8/13/2015 Frontiers|Theprecedenceofsyntaxintherapidemergenceofhumanlanguageinevolutionasdefinedbytheintegrationhypothesis|LanguageSciehttp://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00271/full 1/15in Pcholog (http://journal.frontierin.org/journal/36)Like2Comment1Share122 32 9 2 65 (HTTP://LOOP.FRONTIRSIN.ORG/)SHAR ONDownload Articlexport citation7,166TOTAL VIWSPRSPCTIV ARTICLFront. Pchol., 18 March 2015 | http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpg.2015.00271 (http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpg.2015.00271)The precedence of ntax in the rapid emergenceof human language in evolution a defined theintegration hpotheiVitor A. Nrega (http://www.frontierin.org/people/u/202119)andShigeru Miagawa(http://www.frontierin.org/people/u/73842)Department of Linguitic, Univerit of So Paulo, So Paulo, razilDepartment of Linguitic and Philooph, Maachuett Intitute of Technolog, Camridge, MA, USACenter for Reearch and Development of Higher ducation, Univerit of Toko, Toko, JapanOurcorehypothesisisthattheemergenceofhumanlanguagearoseveryrapidlyfromthelinkingoftwopreadaptedsystemsfoundelsewhereintheanimalworldanexpressionsystem,found,forexample,inbirdsong,andalexicalsystem,suggestivelyfoundinnonhumanprimatecalls(Miyagawaetal.,2013,2014).Wechallengetheviewthatlanguagehasundergoneaseriesofgradualchangesorasinglepreliminaryprotolinguisticstagebeforeachievingitsfullcharacter.WearguethatafullfledgedcombinatorialoperationMergetriggeredtheintegrationofthesetwopreadaptedsystems,givingrisetoafullydevelopedlanguage.Thisgoesagainstthegradualistviewthatthereexistedastructureless,protolinguisticstage,inwhicharudimentaryprotoMergeoperationgeneratedinternallyflatwords.Itisarguedthatcompoundsinpresentdaylanguageareafossilizedformofthispriorstage,apointwhichwewillquestion.12,3*123 2.6IMPACT FACTORAtractIntroductionTheIntegrationHpotheiandthemergentViewofLanguagevolutionHierarchicalStructurewithinSingleWordAgainttheViewofCompoundaLivingFoilConcluionConflictofInteretStatementAcknowledgmentFootnoteReferenceTALOFCONTNTS8/13/2015 Frontiers|Theprecedenceofsyntaxintherapidemergenceofhumanlanguageinevolutionasdefinedbytheintegrationhypothesis|LanguageSciehttp://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00271/full 2/15IntroductionHumanlanguagepresentstwoprimaryfeaturesthatmustbeaccountedforbyanytheorythatattemptstodealwithitsemergence:itsrecentevolutionarydevelopment,arisingwithinthepast100,000years(Tattersall,2009,2012)anditsautapomorphiccharacteritisatraitfoundonlyinhumans,andnotsharedwithotherbranchesofthesamemonophyleticgroup(TallermanandGibson,2012).Onepointofcontentioniswhetheritemergedinagradualorrapidmanner.Wewillchallengethefirstview,arguingthathumanlanguageemergedrapidlyfromthelinkingoftwopreexistingfinitesystems,aTypeEsystemforexpressive,found,forinstance,inbirdsong(Berwicketal.,2011),andaTypeLsystemforlexical,foundinmonkeycalls(Seyfarthetal.,1980ArnoldandZuberbhler,2006Manser,2013).ThisistheIntegrationHypothesisofhumanlanguageevolution(Miyagawaetal.,2013,2014).Theemergentviewadoptedinthisarticleisdirectlyopposedtothegradualistviewoflanguageevolution(Bickerton,1990,1995,1998,2000,2014PinkerandBloom,1990Newmeyer,1991,1998Pinker,1994Jackendoff,1999,2002Tallerman,2007Hurford,2012).Thecoreideaofthegradualistapproachisthattheearlieststagesofhumanlanguagearecomprisedofastructurelessprotolanguage,asystemwithnosyntax.Forsomeadherentsofthegradualistapproach(especiallyJackendoff,1999,2002,2009Progovac,2006,2008,2009,2010,2012ProgovacandLocke,2009),humanlanguagehasundergoneasequenceofstages,initiallyaonewordstage,thenatwowordsstageaprotosyntaxcharacterizedbythecombinationofsinglewordsintocompoundsthrougharudimentaryrecursivenaryoperationthatgeneratesflatstructures(ProgovacandLocke,2009Progovac,2012) .ThisreflectstheDarwinianviewthatevolutionproceedsinasuccessionofslow,smallchanges.Thenotionofwordisunclearinsuchanapproach,sincethesocalledwordvariessharplycrosslinguistically(DixonandAikhenvald,2003).Wesetasidethenotionwordandconsideramorebasicprimitivethattypicallydenotessomeconcept,namely,theroot.Arootisnotthesameasaword,sinceawordthatappearsinsentencesisassociatedwithadditionalelementssuchascategory(e.g.,noun,verb,oradjective)andinflectionalinformation(e.g.,number,tense,case,etc.).BasedontheIntegrationHypothesis,therootistheLlayer,andelementssuchasthecategorialandinflectionalfeaturescomprisetheElayer.ThesetwolayersarelinkedbyarulecalledMerge,whichtakestwoitemsandcombinesthemintoanunorderedset(Chomsky,1995).Thisstructurebuildingruleiswhatgivesrisetoasinglenonfinitegenerativeenginecapableofyieldinganysortoflinguisticobject,fromsimplewordstocompoundsandphrasesthus,wordsdonotprecedesyntaxinlanguageevolution,buttheyarederivedbysuchasystem(contraBickerton,1990,2014).Awordisinternallycomplex,oftenascomplexasanentirephrase,hence,inlinewithDiSciullo's(2013,2014)claims,thereisnoreasontoconsiderthemaslinguisticfossilsofapreviousstageofsyntax.TheIntegrationHypothesisadoptstheDarwinianviewofexaptation:somethingshapedbynaturalselectioniscooptedforanewuseinfacttwosuchsystemswerecooptedandintegratedtogiverisetotheuniquefunctionoflanguage.The Integration Hpothei and the mergent View of Language volutionMiyagawaetal.(2013,2014)proposethathumanlanguageiscomposedoftwocomponents,Eforexpressive,andLforlexical,eachofwhichhasanantecedentinotheranimalspecies.TheEtypeissimilartobirdsong,whichdisplaysspecificpatternswithoutwords,sothatbirdsonghassyntaxwithoutmeaning(Berwicketal.,2012) .ThelexicalcomponentisrelatedtothosesystemsthatemployisolatedutteredunitsthatcorrelatewithrealworldreferencessuchasthealarmcallsofVervetmonkeys(Seyfarthetal.,1980).Thiscorrelationfindsevidenceinanysimplewordorsentenceofhumanlanguage,sinceeverysimplewordorsentenceiscomposedoftwolayersofmeaning:alexicalstructurethatcontainsthelexicalmeaning,andanexpressionstructurethatiscomposedoffunctionelementsthatgiveshapetotheexpression(HalleandMarantz,1993Marantz,1997,forwordformationChomsky,1995Miyagawa,2010,forsentences).Inwordformation,therootisthelexicallayer,andthecategorialandgrammaticalinformationconcatenatedabovearootistheexpressionlayer .Sincetherootisassumedtolacksyntacticcategory(i.e.,nominal,verbaloradjectivalMarantz,1997Borer,2003,2005a,b,2013),itmustbeconceivedasagrammaticalfreeentitythatitselfdoesnotshowupdirectlyinsyntax .Syntacticoperationstargetwordsthathavecategorialandgrammaticalelements.Thepicturethatemergesisthe12348/13/2015 Frontiers|Theprecedenceofsyntaxintherapidemergenceofhumanlanguageinevolutionasdefinedbytheintegrationhypothesis|LanguageSciehttp://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00271/full 3/15oneinwhichthetwosystems,theLTypeandtheEType,integratedtogiverisetoasinglegenerativeenginebywayoftheoperationMerge.Thisintegrationoccurredatthewordlevelbycombiningrootswithcategorialandgrammaticalfeatures.TheIntegrationHypothesisisamorearticulatedversionoftheemergentapproach(Berwick,1998Hauseretal.,2002Chomsky,2005,2008,2010,2012,2013BerwickandChomsky,2011DiSciullo,2011,2013,2014Bolhuisetal.,2014).Theemergenthypothesisassumesthatthelanguagefacultyemergedlateinhistoricaldevelopmentwithoutanypriorpresyntacticstage.ItsmainoperationistherecursivebinaryoperationofMergethatderiveshierarchicalbinarybranchingstructures.Thisoperationistriggeredwhenonelinguisticobjectcansatisfyagrammaticalfeatureofalinguisticobject(Watanabe,1996Collins,1997,2002Chomsky,2000,2004Abels,2003PesetskyandTorrego,2006Wurmbrand,2014),asdepictedin(2):Onthisview,arootdoesnotdirectlycombinewithanotherrootinordertoformacompound(Zhang,2007),sincearootisdevoidofanygrammaticalfeature.Thatis,thelexicalprimitivesdonotcombinewitheachothertoformpurelylexicalhierarchicalstructures,thusasequenceofLlayersisblockedingrammar.Infact,atypicalsequencewefindisEL,whereEfurnishesthegrammaticallayerthatallowselementstocombinewitheachother(Miyagawaetal.,2013,2014).Theideathattwolexicalprimitives(i.e.,roots)couldcombinewouldleadtounnecessarycomplexity:alongwiththeconventionalMergethatoperatesongrammatical(E)features,thereneedstobeasecondtypeofMergethatcombinesroots.Also,therewouldbenowaytodistinguishdifferentrelationsthatexistbetweenthemembersofacompound:predicateargument,modification,coordination,etc.(BisettoandScalise,2005GuevaraandScalise,2009) .TheIntegrationHypothesischaracterizestheemergenceofhumanlanguageinonestep.Theprelanguagestageiscomposedofrootlikeelements,eachoccurringinisolationoftheothers.Itispossiblethatthisissimilartothealarmcalls,whichapparentlyhavereferenceintherealworld,butarenotassociatedwithanygrammaticalfeaturessuchascategory.Thus,theydonotparticipateinanycombinatorialsystems.Oncetheintegrationbetweenthetwosystems,EandL,takesplace,wehaveessentiallyallthefeaturesofafullfledgedhumanlanguage.Initssimplestform,thisintegrationtookplacewiththemergerofamemberofEandamemberofL,formingtheset{E,L}.Atthewordlevel,thismeansthatrootscombinewithsomegrammaticalfeatures(GF).Withagrammaticalidentityinplace,thewordisreadytoparticipateincombinatoryprocessessuchascompoundingandsyntax.Thiscanbeillustratedbytheovertrealizationofinflectionalmorphemesspecifictocertainsyntacticcategoriesinthecompound'smembers.Forinstance,intheTurkishcompoundgunebakanlit.dayDAT+lookPRTsunflower(Gksel,2009),thereisadativecasemarkerinthefirstmember,andaparticipialsuffixinthesecondmemberthefirstindicatesanominalcategoryandthesecondaverbalcategory,hencethesearenotroots.Contrarytoalltheseassumptions,Bickerton(1990,1995,1998,2007,2008,2014)extensivelyarguesthatalarmcallsholddistinctpropertiesifcomparedtowords,excludinganydirectcorrelationbetweenthem,mainlybecausecallsaregeneticallybased ,whilewordsareculturallybasedandalsobecausecallsareindexical,notsymbolic.Assumingthattherootistheclosestapproximationtocalls,sincetheydenoteaconceptualcontent,wesuggestthatthelinkingoftheLandETypesystemsmighthaveenabledcallstoexpanditsbehaviorduetothenonfinitecombinatorialsystemarisingfromtheintegration,whichpavedthewaytotheemergenceoftheopenvocabularystoredinourlongtermmemory,apointthatstilldeservesmorespecificresearch .Hierarchical Structure within Single WordGradualistapproachesrelyprimarilyonthenotionofwordtodeterminethestagesofhumanlanguageevolution,beginningwiththeonewordstage,followedbyatwowordsstagemadepossiblebyconcatenatingtwofeaturelesswordswhichwepresumeisclosetotoday'sroots.Nevertheless,itisdifficulttoassumethataprimitiveprotoMergeoperation,characterizedbygeneratingflatstructures,wasatplayintheconcatenationofarootwithoutgrammaticalinformation.Derivedwords,forexample,showevidenceforthepresenceofinternalhierarchicalstructureswithinwords,whichmustbeconstructedthroughafullfledgedoperationMerge.Anexampleisthe5678/13/2015 Frontiers|Theprecedenceofsyntaxintherapidemergenceofhumanlanguageinevolutionasdefinedbytheintegrationhypothesis|LanguageSciehttp://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00271/full 4/15presenceofambiguityinderivedwords,suchastheadjectiveunlockable,whichhasdifferentinterpretationsdependingontheorganizationofitsinternalhierarchicalstructure.Itcaneithermeanthatsomethingcannotbelocked,asintheconfigurationin(4a),oritmaymeanthatsomethingcanbeunlocked,asin(4b).Thisambiguityisduetothepresenceofahierarchicalstructurewithinwords,whatwouldbeimpossibleifwordshadaflatinternalstructure.Additionally,thereisnoreasonaprioritoassumethatthemergerofanycategorialheadin(4)canbedifferentfromeachother(e.g.,thatthereisaprotoMergeoperationresponsibleforthefirstconcatenation,butafullfledgedoperationMergeresponsibleforthesuccessiveconcatenations),sinceallcategorydefiningheadsrefertothesameprimitive.Besides,theassumptionthatbothprotoMergeandMergeitselfcontributetothederivationoflinguisticobjects,andthattheycoexistenceasprimitiveoperatorsofthesamecomputationalsystem,introducescomplexityinthelanguagefaculty(DiSciullo,2013,2014).Inthissense,onlyafullfledgedoperationMergeisdirectlyresponsiblefortheformationofwords,alwayscreatinganendocentrichierarchicalstructure .Againt the View of Compound a Living FoilCompoundsarefrequentlyarguedtobelivingfossilspreservedfrompreviousstagesofaprotolanguage(Jackendoff,1999,2002,2009Progovac,2006,2009,2010,2012ProgovacandLocke,2009).Theseformationsareconsideredtobethebyproductofarawconcatenation,thuscontainingaflatinternalstructurederivedbyaprotoMergeoperation.Jackendoff(1999,2002,2009),inparticular,claimsthatcompoundsareaprotogrammaticalphenomenon,inwhichitsrudimentarystructureisnotcapableofshapingtheirsemanticinterpretation,sothatthecompounds'semanticinterpretationishighlydependentonpragmatics.However,thisdependenceonpragmaticsformeaningisnotauniversallyattestedpropertyofcompounds.WhilecompoundnounsfromGermaniclanguagespresentawiderangeofsemanticinterpretations(Downing,1977Allen,1978),thesameisnotfoundinRomancelanguagescompoundnouns,whichareveryrestrictedinmeaning(Bisetto,2010Delfittoetal.,2011).Thus,whiletheEnglishcompoundtreemanmayhaveatleastfivepossiblesemanticinterpretations,forinstance,(i)amanwhoisstandingbesidethattree,(ii)amanwhoissittingonthistree,(iii)amanthatusuallyseatsontrees,(iv)amanwhodefendstreesorforestsand(v)amanresemblingatree,etc.(Delfittoetal.,2011),aBrazilianPortuguesecompoundsuchaspeixeespadalit.fishswordswordfishcanonlymeanafishresemblingasword.ThistypeofhighlyrestrictivemeaningassociatedwithcompoundsistypicalinRomancelanguagesandcastsdoubtonthenotionthatcompoundshavenointernalgrammaticalstructure.Progovac(2006,2009,2010,2012)andProgovacandLocke(2009)arguethatSlavicandEnglishexocentricVNcompounds(e.g.,daredevil,pickpocket)areanotherexampleofrelicsfromaprotolanguage,because,forthem,theyhavenointernalhierarchicalstructure.Themainargumentstoassumethatthesecompoundscontainaflatstructureare:(i)theyarenotrecursive,(ii)theyarenolongerproductive,and(iii)thethematicroleofthenounissyntacticallyundetermined,whichletitopentopragmaticinterpretation .Withrespectto(i),itisnottruethatexocentricVNcompoundslackrecursionatall .WefindrecursioninthesecompoundsinavarietyofRomancelanguages,basicallyintwopossibleways:(a)whenanominalexocentricVNcompoundbecomesthecomplementofaverb,generatinganewVNcompoundasin(5),and(b)whenanouninternaltothecompoundcontainsasequenceofmodifiers,asin(6a),oralistofcomplements,asin(6b).Recursion,andparticularlythepresenceofselfembeddinginsuchconstructions,showthatthesecompoundsarederivedbyafullfledgedoperationMerge,andmustcontainaninternalhierarchicalstructure.89108/13/2015 Frontiers|Theprecedenceofsyntaxintherapidemergenceofhumanlanguageinevolutionasdefinedbytheintegrationhypothesis|LanguageSciehttp://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00271/full 5/15WithrespecttothelackofproductivityofexocentricVNcompounds,itisalanguagespecificdistributionanditmustbetakenwithcaution.AlthoughVNcompoundsarenolongerproductiveinSlavicandGermaniclanguages,aswellasinChinese(Bascianoetal.,2011),theyarestillveryproductiveinJapanese,Romance andinsomeBantulanguages,suchasChichewa(Mchombo,2004).Inawidetypologicalresearchonthedistributionofcompoundscrosslinguistically,GuevaraandScalise(2009)pointoutthattheVNcombinationisthefourthmostproductivecompoundformation.Inviewofthis,thereisnoreasontorelyonahandfuloflanguagesinwhichthesecompoundshappentobenolongerproductivetoarguethatexocentricVNcompoundslackinternalstructure.Crosslinguisticallywefindarichwordformationprocessthatleadstotheoppositeconclusion.AlthoughVNcompoundscanbecategorially,morphologically,andsemanticallyexocentric,theirinternalstructureisendocentric,sincetheverbalconstituentmaintainsitsheadpredicativecharacter(DiSciullo,1991,1992,2005,2013,2014FerrariBridgers,2005BokBennemaandKampersManhe,2006GraaninYuksek,2006Nbrega,2014).TheexocentricnatureofVNcompoundsisduetothepresenceofanadditionalcategoriallayerattachedabovetheVNcombination,whichprovidesanewcategoriallabeltotheendocentricVNstructure,asweseein(7),andtheinsertionofinflectionfeaturesin(8),followingthegeneralstructurein(9).Additionally,ifthenouninternaltothecompoundcanbeinterpretedastheagentoftheverb,itisnecessarytoassumeahierarchicalstructureinordertodifferentiatethesecasesfromthoseinwhichthenounisinterpretedasthetheme,asarguedforbyDiSciullo(2013).Thus,ineachcaseanunpronouncedcategoryispartofthecompoundstructure,showingthatdifferencesinhierarchicalstructurearenecessaryforsemanticinterpretation:Besides,botharguments,internalandexternal,mustbepresentwithinthecompound.Onepieceofevidenceistheimpossibilityofattachinganagentivesuffixtotheseformations,whichareconsideredtobetheexternalargumentinsyntheticcompounds(DiSciullo,1991,1992).Thus,theungrammaticallyof*[[lanador]mssil]lit.launchmissilmissilelauncherorof*[[mssil]lanador]]fromtheBrazilianPortugueseexocentricVNcompoundlanamssil,isrelatedtothefactthattheexternalargumentisbeingsaturatedtwice,foranullpronounproandfortheagentivesuffixdor .Thesepointsinvalidatetheargumentthatthesecompoundsareasortoflivingfossils,sinceacrosslinguisticinspectionshowsthattheirpropertiesaresolelyexplainedifaninternallycomplexhierarchicalstructureexists.111314158/13/2015 Frontiers|Theprecedenceofsyntaxintherapidemergenceofhumanlanguageinevolutionasdefinedbytheintegrationhypothesis|LanguageSciehttp://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00271/full 6/15ConcluionWechallengedtheviewthatcompoundsarelinguisticfossilsfromtheverybeginningofsyntax,inturnchallengingtheviewthatthereexistedprotolinguisticstagesinhumanlanguageevolution.Internalcomplexityisfoundnotonlyincompounds,butalsoinalltheirconstituentmembers,afactthatweakenstheassumptionofalexicalprotolanguagebasedonwords.Sincehierarchicalstructurecanbeattestedinanysinglederivedword,afullfledgedoperationMergecanbeassumedtobedirectlyresponsiblefortheirformation,andconsequentlyfortheformationofcompoundsandphrases.Thisistheresultoftheintegrationbetweentwopreadaptedsystems,LandE,whichallowsthegenerationofallthelinguisticobjectspresentinmodernhumanlanguage.Conflict of Interet StatementTheauthorsdeclarethattheresearchwasconductedintheabsenceofanycommercialorfinancialrelationshipsthatcouldbeconstruedasapotentialconflictofinterest.AcknowledgmentWethankBobBerwickforhelpfulsuggestions.VN'sportionofthisarticlewassupportedinpartbytheNationalCouncilofTechnologicalandScientificDevelopmentCNPq(grant160605/20148).Footnote1.^Jackendoff(1999,2002),inparticular,envisagesnotonlytwobutatleastninepartiallyorderedstepsinhumanlanguageevolution.2.^Althoughparallelsbetweenbirdsongandhumanlanguagehaveoftenbeensuggestedintheliterature(Darwin,1871Jespersen,1922Marler,1970Nottebohm,1975DoupeandKuhl,1999Okanoya,2002Bolhuisetal.,2010Berwicketal.,2012),weendorsetheideathattheactuallinkisbetweenbirdsongandtheexpressionstructureportionofhumanlanguage,asalreadyarguedforbyMiyagawaetal.(2013,2014).Besides,arecentresearchsuggeststhattheIntegrationHypothesisisinfactontherighttrack.Usingcomputationalapproachtogeneexpressionprofiles,Pfenningetal.(2014)haveidentifiedanalogousbrainregionsforsongandspeechbetweenbirdsandhumans.ThisconstitutesstronggeneticevidenceforhalfoftheIntegrationHypothesis,namely,theconnectionbetweenbirdsongandlanguage.3.^MostlyinaccordancewithaDistributedMorphologyviewoftheprimitivesofthegrammar(HalleandMarantz,1993Marantz,1997EmbickandNoyer,2007),andparallelwiththeAntiLexicalistHypothesisputforthbySigursson(2012).4.^Theacategorialnatureoftherootpreventsittocontaingrammaticaland/orsemanticoperators,sincethisinformationwouldprespecifyitssyntacticbehaviorandconsequentlywouldprecludeitsinsertioninothercategorialenvironments.5.^Theunnecessarycomplexityaforementionedcomesfromtheassumptionthatbarerootscouldcombineinasystemwhere(i)rootsaredefinedasafeaturelesssyntacticprimitive,andwhere(ii)thecombiningoperationrequiresfeaturevaluationtoapply(Chomsky,2000amongothers).Sincerootsaredevoidofanygrammaticalfeature,theycannotgetintoafeaturevaluationsystem,andconsequentlythemergeroftwobarerootsisprecludedbythesyntacticcomponent.Ifsomeoneinsiststhatthemergeroftwobarerootscanbeinstantiatedinthesyntacticcomponent,oneneedstoresorttotheassumptionofanadditionalunderspecifiedMergethatblindlycombinestwofeaturelesssyntacticobjects,leadingtosuchanunnecessarycomplexity.ThisadditionaloperationisnotlimitedtopairMerge,anditmustbepowerfulenoughtodistinguishthevariedinternalstructuralrelationspresentwithincompounds,whichwouldbemadeupoftwobareroots,suchas(a)theselectionrelationpresentinVN[e.g.,(BrazilianPortuguese)limpavidroslit.cleanglassesglasscleaner],NV[e.g.,(Catalan)camatrencarlit.leg(s)breakbreakleg(s)),andPN[e.g.,(French)contrepoisonlit.againstpoisonantidote]compounds,and(b)theattributive,subordinateandcoordinaterelationswithinNNcompounds(e.g.,swordfish,apronstringandactordirector,respectively),resemblinggrossomodoaprotoMergeoperation.6.^Itisnotconsensualthatcallsystemsareentirelygeneticallybased.SeyfardandCheney(1986)suggestthatthecallsystemofVervetmonkeysmayinvolvelearning,usingforevidencethefactthatwheninfantsrespondtotheplaybackofanalarmcall,theyaresignificantlymorelikelytodosocorrectlyiftheyhavefirstlookedatanadult.8/13/2015 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7/15Besides,afteraninfanthasgivenaneaglealarmcalltoagenuinepredator,adultsaresignificantlymorelikelytoalarmcallthemselvesthanwhentheinfantalarmcallatanonpredator.Thesefactssuggestthepresenceofamechanismofreinforcementincallsystems,aspointedoutbySchlenkeretal.(2014).7.^RecentworksonthealarmcallingsystemofCampbellmonkeyshaveanalyzedalarmcallsasrootsorstems(Ouattaraetal.,2009a,b,cSchlenkeretal.,2014).Themainargumentforsuchatreatmentisthepresenceofaffixationinsuchanalarmcallingsystem,inwhichthesuffixooisarguedtobroadenthecall'smeaning.Forinstance,thecallkrak,usedasleopardalarm,hasitsmeaningbroadentoageneralcallwhenaffixedtoooandthecallhok,aneaglealarm,becomesageneralarborealdisturbancecallafteraffixation.Thisparticulardistributionstrengthenstheassumptionthatalarmcallsbearaparalleltoroots,sincetheycanbeattachedtorecurrentdependentunits.8.^Withrespecttolanguageontogeny,theideathatafullfledgedMergeistheresponsibleforthederivationofwordsmustalsohold.Thus,theassumptionthatearlychildacquisitionareaformofprotolanguage(Bickerton,1990,1995)iswrong,sincethechild'sabilityofformingasimplewordorofusinginflectedwordspresupposesthepresenceofafullfledgedstructurebuildingoperationabletocombinearootwithacategorydefiningheadandsubsequentlywithinflectionalheads.9.^TheauthorsalsoarguethatexocentricVNcompoundsfromSlaviclanguagesandEnglishtendtodisplayaderogatorysemantics,beingoftencoarseandvulgarwhenreferringtohumans.However,justaveryfewcasesseemtodisplaysuchinterpretationsinRomanceagentiveVNcompounds.Themanyotherinterpretationsthatthesecompoundsmayhavelacksuchaderogatorysemantics,forinstance,instrument,event,location,qualifyingorrelationaladjectiveinterpretations(Ricca,2010).Further,theauthorsclaimthattheverbofSerbianVNcompoundssurfaceintheimperativeform,whichwouldevidencethefossilizednatureofthesecompoundssincetheimperativemoodisaprotolinguisticform(Rolfe,1996).However,suchananalysiscannotbedirectlyexpandedtoRomanceexocentricVNcompounds,sincetheverbalmemberofthesecompoundshasnoimperativesemanticvalue(Scalise,1992DiSciullo,1992Vogel,1993VogelandNapoli,1995Peperkamp,1997Bisetto,1999FerrariBridgers,2005,forItalianFradin,2009Villoing,2009,forFrench).Besides,inItalian,objectsofimperativeverbscannotbebarenouns,contrarytotheobligatorybareobjectconditionofItalianVNcompounds,forinstance:aprilebottiglie!lit.openthebottlesisawellformedimperativesentence,while*appribottiglie!lit.openbottlesisnot,unlikeitsrespectivecompoundapribottigliecanopener(FerrariBridgers,2005).10.^Recursionisfoundinavarietyofcompounds,beingveryproductiveinsomeGermaniclanguagesandinTurkishcompoundnouns(Don,2009Gksel,2009Neef,2009Bisetto,2010).11.^ExceptinRomanian,whereVNcompoundshasaverylimitedproductivity(Grossmann,2012).12.^Thesegrammaticalrelations(GR)holdingbetweentheconstituentsofacompoundarebasicallytherelationsthatholdinsyntacticconstructions(BisettoandScalise,2005ScaliseandBisetto,2009),whicharepresumablyuniversal(GuevaraandScalise,2009).Insyntacticterms,theyareallderivedbyafullfledgedoperationMerge(Nbrega,2014),accordingtothefollowingdistribution:(a)subordination:headcomplementrelationinwhichaconstituenthasitsselectorfeaturevaluedbyitscomplement(b)attribution:adjunctionrelationinwhichthenonheadconstituentismergedtoitsheadindependentlyfromfeaturevaluation,and(iii)coordination:conjunctiverelationinwhichaconjunctiontakestwoconstituentscategoriallyidenticalandinasymmetricrelation,dissolvingthissymmetryviamovementinordertoallowthestructurelabeling,inlinewithChomsky(2013).Inviewofthis,ourproposalrelegatestooperationMergenotonlytheabilitytogeneratetheconstituentmembersofacompound,butalsotheabilitytoestablishthegrammaticalrelationsbetweenitsconstituentmembers,withoutresortingtoflavoredfunctionalprojectionsasinDiSciullo'saccount(DiSciullo,2005,2009,2013,2014).13.^SomeVNcompoundsfromRomancelanguagescontainanominalconstituentinterpretedasanadjunct(e.g.,alocative,[French]reveillematinlit.wake.upmorningdespertador,DesmetsandVilloing,2009[Chichewa]chigonambwalit.sleepbaradrunk,analcoholicMchombo,2004).Weassumethattheseinterpretationsaretheresultofhowthenominalconstituentwasmergedtotheverbalhead,namely,eitherbysetMerge,whenitisinterpretedasthecomplement,orbyapairMerge,whenitisinterpretedasanadjunct(Chomsky,2000,2004).14.^Furthermore,theevidencethatVNcompoundsarereducedrelativeclauses,duetotheirsemanticexocentricinterpretation(e.g.,xsuchthat[x[VN]]BokBennemaandKampersManhe,2006),weakensdrasticallytheideathatthesecompoundsmayhaveaflatinternalstructure,sincetherelativeinterpretationwouldneverbederivedinsuchflatstructure.8/13/2015 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formation, compoundingCitation: Nrega VA and Miagawa S (2015) The precedence of ntax in the rapid emergence of human language in evolution a defined theintegration hpothei. Front. Pchol. 6:271. doi: 10.3389/fpg.2015.00271Received: 02 Januar 2015; Accepted: 23 Feruar 2015;Pulihed: 18 March 2015.dited :Andrea Moro (http://www.frontierin.org/people/u/26055), Intitute for Advanced Stud IUSS Pavia, ItalReviewed :Critiano Chei (http://www.frontierin.org/people/u/50726), Intitute for Advanced Stud IUSS Pavia, Italrmenegildo idee (http://www.frontierin.org/people/u/202392), Univerit of Trento, ItalCopright 2015 Nrega and Miagawa. Thi i an open-acce article ditriuted under the term of the Creative Common Attriution Licene (CCY) (http://creativecommon.org/licene//4.0/). The ue, ditriution or reproduction in other forum i permitted, provided the original author() orlicenor are credited and that the original pulication in thi journal i cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No ue, ditriution orreproduction i permitted which doe not compl with thee term.*Correpondence: Shigeru Miagawa, Department of Linguitic and Philooph, Maachuett Intitute of Technolog, 32D-808/14N-305, Camridge,MA 02139, USA miagawa@mit.edu (http://www.frontierin.org/Communit/WhoWhoActivit.apx?name=jrnrem&UID=2299)jrn rem(http://www.frontierin.org/Communit/WhoWhoActivit.apx?name=jrnrem&UID=2299) Inamuch a ou find thatthe genetic ai of irdong upport the Integration Hpothei (Footnote 2), ou might e intereted to learn that a particularcomponent of thi genetic ai, FOXP2, i not onl critical for the "chrtallization" of irdong, ut alo for the automatizationof other ehavior (feedack-aed or operant learning). For intance, Schreiwei et al. reported that trangenic mice with humanized Foxp2 are affected in the timing of ehavioraltereotpization: http://www.pna.org/content/111/39/14253.full (http://www.pna.org/content/111/39/14253.full) We have hown that the inverterate FoxP orthologue i required for the tereotpization of fruit fl turning ehavior: http://journal.plo.org/ploone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0100648 (http://journal.plo.org/ploone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0100648)25 Jun 2015 at 10:18amWrite a comment...AddPOPL ALSO LOOKD ATThe integration hpothei of human language evolution and the nature of contemporar language(/article/10.3389/fpg.2014.00564/atract)Shigeru Miagawa (http://loop.frontierin.org/people/73842/overview), Shiro Ojima (http://loop.frontierin.org/people/29661/overview), Roert C. erwick(http://loop.frontierin.org/people/33263/overview) and Kazuo Okanoa (http://loop.frontierin.org/people/33276/overview)The longevit of roadleaf deciduou tree in Northern Hemiphere temperate foret: inight from tree-ring erie(/article/10.3389/fevo.2015.00046/atract)Alfredo Di Filippo (http://loop.frontierin.org/people/218112/overview), Neil Pederon (http://loop.frontierin.org/people/115182/overview), Michele aliva(http://loop.frontierin.org/people/232574/overview), Michele runetti (http://loop.frontierin.org/people/228607/overview), Anna Dinella(http://loop.frontierin.org/people/229445/overview), Keiko Kitamura (http://loop.frontierin.org/people/230839/overview), Hann D. 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