1Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
Prologue of“Modern Problems in Classical Electrodynamics”
by Charles Brau
Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory
2
• Topics to be covered in this prologue: electrostatics, magnetostatics, electrodynamics, electromagnetic waves, conservation laws, and Maxwell’s stress tensor.
• Almost all forces perceived in Nature (except for gravity) are electromagnetic forces.
• For most of the topics listed above, this is intended to be a review, not an introduction.
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory
Electrostatic Theory:
3
charges are not moving, they are fixed in space.
charge density: 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
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Milestones in Electrostatics• 600 B.C.: Thales of Miletus, amber rubbed with fur attracts other
object, electron = amber in greek
• 1600 D.C.: Gilbert, “amberness” phenomena is also displayed by other materials
• 1733: du Fay, repulsion is also possible (in addition to attraction), two flavors of electric charge
• 1834: Faraday, electric charge comes in discrete amounts (is quantized in modern terminology)
• 1909: Millikan, 𝑒𝑒 ≅ −1.62 × 10−19 𝐶𝐶
• 1746: Watson, 1747: Franklin, electricity as a fluid that moves from one body to another, conservation of electric charge
• 1785: Coulomb, force between small electrically-charged objects
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
5
𝑭𝑭𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 =𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞𝑞
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 3
Coulomb Law
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝑞
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞𝑭𝑭
𝒪𝒪
(force on 𝑞𝑞 located at 𝒓𝒓due to 𝑞𝑞𝑞 located at 𝒓𝒓𝑞)
𝑭𝑭𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓
∝ 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞𝑞
𝜖𝜖0 ≅ 8.854187817 × 10−12𝐶𝐶2
𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚2
(permittivity of free space)Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
∝𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 2
6
𝑭𝑭𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 =𝑞𝑞
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖 3
𝑭𝑭𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 =𝑞𝑞
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′ 3
𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞 𝒓𝒓𝑞 = 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
• Continuous distribution of charges 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞 :
• Discrete charges 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 located at 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖:
Net Force from Multiple ChargesPrinciple of Superposition: forces are added (vectorially)
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
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The force 𝑭𝑭𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 on 𝑞𝑞 is linearly proportional to 𝑞𝑞:
The proportionality constant is called the electric field 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 :
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 ≡𝑭𝑭𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓𝒒𝒒
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
An Important Consequence:
𝑭𝑭𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 ∝ 𝑞𝑞
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𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 =1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖 3
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 =1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′ 3
• Multiple discrete charges 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 located at 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖:
• Continuous distribution of charges 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞 :
• Single charge 𝑞𝑞𝑞 located at 𝒓𝒓𝑞:
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 =𝑞𝑞𝑞
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 3
Electric Field
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝒓𝒓
𝒪𝒪
𝒓𝒓
𝒪𝒪
𝒪𝒪
𝒓𝒓𝑞 𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝒓𝒓
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Flux of the Electric Field on a Arbitrary Surface
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑬𝑬 ≡�𝑆𝑆𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝑆𝑆
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
𝜃𝜃 𝒓𝒓
𝒪𝒪
𝒓𝒓
vector vectordot
product
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ≡ �𝒏𝒏 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
vector unit normal vector
differential area
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
10
Divergence Theorem
�𝑆𝑆𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �
𝑉𝑉𝛻𝛻.𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Consider a closed surface S that surrounds a volume V
also known as Gauss's theorem or
Ostrogradsky's theorem
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
S
V
S
V
SV
and a vector field 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 , if 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 is a continuously differentiable vector field:
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Illustration: Net Flux along x-direction
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 + ∆𝐹𝐹 �𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙
= 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 + ∆𝐹𝐹 �𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 . + �𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 + 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 . − �𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 ∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑧𝑧
𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓
𝐹𝐹
𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
= 𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥 𝒓𝒓 + ∆𝐹𝐹 �𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 − 𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥 𝒓𝒓 ∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑧𝑧
∆𝐹𝐹
=𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹 ∆𝐹𝐹 ∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑧𝑧
= 𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥 𝒓𝒓 +𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹 ∆𝐹𝐹 − 𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥 𝒓𝒓 ∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑧𝑧
∆𝑦𝑦
∆𝑧𝑧
+�𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙
−�𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = ∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑧𝑧 ± �𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙
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Net Flux along all directions
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓
𝐹𝐹
𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧
𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
∆𝐹𝐹
=𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹
+𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄𝑦𝑦𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
+𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄𝑧𝑧𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
∆𝐹𝐹 ∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑧𝑧
∆𝑦𝑦
∆𝑧𝑧
= 𝛻𝛻.𝑸𝑸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
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Electric Flux on a closed surface:
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑬𝑬, 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒅 = �𝑆𝑆𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑬𝑬,𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒅 = �𝑆𝑆𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �
𝑉𝑉𝛻𝛻.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Divergence Theorem
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
14
Single charge 𝑞𝑞𝑞 located at 𝒓𝒓𝑞:
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 =𝑞𝑞𝑞
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 3
𝛻𝛻−1𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞
=𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 3
�𝑆𝑆𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �
𝑉𝑉𝛻𝛻.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �
𝑉𝑉
𝑞𝑞𝑞4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0
𝛻𝛻. 𝛻𝛻−1𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
HW:
HW:
=𝑞𝑞𝑞
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0𝛻𝛻
−1𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞
𝛻𝛻. 𝛻𝛻𝜓𝜓 𝒓𝒓 = 𝛻𝛻2 𝜓𝜓 𝒓𝒓
= �𝑉𝑉
𝑞𝑞𝑞4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0
𝛻𝛻2−1𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
15
𝛻𝛻2−1𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞
= 4 𝜋𝜋 𝛿𝛿3 𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞HW:
𝑞𝑞′
𝜖𝜖0
0
if q’ is inside V
if q’ is outside V
= �𝑉𝑉
𝑞𝑞′
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖04 𝜋𝜋 𝛿𝛿3 𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
�𝑆𝑆𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �
𝑉𝑉
𝑞𝑞𝑞4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0
𝛻𝛻2−1𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
{=
=𝑞𝑞′
𝜖𝜖0�
𝑉𝑉𝛿𝛿3 𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
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Multiple discrete charges 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 located at 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖:
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 =1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖 3
=1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 𝛻𝛻−1
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖
= �𝑉𝑉
14 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0
�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 𝛻𝛻2−1
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= �𝑉𝑉
14 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0
�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 4 𝜋𝜋 𝛿𝛿3 𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= �𝑖𝑖= 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝜖𝜖0
= �𝑖𝑖=𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝜖𝜖0
�𝑉𝑉𝛿𝛿3 𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
�𝑆𝑆𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �
𝑉𝑉𝛻𝛻.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
17
�𝑆𝑆𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �
𝑖𝑖= 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝜖𝜖0
=𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝜖𝜖0
independent of charge location inside S
independent of shape of surface S
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
18
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 =1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′ 3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
Continuous Distribution of Charges 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞 :
=1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞 𝛻𝛻−1𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
𝛻𝛻.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓
=1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞 𝛻𝛻2−1𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
=1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞 4 𝜋𝜋 𝛿𝛿3 𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝜖𝜖0
= 𝛻𝛻.1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞 𝛻𝛻−1𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
19
�𝑆𝑆𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �
𝑉𝑉𝛻𝛻.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �
𝑉𝑉
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝜖𝜖0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛻𝛻.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝜖𝜖0
Gauss’s Law (differential form)
=𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝜖𝜖0
�𝑆𝑆𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 =
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝜖𝜖0
Gauss’s Law (integral form)
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
20
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 =1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖 3
Back to the Electric Field:
= −𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓
Φ 𝒓𝒓 ≡1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖
Electric Field 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓is a vector field
Electric Potential Φ 𝒓𝒓is a scalar field
(discrete charges)
=1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 𝛻𝛻−1
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
21
Back to the Electric field:(continuous charge distribution)
= −𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓
Φ 𝒓𝒓 ≡1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
=1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞 𝛻𝛻−1
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 =1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′ 3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
22
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 = −𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓
Φ𝑞 𝒓𝒓 = Φ 𝒓𝒓 + Λ
𝛻𝛻.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝜖𝜖0
A couple of observations:
(1) Adding a constant Λ to the electric potential Φ 𝒓𝒓 has no impact on the electric field 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 :
(2) We can solve the electric potential first and then use it to determine the electric field:
𝛻𝛻. −𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝜖𝜖0
−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝜖𝜖0
Poisson’s equation
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
23
𝛻𝛻 × 𝛻𝛻𝑓𝑓 𝒓𝒓 = 0HW:
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 = −𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓
𝛻𝛻 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓
𝛻𝛻 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 = 0
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
= 𝛻𝛻 × −𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 = −𝛻𝛻 × 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 = 0
24
Stokes’ Theorem
�𝐶𝐶𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 = �
𝑆𝑆𝛻𝛻 × 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
CS
𝛻𝛻 × 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓
𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓
𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
Consider a loop C surrounding a surface S
and a vector field 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 ,
if 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 is a continuously differentiable vector field:
25
Illustration: Net Loop in the x-y plane
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
= 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 . + �𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 ∆𝐹𝐹 + 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 − ∆𝑦𝑦 �𝒆𝒆𝒚𝒚 . − �𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 ∆𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹
𝑦𝑦
𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓
= 𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥 𝒓𝒓 − 𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥 𝒓𝒓 − ∆𝑦𝑦 �𝒆𝒆𝒚𝒚 ∆𝐹𝐹
∆𝐹𝐹
=𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 −
𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄𝑦𝑦𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹 ∆𝐹𝐹 ∆𝑦𝑦
= 𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥 𝒓𝒓 − 𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥 𝒓𝒓 +𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄𝑥𝑥𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝐹𝐹
∆𝑦𝑦
+�𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙
−�𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙
+ 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 . + �𝒆𝒆𝒚𝒚 ∆𝑦𝑦 + 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 + ∆𝐹𝐹 �𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 . − �𝒆𝒆𝒚𝒚 ∆𝑦𝑦
+�𝒆𝒆𝒚𝒚 −�𝒆𝒆𝒚𝒚 + 𝑄𝑄𝑦𝑦 𝒓𝒓 − 𝑄𝑄𝑦𝑦 𝒓𝒓 + ∆𝐹𝐹 �𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 ∆𝑦𝑦
+ 𝑄𝑄𝑦𝑦 𝒓𝒓 − 𝑄𝑄𝑦𝑦 𝒓𝒓 −𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄𝑦𝑦𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹 ∆𝐹𝐹 ∆𝑦𝑦
= 𝛻𝛻 × 𝑸𝑸 𝒛𝒛 ∆𝐹𝐹 ∆𝑦𝑦
26
Net Loop
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓
= 𝛻𝛻 × 𝑸𝑸 𝑧𝑧 ∆𝐹𝐹 ∆𝑦𝑦 + 𝛻𝛻 × 𝑸𝑸 𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑧𝑧+ 𝛻𝛻 × 𝑸𝑸 𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑧𝑧 ∆𝐹𝐹
= 𝛻𝛻 × 𝑸𝑸 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
27
�𝒂𝒂, 𝐶𝐶1
𝒃𝒃𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 = �
𝐶𝐶𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓+�
𝒃𝒃, 𝐶𝐶2
𝒂𝒂𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓
= �𝑆𝑆𝛻𝛻 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
= �𝑆𝑆
0 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
= 0
�𝒂𝒂, 𝐶𝐶1
𝒃𝒃𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 = −�
𝒃𝒃, 𝐶𝐶2
𝒂𝒂𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓
= �𝒂𝒂, 𝐶𝐶2
𝒃𝒃𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 = constant, regardless of the path
𝒂𝒂
𝒃𝒃
𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓
𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓
28
= Φ 𝒓𝒓 −Φ −∞
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 ≡ −𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
= �−∞
𝒓𝒓𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓
= �−∞
𝒓𝒓 𝜕𝜕Φ𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹
�𝒆𝒆𝑥𝑥 +𝜕𝜕Φ𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
�𝒆𝒆𝑦𝑦𝜕𝜕Φ𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
�𝒆𝒆𝑧𝑧 . 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹 �𝒆𝒆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 �𝒆𝒆𝑦𝑦 + 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧 �𝒆𝒆𝑧𝑧
= �−∞
𝒓𝒓 𝜕𝜕Φ𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹
𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹 +𝜕𝜕Φ𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 +𝜕𝜕Φ𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧 = �−∞
𝒓𝒓𝑑𝑑Φ
−�−∞
𝒓𝒓𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓
𝒂𝒂 → −∞𝒃𝒃 → 𝒓𝒓
29
Φ 𝒓𝒓 ≡ −�−∞
𝒓𝒓𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓𝑞 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓𝑞
�𝒂𝒂
𝒃𝒃𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓𝑞 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓𝑞 = �
𝒂𝒂
−∞𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓𝑞 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓𝑞 + �
−∞
𝒃𝒃𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓𝑞 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓𝑞
= Φ 𝒂𝒂 −Φ 𝒃𝒃
regardless of the path 𝐶𝐶𝒂𝒂
𝒃𝒃
𝐶𝐶
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
= −�−∞
𝒂𝒂𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓𝑞 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓𝑞 + �
−∞
𝒃𝒃𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓𝑞 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓𝑞
30
Workdone by the electrostatic force 𝑭𝑭𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝒓𝒓 when a charge q moves from a to b
𝑊𝑊 = �𝒂𝒂
𝒃𝒃𝑭𝑭𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓
𝑭𝑭𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝒓𝒓 = 𝑞𝑞 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓
𝑊𝑊 = �𝒂𝒂
𝒃𝒃𝑞𝑞 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 = 𝑞𝑞 Φ 𝒂𝒂 − Φ 𝒃𝒃
𝒂𝒂
𝒃𝒃
𝐶𝐶
regardless of the path
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
31
External Workdone by an external force to perfectly balance the electrostatic force
𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 = 𝑞𝑞 Φ 𝒃𝒃 − Φ 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
𝒃𝒃
𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 = 𝑞𝑞 Φ 𝒓𝒓 − Φ −∞
= 𝑞𝑞 Φ 𝒓𝒓
𝑭𝑭𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 𝒓𝒓 = − 𝑭𝑭𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝒓𝒓
stored energy !!Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝐶𝐶
−∞
𝒓𝒓
𝐶𝐶
𝒂𝒂 → −∞0
32Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Recapping:
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 =1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖 3
= −𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓
Φ 𝒓𝒓 ≡1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖
=1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 𝛻𝛻−1
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖
33Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Recapping, continued:𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 = −𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓
𝛻𝛻 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 = −𝛻𝛻 × 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 = 0
�𝐶𝐶𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 = �
𝑆𝑆𝛻𝛻 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 0
−�−∞
𝒓𝒓𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 = Φ 𝒓𝒓 −Φ −∞
34Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Recapping, continued:
−�−∞
𝒓𝒓𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 = Φ 𝒓𝒓
𝑭𝑭𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 𝒓𝒓 = − 𝑭𝑭 𝒓𝒓
𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 = �−∞
𝒓𝒓𝑭𝑭𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 = −�
−∞
𝒓𝒓𝑞𝑞 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓
= − 𝑞𝑞 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓
= 𝑞𝑞 Φ 𝒓𝒓
35
𝑊𝑊1 & 2 = 𝑞𝑞1 Φ2 𝒓𝒓1
= 𝑞𝑞2 Φ1 𝒓𝒓2
=12𝑞𝑞1 Φ2 𝒓𝒓1 +
12𝑞𝑞2 Φ1 𝒓𝒓2
𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2
𝒪𝒪
𝒓𝒓1 𝒓𝒓2
External work done to assemble charges = Stored Energy
two point charges
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑞𝑞2
36
𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2
𝒪𝒪
𝒓𝒓1 𝒓𝒓2
Additional work for bringing a third charge
𝑞𝑞3∆𝑊𝑊 = 𝑞𝑞3 Φ1 𝒓𝒓3 + 𝑞𝑞3 Φ2 𝒓𝒓3
= 𝑞𝑞1 Φ3 𝒓𝒓1 + 𝑞𝑞2 Φ3 𝒓𝒓2
=12𝑞𝑞3 Φ1 𝒓𝒓3 +
12𝑞𝑞1 Φ3 𝒓𝒓1 +
12𝑞𝑞3 Φ2 𝒓𝒓3 +
12𝑞𝑞2 Φ3 𝒓𝒓2
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝒓𝒓3
𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2
37
𝑊𝑊1 & 2 & 3 =12𝑞𝑞1 Φ2 𝒓𝒓1 +
12𝑞𝑞2 Φ1 𝒓𝒓2
+12𝑞𝑞3 Φ1 𝒓𝒓3 +
12𝑞𝑞1 Φ3 𝒓𝒓1
+12𝑞𝑞3 Φ2 𝒓𝒓3 +
12𝑞𝑞2 Φ3 𝒓𝒓2
=12𝑞𝑞1 Φ2 𝒓𝒓1 + Φ3 𝒓𝒓1
+12𝑞𝑞2 Φ3 𝒓𝒓2 + Φ1 𝒓𝒓2
+12𝑞𝑞3 Φ2 𝒓𝒓3 + Φ3 𝒓𝒓3
Work needed to assemble three charges(stored energy)
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
38
𝑊𝑊 = �𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗≠𝑖𝑖
𝑁𝑁12𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 Φ𝑗𝑗 𝒓𝒓𝑖𝑖
Work needed to assemble “N” charges(stored energy)
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
39
𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊 =12𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞 𝒓𝒓 Φ 𝒓𝒓
𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓 = − 𝜖𝜖0 𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓
= −12𝜖𝜖0 Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Energy Stored in a Continuous Distribution of Charges
−Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓 = − 𝛻𝛻. Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 + 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 . 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓HW:
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
= − 𝜖𝜖0 𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
40
=12𝜖𝜖0 − 𝛻𝛻. Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 + 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 . 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑊𝑊 =12𝜖𝜖0�
−∞
+∞
− 𝛻𝛻. Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 + 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 . 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=12𝜖𝜖0 − �
−∞
+∞
Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 + �−∞
+∞
𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 . 𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=12𝜖𝜖0�
−∞
+∞
𝛻𝛻Φ 𝒓𝒓 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊 = −12𝜖𝜖0 Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
=12𝜖𝜖0�
−∞
+∞
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
41
𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸 𝒓𝒓 ≡𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=12𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 2
(Electric) Energy and Energy Density
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑊𝑊 =12𝜖𝜖0�
−∞
+∞
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Magnetostatic Theory
42
steady (constant) current
current density: 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓
𝑱𝑱 ≡𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
�𝒏𝒏
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
43
Conservation of Electric Charge
�s𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = −
𝑑𝑑𝑄𝑄𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
�𝑉𝑉𝛁𝛁. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛁𝛁. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0 𝛁𝛁. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝛁𝛁. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓 = 0if then and
always valid due to conservation of charge
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
= −𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡�
𝑉𝑉𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−�𝑉𝑉
𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=
44
𝛁𝛁. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓 = 0
Satisfies × ViolatesProf. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
�s𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 0
�𝑉𝑉𝛁𝛁. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Continuous Flow of Electric Current
45
Milestones in Magnetostatics• 2637 B.C.: reports of magnets by Chinese civilization
• 3rd century A.D.: Chinese ships used compass
• 1600: Gilbert, (De Magnete) described Earth as a magnet
• 800 A.D.: Greek reports on lodestones (magnetite Fe2O3)
• 1820: Oersted, an electric current deflects a compass
• 1830’s: Ampere, nearby currents create a force on each other
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
46
Magnetic Force• On a moving 𝒗𝒗 electric charge (𝑞𝑞) due to a magnetic field (𝑩𝑩)
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭 = 𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞 𝒗𝒗 × 𝑩𝑩
𝑭𝑭 = 𝑞𝑞 𝒗𝒗 × 𝑩𝑩 Lorentz force
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
• On an electric current due to a magnetic field 𝑩𝑩
= I dr × 𝑩𝑩 = dV 𝑱𝑱 × 𝑩𝑩
• For a non-zero magnetic force, charges must be moving and in a path not collinear with the magnetic field
• [B] = Tesla in S.I. units
• Static magnetic force is always orthogonal to the instantaneous direction of charge motion
• Work: 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊 = 𝑭𝑭 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 = 𝑞𝑞 𝒗𝒗 × 𝑩𝑩 . 𝒗𝒗 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 = 0
47
Magnetic Fieldis created by electric charges in motion (electric current)
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 =𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜4 𝜋𝜋
�𝐶𝐶
I 𝒓𝒓′ d 𝒓𝒓′ ×𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 3
=𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜4 𝜋𝜋
�−∞
+∞
𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓′ dV𝑞 ×𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 3
Biot-Savart Law
𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 = 4 π × 10−7𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴2
(permeability of free space)Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
48
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 =𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜4 𝜋𝜋
�−∞
+∞
dV𝑞 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓′ ×𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 3
𝛻𝛻. 𝒂𝒂 × 𝒃𝒃 = 𝒃𝒃 .𝛻𝛻 × 𝒂𝒂 − 𝒂𝒂 . 𝛻𝛻 × 𝒃𝒃HW:
=𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜4 𝜋𝜋
�−∞
+∞
dV𝑞𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 3.𝛻𝛻 × 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓′ − 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓′ .𝛻𝛻 ×
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 3
= −𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜4 𝜋𝜋
�−∞
+∞
dV𝑞 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓′ .𝛻𝛻 × 𝛻𝛻−1𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞
𝛻𝛻 × 𝛻𝛻𝑓𝑓 𝒓𝒓 = 𝟎𝟎 𝛻𝛻.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 = 𝟎𝟎because: = 0,
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
0
𝛻𝛻. 𝛻𝛻.
49
𝛻𝛻 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 = 𝛻𝛻 ×𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜4 𝜋𝜋
�−∞
+∞
dV𝑞 J 𝒓𝒓′ ×𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓𝑞 3= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 J 𝒓𝒓HW:
𝛻𝛻 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓Ampère’s Law(differential form)
�𝑆𝑆𝛻𝛻 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜�
𝑆𝑆𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
�𝐶𝐶𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑
Ampère’s Law(integral form)
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
50
Vector Potential: 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓
𝛻𝛻.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 = 0
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 ≡ 𝛻𝛻 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓
HW: 𝛻𝛻. 𝛻𝛻 × 𝑸𝑸 = 0
𝛻𝛻.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 = 𝛻𝛻. 𝛻𝛻 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
= 0
51
𝛻𝛻 × 𝛻𝛻 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓
𝛻𝛻 × 𝛻𝛻 × 𝒂𝒂 = 𝛻𝛻 𝛻𝛻.𝒂𝒂 − 𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝒂𝒂HW:
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝛻𝛻 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓
𝜵𝜵 × 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓 − 𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 ≡ 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓
52Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓 = 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓 + 𝜵𝜵𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓
𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨′ 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓
𝛁𝛁 × 𝛁𝛁𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓 = 0
because
then
We have certain freedom to choose the Vector Potential:
= 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓
53Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓 = 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓 + 𝜵𝜵𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓 + 𝜵𝜵.𝛻𝛻𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓
= 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓 + 𝛻𝛻2𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓
Now, we will find 𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓 such that 𝛻𝛻2𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓 = −𝛁𝛁.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓 .
𝛁𝛁.𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓 = 0
𝜵𝜵 × 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓 − 𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓
Coulomb gauge
How can we benefit from this freedom?
0
Then we will get:
54Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
Big picture in
Electrostatics and Magnetostatics:
55Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝜖𝜖0
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 = −𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓
Φ 𝒓𝒓 ≡1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑞𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓 ≡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
4 𝜋𝜋�−∞
+∞𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓𝑞𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
Electrostatics Magnetostatics
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓
𝜵𝜵. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0−𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 𝜵𝜵. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 = 0
charge conservation
𝑰𝑰
Electrodynamic Theory
56
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡−𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 𝜵𝜵. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
time-dependent theory for electric and magnetic fields
}
57Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
What remains valid ?
58Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑬𝑬, 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒅 𝑡𝑡 ≡ �𝑆𝑆𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �
𝑉𝑉𝜵𝜵.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �
𝑉𝑉
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜵𝜵.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
= �𝑉𝑉𝜵𝜵.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑬𝑬, 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒅 ≡ �
𝑆𝑆𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �
𝑉𝑉
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓𝜖𝜖0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
59Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑩𝑩, 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒅 𝑡𝑡 ≡ �𝑆𝑆𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �
𝑉𝑉𝜵𝜵.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝜵𝜵.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑩𝑩, 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒅 ≡ �𝑆𝑆𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �
𝑉𝑉𝜵𝜵.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
60Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
What is new ?
61Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑩𝑩 𝑡𝑡 ≡ �𝑆𝑆𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑩𝑩 𝑡𝑡 = �
𝐶𝐶𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓
Faraday’s Law
−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡�𝑆𝑆𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
−𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
= �𝑆𝑆𝜵𝜵 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
62Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
What needs to be modified ?
63Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝜵𝜵. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 +𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
𝜵𝜵.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕 𝜵𝜵.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕 𝜵𝜵.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡= 0
𝜵𝜵. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
= 𝜵𝜵. 𝜵𝜵 ×𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝜵𝜵 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 𝜵𝜵. 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑸𝑸 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
64Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
In summary, Maxwell’s equations:
𝜵𝜵.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
𝜵𝜵.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
𝜵𝜵 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
1.
2.
3.
4.
Gauss’s Law
Faraday’s Law
GeneralizedAmpère’s law
Gauss’s Law of Magnetism
65
Vector Potential: 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝒕𝒕 = 0
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ≡ 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝜵𝜵.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜵𝜵. 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
66Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
Scalar Potential: Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜕𝜕 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 +𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 𝟎𝟎
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 +𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
≡ −𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
&
≡ 𝜵𝜵 × −𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
67Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝒕𝒕 = 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
Fields: 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 & 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
&
Potentials: Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 & 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
68Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
How to determine
the scalar Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 and vector 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 potentials
directly from
the charge 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 and current 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 densities ?
69Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
𝜵𝜵. −𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
=
−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
Gauss’s Law
70Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵 × 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
−𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵 × 𝜵𝜵 × 𝒂𝒂 = 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝒂𝒂 − 𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝒂𝒂
𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0 𝜵𝜵𝜕𝜕Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 +𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
Remember HW:
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2 + 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0
𝜕𝜕Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
Ampère’s Law
71Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝛻𝛻.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2 + 𝛻𝛻 𝛻𝛻.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
The scalar Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 and vector 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 potentials can then be determined from
the charge 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 and current 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 densities:
72Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
How can we simplify those equations ?
73Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
We have certain freedom to choose the vector and scalar potentials:
𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ≡ 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜵𝜵𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
Φ′ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ≡ Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
−𝜵𝜵Φ𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= −𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
= −𝜵𝜵 Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
= 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
Conclusion: if 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 & Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 is a solution then 𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 & Φ′ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 (as defined above) is also a
solution, and vice-versa.
= 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜵𝜵𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
−𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜵𝜵𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
??
74Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜵𝜵𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
Φ′ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
How can we use the freedom in the choice of the potentials
−𝛻𝛻2Φ𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2+ 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡Φ𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
to simplify the following equations:
75Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜵𝜵𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
Φ′ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡Φ𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜵𝜵.𝜵𝜵𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 +
+ 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
−𝜕𝜕𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2
= − 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
We now solve for 𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 such that 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑒𝑒Φ𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝟎𝟎 :
= 𝑓𝑓 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2+ 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡Φ𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
76Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨′ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡Φ′ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
−𝛻𝛻2Φ𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2+ 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡Φ𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨′ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨′ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
−𝛻𝛻2Φ′ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2Φ𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2=𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
Lorenz gauge
= 0
77Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝛻𝛻.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2
= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2=𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
In the Lorenz gauge:
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 determines Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 determines 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
78Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Recapping:
𝜵𝜵. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 +𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
𝜵𝜵.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
𝜵𝜵.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
𝜵𝜵 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝑭𝑭 = 𝑞𝑞 𝑬𝑬 + 𝒗𝒗 × 𝑩𝑩
79Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Recapping, cont.:
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝒕𝒕 = 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2
+ 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
80Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Recapping, cont.:
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝒕𝒕 = 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜵𝜵Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
Φ′ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ≡ Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ≡ 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜵𝜵𝛬𝛬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
= 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
= −𝜵𝜵Φ𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨𝑞 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
81Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Recapping, cont.:
−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2
+ 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2
= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2=𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
Lorenz gauge:
= 0
82Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
In addition to the Lorenz gauge, there are other possible choices to
simplify the equations below !!
−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2
+ 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
83Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
The Coulomb gauge
−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2
+ 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0 𝜵𝜵
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
or radiation gauge or transverse gauge
= 0
= 0
84Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓′, 𝑡𝑡𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
−𝛻𝛻2Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
85Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜖𝜖0 𝜵𝜵
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜵𝜵𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
�−∞
+∞𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓′, 𝑡𝑡𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 +1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜵𝜵 �−∞
+∞𝜵𝜵𝑞. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓𝑞, 𝑡𝑡𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱𝑻𝑻 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵. 𝑱𝑱𝑻𝑻 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0𝑱𝑱𝑻𝑻 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ≡ 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 +1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜵𝜵 �−∞
+∞𝛻𝛻𝑞. 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓𝑞, 𝑡𝑡𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓′, 𝑡𝑡𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞
86Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝒕𝒕 = 𝛻𝛻 × 𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜕𝜕𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜖𝜖0 𝜵𝜵
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
The Coulomb gauge 𝜵𝜵.𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0is particularly useful in the absence of
charges 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0 and currents 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
Φ 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =1
4 𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖0�−∞
+∞𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓′, 𝑡𝑡𝒓𝒓 − 𝒓𝒓′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑞 = 0= 0
= 0= 0
= 0
−𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑨𝑨 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2 = 0
87Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Conservation Theorems
88Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
Energy and Power
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 .
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 .
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =
= −𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 .𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
−𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 .𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
89Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝛻𝛻. 𝒂𝒂 × 𝒃𝒃 = 𝒃𝒃 .𝛻𝛻 × 𝒂𝒂 − 𝒂𝒂 . 𝛻𝛻 × 𝒃𝒃HW:
= 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝛻𝛻 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
= −12𝜕𝜕 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 2
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡− 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0
12𝜕𝜕 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 2
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= −𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 .𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
− 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 .𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝛻𝛻. 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
+𝜖𝜖02𝜕𝜕 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 2
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡+
12 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝜕𝜕 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 2
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡+ 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
𝛻𝛻. 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
90Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝛻𝛻. 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
+𝜖𝜖02𝜕𝜕 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 2
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡+
12 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝜕𝜕 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 2
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡+ 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
𝛻𝛻.𝓢𝓢 +𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
𝓢𝓢 ≡ 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸 =𝜖𝜖02 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 2
𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵 =1
2 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 2
𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 = 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
Differential form of conservation of energy
(per-unit-time)
Poynting vector
91Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
�𝑉𝑉
𝛻𝛻.𝓢𝓢 +𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
�𝑆𝑆𝓢𝓢 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 +
𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
+𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝐵𝐵𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
+𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
= 0
�𝑆𝑆𝓢𝓢 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡�
𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸 + 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵 + 𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Integral form of conservation of
energy (per-unit-time)
92Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝛁𝛁.𝓢𝓢 +𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸 + 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵 + 𝑤𝑤 = 0
𝓢𝓢 ≡ 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸 =𝜖𝜖02𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 2 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵 =
12 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 2
𝑤𝑤 = 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 . 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
Recapping: Power Conservation
�𝑆𝑆𝓢𝓢 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 +
𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
+𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝐵𝐵𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
+𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
= 0
93Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
HW: From Maxwell’s equations, prove the following relation:
𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
+1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
+ 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜖𝜖0 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
= 0
94Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
HW: Show that
= �𝑗𝑗=1
3𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
𝜖𝜖012𝑬𝑬 2𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 − 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 +
1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
12𝑩𝑩 2𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 − 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 𝐵𝐵𝑗𝑗
𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖 +
+1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖 =
95Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
Linear Momentum
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 +𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 01𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×
− 𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 −𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
= 0
𝛁𝛁.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0−1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×
96Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
+1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
+ 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜖𝜖0 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
= 0
97Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭𝐿𝐿 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭𝐿𝐿 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑the Lorentz force (per-unit-volume) due to the fields acting on charged particles
(charges and currents)the rate of
change of the linear momentum (per-unit-volume) of the charged
particles
=𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡𝒑𝒑 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡≡ 𝒇𝒇𝐿𝐿 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
98Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
+𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡𝒑𝒑 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜖𝜖0 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
= 0
𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
+1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
+ 𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡+ 𝒇𝒇𝐿𝐿 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
99Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝒈𝒈 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ≡ 𝜖𝜖0 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
Linear momentum (per-unit-volume) associated withthe E & B fields
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜖𝜖0 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
=𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡𝒈𝒈 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
= 𝜖𝜖0 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝓢𝓢
100Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
+𝜕𝜕𝒑𝒑 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝒈𝒈 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
+1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜖𝜖0 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 ×𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
101Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
+𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖
+1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖
Let’s calculate one Cartesian component:
102Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑬𝑬 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 − 𝑬𝑬 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝑖𝑖
= 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎
− 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 = 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝑖𝑖
𝑬𝑬 × 𝑸𝑸 𝑖𝑖
𝑬𝑬 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝑖𝑖
= 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝑖𝑖 − 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
= 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖
= 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎
= 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖
otherwise
(1,2,3) or (2,3,1) or (3,1,2)
(1,3,2) or (3,2,1) or (2,1,3)
= 0
= + 1
= - 1
= �𝑗𝑗=1
3
�𝑖𝑖=1
3
𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖
= �𝑘𝑘=1
3
�𝑎𝑎=1
3
𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎
= 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖�𝑗𝑗=1
3𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖
103Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘
= 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎 𝛿𝛿𝑗𝑗𝑘𝑘
𝑬𝑬 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 − 𝑬𝑬 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝑖𝑖 = 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎
− 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
= 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖
−𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
− 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
= 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎 𝛿𝛿𝑗𝑗𝑘𝑘 − 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘 𝛿𝛿𝑗𝑗𝑎𝑎 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎
− 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
− 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘 𝛿𝛿𝑗𝑗𝑎𝑎
= 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘
104Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑬𝑬 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 − 𝑬𝑬 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖
−𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
− 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
= 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖
− 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
− 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
=12𝜕𝜕 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖
−𝜕𝜕 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
=12𝜕𝜕 𝑬𝑬 2
𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 −
𝜕𝜕 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
=𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
12𝑬𝑬 2𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 − 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗
105Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
+𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖
+1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝛁𝛁.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖
106Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
+𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
�𝑗𝑗=1
3𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
𝜖𝜖012𝑬𝑬 2𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 − 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗
+�𝑗𝑗=1
3𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
12𝑩𝑩 2𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 − 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 𝐵𝐵𝑗𝑗
�𝑗𝑗=1
3𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 ≡ 𝜖𝜖012𝑬𝑬 2𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 − 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 +
1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
12𝑩𝑩 2 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 − 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 𝐵𝐵𝑗𝑗
Maxwell’s stress tensor
107Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
�𝑗𝑗=1
3𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
+𝜕𝜕𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
�𝑉𝑉�𝑗𝑗=1
3𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + �𝑉𝑉
𝜕𝜕𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
�𝑆𝑆�𝑗𝑗=1
3
𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆𝑗𝑗 +𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡�
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 + 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
−𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖
108Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 = −�𝑆𝑆�𝑗𝑗=1
3
𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆𝑗𝑗
𝑭𝑭 = −�𝑆𝑆𝑻𝑻 . �𝒏𝒏 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
= − 𝑻𝑻 . �𝒏𝒏
= −�𝑆𝑆�𝑗𝑗=1
3
𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 �𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆�𝒏𝒏
unit vector normal to
the surface
𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
= −�𝑗𝑗=1
3
𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 �𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗
109Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 ≡ 𝜖𝜖012𝑬𝑬 2𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 − 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 +
1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
12𝑩𝑩 2 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 − 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 𝐵𝐵𝑗𝑗
= 𝜖𝜖0 −12𝑬𝑬 2 �𝒏𝒏 + 𝑬𝑬 𝑬𝑬. �𝒏𝒏 +
1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
−12𝑩𝑩 2 �𝒏𝒏 + 𝑩𝑩 𝑩𝑩. �𝒏𝒏
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
= − 𝑻𝑻 . �𝒏𝒏
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
= −𝜖𝜖02𝑬𝑬 2 +
12 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 2 �𝒏𝒏 + 𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝑬𝑬. �𝒏𝒏 +1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜𝑩𝑩 𝑩𝑩. �𝒏𝒏
along the surface normal and always compressingthe surface inwards
along the fieldsand always tensioningthe surface outwards
110Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Recapping:
+𝜕𝜕𝒑𝒑𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝒈𝒈𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 − 𝑬𝑬 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬
+1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 −𝑩𝑩 𝛁𝛁.𝑩𝑩
111Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Recapping, cont.:
𝜕𝜕𝒑𝒑𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 𝜌𝜌 𝑬𝑬 + 𝑱𝑱 × 𝑩𝑩 =𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭𝐿𝐿𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
≡ 𝒇𝒇𝐿𝐿
𝜕𝜕𝒈𝒈𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
≡ 𝜖𝜖0 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝑬𝑬 ×𝑩𝑩𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
= 𝜖𝜖0 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜𝜕𝜕𝓢𝓢𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 − 𝑬𝑬 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝑖𝑖 +1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 −𝑩𝑩 𝛁𝛁.𝑩𝑩 𝑖𝑖 ≡�𝑗𝑗=1
3𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 ≡ 𝜖𝜖012𝑬𝑬 2𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 − 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 +
1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
12𝑩𝑩 2 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 − 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 𝐵𝐵𝑗𝑗
112Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Recapping, cont.:
�𝑉𝑉
𝛁𝛁.𝑻𝑻 +𝜕𝜕𝒑𝒑𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝒈𝒈𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
�𝑆𝑆𝑻𝑻.𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝑷𝑷 + 𝑮𝑮 = 0
−𝑻𝑻: the force (per-unit-area) creates a change in the total linear momentum
from both fields and particles
𝛁𝛁.𝑻𝑻 +𝜕𝜕𝒑𝒑𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝒈𝒈𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
Conservation of Linear Momentum
�𝑗𝑗=1
3𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑗𝑗
+𝜕𝜕𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 0
113Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2019
Recapping, cont.:
− 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 ≡ −𝜖𝜖02𝑬𝑬 2 +
12 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 2 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 + 𝜖𝜖0 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 +1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖 𝐵𝐵𝑗𝑗
𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 = −�𝑗𝑗=1
3
𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆𝑗𝑗
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
= −𝜖𝜖02𝑬𝑬 2 +
12 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜
𝑩𝑩 2 �𝒏𝒏 + 𝜖𝜖0 𝑬𝑬 𝑬𝑬. �𝒏𝒏 +1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜𝑩𝑩 𝑩𝑩. �𝒏𝒏
along the surface normal and always compressingthe surface inwards
along the fieldsand always tensioningthe surface outwards
114Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑬𝑬 ⊥ �𝒏𝒏
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
= −𝜖𝜖02𝑬𝑬 2 �𝒏𝒏
𝑩𝑩 ⊥ �𝒏𝒏
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
= −1
2 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜𝑩𝑩 2�𝒏𝒏
𝑩𝑩 = 𝟎𝟎 𝑬𝑬 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭�𝒏𝒏 𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭
�𝒏𝒏
115Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭�𝒏𝒏
�𝒏𝒏𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭
crashing can
116Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
117Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑬𝑬 ∥ �𝒏𝒏 or −�𝒏𝒏𝑩𝑩 = 𝟎𝟎
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
= +𝜖𝜖02𝑬𝑬 2 �𝒏𝒏
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
= +1
2 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜𝑩𝑩 2�𝒏𝒏
𝑩𝑩 ∥ �𝒏𝒏 or − �𝒏𝒏𝑬𝑬 = 𝟎𝟎
�𝒏𝒏𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭
�𝒏𝒏𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭
�𝒏𝒏𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭
�𝒏𝒏𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭
118Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭
�𝒏𝒏
�𝒏𝒏
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭
�𝒏𝒏
�𝒏𝒏
𝑑𝑑𝑭𝑭
119Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
Angular Momentum
𝜵𝜵.𝑻𝑻 +𝜕𝜕𝒈𝒈𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+ 𝒇𝒇𝐿𝐿 = 0𝒓𝒓 ×
𝒓𝒓 × 𝜵𝜵.𝑻𝑻 + 𝒓𝒓 ×𝜕𝜕𝒈𝒈𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+ = 0𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝒏𝒏𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≡ 𝒓𝒓 × 𝒇𝒇𝐿𝐿 =𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
We have found that:
the Lorentz torque (per-unit-volume)due to the fields acting on charged particles (charges and currents)
𝒓𝒓 × 𝒇𝒇𝐿𝐿
the rate of change of the angular momentum (per-unit-volume) of the charged particles
120Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝜵𝜵. 𝒓𝒓 × 𝑻𝑻 +𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡= 0
𝒓𝒓 × 𝜵𝜵.𝑻𝑻 + 𝒓𝒓 ×𝜕𝜕𝒈𝒈𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡= 0
𝒄𝒄𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘 ≡ 𝒓𝒓 × 𝒈𝒈
𝒓𝒓 × 𝜵𝜵.𝑻𝑻 +𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡= 0
𝒓𝒓 × 𝜵𝜵.𝑻𝑻 = 𝜵𝜵. 𝒓𝒓 × 𝑻𝑻
𝒓𝒓 × 𝜵𝜵.𝑻𝑻 +𝜕𝜕 𝒓𝒓 × 𝒈𝒈
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡+𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡= 0
HW:
121Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝜵𝜵. 𝒓𝒓 × 𝑻𝑻 +𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡= 0
�𝑉𝑉
𝜵𝜵. 𝒓𝒓 × 𝑻𝑻 +𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
+𝜕𝜕𝒄𝒄𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
�𝑆𝑆
𝒓𝒓 × 𝑻𝑻 .𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 +𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝑳𝑳𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘 + 𝑳𝑳𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0
𝑵𝑵 ≡ 𝒓𝒓 × 𝑻𝑻−𝑵𝑵: the torque (per-unit-area) creates a change in the total angular momentum
from both fields and particles
122Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝛻𝛻.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 =
𝛻𝛻.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
𝛻𝛻 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
Electromagnetic Waves𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 0
+ 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝑱𝑱 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝜌𝜌 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜖𝜖0
Consider: &
0
123Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵 ×
𝛻𝛻 × 𝛻𝛻 × 𝒂𝒂 = 𝛻𝛻 𝛻𝛻.𝒂𝒂 − 𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝒂𝒂HW:
𝜵𝜵 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝛁𝛁 𝛁𝛁.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝛁𝛁𝟐𝟐𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝛻𝛻.𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝟎𝟎
𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2
= −𝛁𝛁 ×𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
124Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜵𝜵 ×
𝛻𝛻 × 𝛻𝛻 × 𝒂𝒂 = 𝛻𝛻 𝛻𝛻.𝒂𝒂 − 𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝒂𝒂HW:
𝜵𝜵 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝛁𝛁 𝛁𝛁.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 − 𝛁𝛁𝟐𝟐𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜕𝜕𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝛻𝛻.𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝟎𝟎
𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2
= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0 𝛁𝛁 ×𝜕𝜕𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
= 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝛁𝛁 × 𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡
125Prof. Sergio B. MendesSpring 2018
𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑬𝑬 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2
𝛻𝛻𝟐𝟐𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0𝜕𝜕2𝑩𝑩 𝒓𝒓, 𝑡𝑡𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡2
𝑣𝑣 =1𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0
≅ 2.99792458 × 108 m/s