37.63"N, 80° 13' 58.22"E 49.8 Good 39.34 Good 43.1 Good 49.6 Good

38

39

Hence the quality of water samples in the study area was found to vary

from good to very poor in the January 2011 and good to unfit for drinking

purposes in the September 2010, February 2011 and March 2011. In January

2011, it was found that water quality in general, related to quantum of rainfall

received, in good. The improvement in groundwater quality, during this month

may be due to the rainfall in the previous month. This may have an impact on

the dilution of salts.

4.3.3 Generation of Water Quality Index Map

Water quality index values revealed that the groundwater at two wells

were good quality with the WQI ranging in between 0-50 and therefore can be

used for human consumption. Four samples were having poor quality with WQI

ranging between 50-75 and three samples were having very poor quality and

cannot be used for domestic purposes. The WQI was found to be above 100 in

areas like Near Okkium Maduvu and Renganathan Street. These two well has

heavy contamination. The municipal solid waste were dumping in pallikaranai

area. The leachats from this area have seeped though the soil and contaminated

the nearby wells. Okkium Maduvu well is locate from the nearby Pallikaranai

swamp water was passed through the Okkium Maduvu to reach the Buckingham

canal. The WQI map is shown in Figure 4.6, Figure 4.7, Figure 4.8 and Figure

4.9.

40

Figure 4.6 Water Quality Index Map-September 2010

Figure 4.7 Water Quality Index Map-January 2011

41

Figure 4.8 Water Quality Index Map-February 2011

Figure 4.9 Water Quality Index Map-March 2011

42

4.4 GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL

4.4.1 Analysis of Water Level

Table 4.4 shows that the water level in government well has a maximum

depletion of 0.87 m below ground level (BGL) in the pre-monsoon of 2002 and

0.15 m, (BGL) in post-monsoon. In 2006, the depth to water level was 2.15 m,

(BGL) in the pre-monsoon and in the post-monsoon it was 1.25 m, (BGL). In the

month of March 2011 the water level has a maximum depletion of 3.8 m, (BGL)

and in the February 2011, the water level has decreased to 10.5 m, (BGL). The

reason for the lower levels in a well may be due to the indiscriminate pumping

over extraction of groundwater. The change in storage was calculated based on

the water level fluctuation method using GEC norms (eqn. 3.2). Figure 4.10

shows that the water level fluctuation during January 2011 to March 2011 in the

study area. Figures 4.11 to 4.13 show the spatial distribution map of water level

variation.

Table 4.4 Water Level Data for the Years 2002 and 2006

Period Pre monsoon in ( m ) Post monsoon in ( m ) 2002 0.87 0.15 2006 2.15 1.25

Figure 4.10 Water Level Fluctutation (m)

43

Figure 4.11 Water level Contour-January 2011

Figure 4.12 Water level Contour-February 2011

44

Figure 4.13 Water level Contour-March 2011

From the water level contour map, the groundwater flows were

identified. The groundwater movement was northwest dirction to southeast

direction. Because Renganathan street, Okkium Maduvu, Indragandhi Street has

higher level and Rengasamy street lower level. Mahatma Gandhi street and

Muthamil nagar has higher level than Kupusamy street, Sadagopan Street,

Government well and Kalaimagal nagar.

4.4.2 Groundwater Quantity

Groundwater quantity was estimated by adopting the water level

fluctuation method using equation 3.3. Area of influence was calculated by using

Theissen polygon method and shown in Figure 4.14. Figure 4.15 shows the

groundwater quantity for the month of February and March 2011. The change in

groundwater storage for January 2011 to February 2011 was shown in Table 4.5.

45

Figure 4.14 Theissen polygon map

Figure 4 .15 Groundwater Quantity(m3)

46

Table 4.5 Groundwater quantity for January and February 2011

Well No Name Latitude and Longitude Area (m2) Change in Water Level (∆L) (m) Groundwater Potential (m3)

Jan Feb Jan-Feb Feb-Mar

Well 1 Renganathan street

12° 55' 14.74"N, 80° 13' 51.09"E 290200 -0.75 -1.25 -13059 -21765

Well 2 Near Okkium Maduvu

12° 55' 7.07"N, 80° 14' 2.33"E 512100 -0.7 -1.05 -21508 -32262

Well 3 Indragandhi street

12° 55' 1.01"N, 80° 13' 55.37"E 128700 -0.6 -0.75 -4633.2 -5792

Well 4 Kupusamy street 12° 54' 54.04"N, 80° 14' 2.15"E 126600 -0.7 -1.15 -5317.2 -8735

Well 5 Kalaimagal nagar

12° 54' 48.69"N, 80° 14' 4.60"E 589300 -1.1 -1.35 -38894 -47733

Well 6 Government well

12° 54' 50.47"N, 80° 13' 55.19"E 81570 -1.2 -1.6 -5873 -7831

Well 7 Muthamil nagar 12° 54' 54.05"N, 80° 13' 42.17"E 213100 -1.1 -1.45 -14065 -18540

Well 8 Mahatma Gandhi street

12° 54' 43.34"N, 80° 13' 48.06"E 125700 -0.9 -1.05 -6787.8 -7919

Well 9 Vendraai amman kovil steet

12° 54' 42.43"N, 80° 13' 56.11"E 48840 -0.8 -1.2 -2344.3 -3516

Well 10 Rangasamy street

12° 54' 41.55"N, 80° 14' 2.15"E 275900 -1.3 -1.9 -21520 -31453

Well 11 Sadagopan street

12° 54' 37.63"N, 80° 13' 58.22"E 43930 -0.9 -1.3 -2372.2 -3427

Note: -ve sign indicate the water level depletion

46

47

Analyzing the reasons for the fluctuation in the water level, it was found

that urbanization in the recent years is one of the reasons for the decline. Due to

the increase in impervious layers, paved areas and induced changes in land use

causing compaction of the top sub-soil, the natural rainfall recharge has very

much reduced.

Thus, it could be inferred that in the recent years, in spite of the good

amount of rainfall, the water level position has not increased substantially

indicating that the surplus rainfall would have gone as waste in the form of

runoff. The rapid increase in urban development, the demand for water has

increased in many told. Hence the groundwater potential is under a great threat,

and it has to be protected. The construction of rainwater harvesting structure will

increase the water level and also controlling the over extraction of water, may

improve the water level.

4.5 LIVELIHOOD ASSESSMENT

The questionnaire survey and Focus Group Discussion was conducted

with the people living in the Karapakkam village. It was conducted to determine

the reasons for water quality variation in the village. The data were obtained in

terms of employment, income, age group, housing type, year of living on the

village, source of drinking water and health impact. The obtained data were

analysed with the help of Microsoft excel. From the analysis, statistical data

results were obtained which are given below. Sample size of the study is 53 in

which 42% of people were living in rented house and 58% of people living in

own house.

4.5.1 Source of Drinking Water

Figure 4.16 shows the sources of drinking water in present status. In

2002, the sources of drinking water were well water and pond water. In 2010,

the sources are well water, Panchayat water, portable water and collecting water

48

from Sholinganallur and Nellur villages. There is a drastic change in the group

of people using well water for drinking from 2002 and now. 76% of the

respondents were used well water for drinking purpose in 2002 and it is reduced

to 4% in 2010 because of the groundwater quality deterioration. The septic tanks

are constructed near to their wells, so the groundwater gets polluted and unfit for

use. In 2002, portable water is not used for drinking purpose, but now 51% of

the respondents used portable water. Presently, almost 13% of the respondents

are using the Panchayat water for drinking and they are boiling the water only

during the monsoon season. Figure 4.17 Shows that the amounts spend for

drinking water.

Figure 4.16 Sources of Drinking Water Figure 4.17 Amounts spend for

Drinking Water

4.5.2 Analysis of Groundwater Quality

From the questionnaire survey, the groundwater quality data were

collected on four different categories namely Excellent, Good, Moderate Poor

and Very Poor. The data were analysed in GIS software at specially for all the

observation well during 2002, 2005, 2010. From the people observation, before

2005, mostly the well water was excellent and good. After 2005, the quality of

the water gets too deteriorated.

49

The reason for the quality deterioration was extraction of more water,

lack of improper drainage system and natural geology. Figure 4.18 shows the

reason for water quality deterioration. Figures 4.19 to 4.21 show the water

quality map for the years 2002, 2005 and 2010 respectively.

Figure 4.18 Reasons for Water Quality Deterioration

Figure 4.19 Water Quality Map for 2002

50

Figure 4.20 Water Quality Map for 2005

Figure 4.21 Water Quality Map for 2010

51

From the rating of water quality map, it is inferred for that Renganathan

street, Near Okkium Maduvu and Muthamil nagar wells, the water quality was

very poor. The trend of change in water quality for both calculated water quality

index map and from people’s response map on water quality are similar. Hence

this study has given very good opinion about the people’s understanding of

groundwater in this area.

4.5.3 Agricultural Status

In the past, 42% of respondents had own agricultural land and involved

in agricultural activities, but 34% of respondents work as a agricultural

labourers. In present year no agricultural practise were done. But urbanisation

has turned these agricultural lands into built-up area and fallow land thus

affecting the livelihood of the people who were dependent on agriculture. The

reason is that the agricultural labourers moved to other places for jobs, as they

are getting more income on non-agricultural jobs which resulted in labour

scarcity and wage rise. The land and house owners have rented out their

properties to the employers of IT companies, making huge income, which in turn

is improving their living standards. Figure 4.22 shows the agricultural status of

the study area.

4.5.4 Economic Status

As seen in Figure 4.23, among people of different income groups, 13%

of the people, who earn low income (< Rs.5000) are mostly affected by

urbanisation. Earlier they were working as an agricultural labourer. In this study

it is found that 21% of the people earned high income due to IT companies, petty

shops and hotels.

52

Figure 4.22 Agricultural Status Figure 4.23 Economic Status

4.5.5 Sanitation and Health Status

Based on the response, in the year 2010, arround 69% of residents have

sanitation facility. Figure 4.24 shows the sanitation facility status and Figure 4.25

shows the health impact of people’s in Karapakkam. Figure 4.26 shows the

major problems faced by the people due to water stagnation such as health

disease. In this 64% of people are highly affected by health problem and 36% of

people are not affected. Out this 64%, 54% of residents are affected by cold,

33% of residents were affected by fever and 13% of residents were affected by

skin disease such as allergy, psoriaris etc.,

Figure 4.24 Sanitation Facility Status Figure 4.25 Health Impact

53

Figure 4.26 Major Health Problem

4.5.6 Impact of Urbanisation

i) Positive Impacts

The positive impacts from many people are,

a) Some of them joined in good jobs.

b) Few have their own petty shops and hotels.

Due to IT companies most of the people was benefited. Some of the

people were working in Housekeeping, construction labourer, Bottle Company,

Lathe works and catering etc., People has a sense of awareness towards

education, due to IT companies. Also land value is increased in recent years,

because of the demand for land. The land and house owners have rented out their

properties to the employers of the IT companies and making huge income, which

in turn is improving their living standards.

The land owners sold out the land completely and welcome urbanisation

because the faith in agriculture is decreased and they feel that it might bring

benefits to the next generation. During the discussions with women from the

54

land owning families, it was noticed that they were tempted towards urbanisation

and wanted to move out of agricultural, considering it as inferior job. Increasing

land price and urban style make them comfortable with increase in urbanisation.

ii) Negative Impacts

Most of the agricultural land was sold to IT company and some of the

lands were converted to fallow land. Previously the landless agricultural

labourers dependent only agriculture. Now they shifted to other jobs in the

industries, construction works etc., 13% of the people were unemployed with

comparatively lower living standard. In groundwater condition, Groundwater

level gets decrease due to over extraction of groundwater. Groundwater quality

also varied due to over extraction and improper drainage. During rainy reasons

stagnation of water is more prevalent and causes among the people health

problems.

55

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 SUMMARY

The impact of urbanisation on groundwater in Karapakkam village is

carried out in many aspects to finding the changes in land use pattern,

groundwater condition due to urbanisation and to assessing the livelihood

changes. Actually livelihood is comprises of capabilities, assets (including both

material and social resources) and activities required for a meaning of living.

The livelihood of people is often disturbed / changed due to the developments in

the environment.

The urbanisation status of village was found by considering the changes

in the land use pattern, between the years 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010. By

using the water quality indices the spatial variation of drinking water quality was

found. Water level data were collected for January, February and March 2011 to

analyse the changes in the water level. Also the questionnaire survey was

conducted to the villager’s to assess the livelihood changes in occupational

characteristics, agriculture, water level and water quality before and after

urbanisation. These primary data were analysed using Microsoft Excel and GIS

software. The livelihood changes were discussed in various aspects to quantity

the effects.

56

5.2 CONCLUSION

The present study gives an overall view of the status of urbanisation and

water resources in Karapakkam village and also it gives various details about the

impacts of urbanisation on livelihood option. Due to urbanisation, the land use

pattern was changed over the decades. In 2002, 38% of land was used to

agricultural purposes. January 2010 most of the land was sold to corporate and

Real estate companies, which have been converted in to IT company and

residential areas. Due to this rapid development the demand for land has

increased and all the agricultural lands are converted into urban development.

Also the land value has increased alarmingly to many told in the last two

decades. Some lands were converted to fallow land due to shortage of irrigation

water source. As of now (2010) agricultural land was no move in Karapakkam

village. Industrial area and residential area was increased from 4.8% to 10.3%

and 4.51% to 10.4% in 2002 and 2010 respectively. But in other way, due to

urbanisation, 21% of people’s are earning more than Rs.10000.

Regarding the water quality and water level, it could be inferred that

earlier the village had appreciable groundwater potential and the quality of

groundwater was good for domestic purposes. But the water resources are

declining day by day in terms of water level and also deteriorating in quality.

Water Quality Index, questionnaire survey and focus group discussion was used

to classify the well. From the classification Okkium Maduvu and Renganathan

street well was unfit for drinking purposes, where the water quality index was

found to be more than 100. The reasons attributed for the quality deterioration

were over extraction and lack of proper drainage system. The decreasing

availability of water coupled with pollution will result in acute scarcity of good

quality water in the area.

Due to the groundwater quality deterioration, 51% of people are using

portable water for drinking purpose and 18% of people spend more than

57

200 rupees per month for buying portable water. Groundwater stagnation was a

major problem due to improper drainage and impervious layer, which causes

health problem. It is arrived from the questionnaire that 66% of people’s are

affected health disease such as fever, cold and skin disease. From the economic

status 66% and 21% of people’s are living under good and moderate status.

There are 13% of the people, who are mainly depends and work as an

agricultural labourer in this area. Their livelihood was affected by urbanisation

and no agricultural activities. The monthly income they earn is below Rs.5000.

This study has been carried out and analysed on detail about the rapid

urbanisation and techno economical aspects. Few important points raised by the

people during the questionnaire survey and considered in the management of

reasons effectively in an urban environment are given below.

i) Urbanisation is a major challenge for water resources. Planned

urbanisation gives positive impacts, but unplanned urbanisation

creates more problems and complicates the situation, which in fact

give more negative impacts.

ii) Awareness must be created among the people about the

urbanisation, over extraction of water and sanitation to conserve

the water resources.

iii) It is learned that most of people doesn’t have enough knowledge

about septic tank, disposal of sewage in water bodies and their

advantages.

iv) The people depends on agricultural labour are asking for some

other water source to encourage agriculture, but it seems to be

impractical for the present scenario.

58

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61

ANNEXURE

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MEASURING THE LIVELIHOOD

CHANGES DUE TO URBANISATION

General information

1. Person identification:

i) Name:

ii) Address:

2. Respondent profile:

i) Sex: Male Female

ii) Age -

3. Monthly income detail:

a) <5000 b) 5000-10000 c) 10000-15000 d) >15000

4. Family education and occupation status

Family members Education Occupation

Name Relation

5. Ownership of house:

a) Owned b) Rented c) Living with relative

62

6. How long are you living in this house?

Groundwater Condition

7. Did you find any changes in ground water condition early and now?

(Yes/No)

i) If yes, what are the change occurred? (specify year and reason also)

1. Ground water level __________________________________

_________________________________________________

2. Ground water quality ________________________________

_________________________________________________

8. Is there any remarkable change in quality of ground water during peak

summer? (Yes/No)

i) If yes, what are the changes? ______________________________

9. Domestic water sources

Purpose Source

Own well Panchayat water Cane water

Drinking

Cooking

Bathing

Washing

Gardening

Cleaning

10. Do you have own well? (Yes/No)

i) If yes, when did you construct the well?

1. What is the depth of well?

2. Well water condition and usage of well

63

Periods

Well water condition

(Very good, Good, Moderate, Bad,

Very Bad)

Well water

usage

Early ( )

Now ( )

3. If well water is not sufficient, what is the alternate source?

ii) If No, what is the source of domestic water?

11. What is the source of Panchayat water supply?

12. Availability of Panchayat water

i) Frequency _____________

ii) Quality _______________

13. How you are getting the Panchayat water?

a) Own connection b) Public connection

i) If the tap is public, how far from your house? (specify in metres or

kilometres)

14. How much time you are spending for collecting the water?

15. How much money do you spend to purchase can water (monthly)?

Sanitation Facility

16. Do you have toilet facility? (Yes/No)

i) If yes, whether you are using owned/public toilet?

a) Own toilet b) Public toilet

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1. If you have own toilet, what type toilet facility

a. Pit toilet b. Flush toilet

ii) If no, what is your defecation practice?

17. How frequently you are cleaning the toilet?

18. What type of sewage collection system do you have?

a) Lined septic tank b) Unlined septic tank

19. How far the septic tank is located from your well? (specify in metres)

20. Is there any solid waste collecting system in your area? (Yes/No)

i) If yes, how will collect? (specify frequency)

ii) If no, how do you dispose the solid waste?

Health Problem

21. Is there any health problem due to ground water? (Yes/No)

i) If yes, what are the problems? ________________________________

22. Is there any disease frequently affect your family? (Yes/No)

i) If yes, specify type of disease ________________________________

23. Are you getting any health support through Primary Health Centre?

(Yes/No)

i) If yes, what are the supports?

Economic Status

24. Any changes occurred in your occupation? (Yes/No)

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i) If yes, what are the changes?

1. Early__________________

2. Now __________________

25. Did you modify your house? (Yes/No)

i) If yes, what type of modification?

_______________________________________________________

Agricultural Status

26. Did you involved in agricultural activates? (Yes/No)

i) Early ___________________

ii) Now ___________________

27. What are the types of crops cultivated?

i) Early___________________

ii) Now __________________

iii) What type of fertilizer you used/using? (Organic/Inorganic)

28. If you are not involved in agricultural activities? (specify the

constraints)__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

29. Is the land value increases in this village?

i) If yes, how much? (Sq.ft)

1. Early__________________

2. Now __________________