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Te nctiona properties o sar – on a tecnica eve
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Dear Reader,
In tis brocre, we ave atered soe o or deeper knowede reardin
te nctiona properties o sar.
Besides sweetenin, sar as any nctiona roes in ood.
Witot sar, a wod soon o o, ice crea wod crystaise, and bread
wod ose its resness and dry ot. In addition, te taste o oods wod be
disappointin witot te abiity o sar to rond o and enance natra
taste coponents. Sar as one or ore nie, aity enancin proper-
ties to oer aost a types o ood prodction invovin bot soid and
iid oods.
A tese nctiona properties are not aways we known and soeties
even orotten, despite o te iportance sar actay do pay in te
dierent appications.
Yo can aso ind inoration abot te nctiona properties o sar on or
web site www.nordicsar.co
Nordic Sar
2
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Tabe o ContentsSwtnss
Sweetness 4-10
Flavo
Interaction wit oter tastes and avors 11-15
Volm
Bkin 16-19
Sobiity 20-24
TxtCrystaisation 25-26
Eect o sar and sweeteners on pectin e oration 27-30
Partice sie 31-34
Sobiity 20-24
Viscosity
Slf lf
Scrose ydroysis 40-42
Water activity and its ipications in sar-ric oods 43-47
Fmntaton
Ferentation eedstocks 48-49Scrose ydroysis 40-42
Fzn-pont dpsson
Sobiity 20-24
Scrose ydroysis 40-42
Colo
Brownin reaction 50-53
Scrose ydroysis 40-42
Most tnton
Sobiity 20-24Scrose ydroysis 40-42
Water activity and its ipications in sar-ric oods 43-47
3
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Sceatic Overview
4
FREEzINgShElF FERmEN- POINT mOISTuRE
SWEETNESS FlAVOuR VOlumE TExTuRE lIFE TATION DEPRESSION COlOuR RETENTION
Sweetness
Interaction wit oter tastesand avors
Bkin
Sobiity
Crystaisation
Eect o sar and sweetenerson pectin e oration
Partice sie
Viscosity
Scrose ydroysis
Water activity and itsipications in sar-ric oods
Ferentation eedstocks
Brownin reaction
•
•
•
• •
•
•
•
• •
• • • • •
•
•
•
•
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Nodc Sa A/S | Lanboad 1 | P O Box 2100, 1014 Copnan K, Dnmak | Pon +45 3266 25 00
-mal [email protected] | www.nodcsa.com
Sweetness
SWEETNESS5
Figure 1. Approximate sweetness o selected sweeteners.
Frctose
0.1 1 10 100 1 000 10 000
hFCS
Scrose
Sorbito
gcose syrp
hFCS
Cycaate Scraose
Twinsweet
Saccarin
Neotae
Aspartae
Acesae-K Taatin
NhDC
Scrose is te standard sweetener to wic a oter
sweeteners are copared. Te reative sweetness o
scrose is set to 1 or 100%. Te ony way to easre
te sweetness o a sbstance is to taste it. Wen a
sbstance is paced on te tone, te taste bds
deciper te ceica coniration o te sbstance
and a sina o te taste is sent to te brain.
A rowin nber o aternative sweeteners eist
on te arket; a wit soewat dierent sweetness
copared to scrose. Te iteratre oers ires or
te sweetness o te varios sweeteners bt in ostcases tese ires are reated to st one appication.
It is necessary to know in wat edi te prodct
was tested becase te sweetness o any sweeteners
depends on concentration, ph, teperatre and te
se o oter inredients, or eape oter sweeteners
or avors. In soe cases, psycooica eects aso
inence te taste sensation: reen ey is perceived as
ess sweet tan red ey ato tey contain eacty
te sae aont o sweetener.
Fire 1 sows soe o te sweeteners avaiabe today
and teir approiate eve o sweetness.
Sweeteners are divided into two ain rops: bksweeteners, wit a reative sweetness ower or sity
ier tan scrose, and i intensity sweeteners
(hIS) wit a reative sweetness consideraby above 1.
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SWEETNESS6
40°C 60°C
Figure 2. Eect o temperature on the relative sweetness
o ructose. Source: Shallenberger RS, Taste Chemistry, 1993
RElATIVE SWEETNESS
0°C 20°C
1.4
1.0
0.6
Teperatre
NATuRAl SWEETENERS
Scrose, cose and rctose are te ost coon
sweeteners in natre. gcose is aways ess sweet
tan scrose, wereas te sweetness o rctose is
iy dependent on teperatre. Fire 2 sows
tat rctose is sweeter tan scrose at ow tepera-
tres, wereas te sweetenin eect decreases as te
teperatre rises.
Nordic Sar as investiated beveraes sweetened
wit scrose, cose and rctose aone and in
dierent cobinations. Tabe 1 sows te reative
sweetness deterined ro tese tests. Invert sar is
a 50:50 i o rctose and cose derived ro
inversion o scrose.
Te ratios 30:70, 90:10, 80:20 and 50:50 in te
tabe indicate te weit percentaes o te sweeten-
ers as dry sbstances. Te aont o sweeteners added
to te beveraes corresponds to 6-10% scrose.
SWEETENER RElATIVE SWEETNESS
Scrose 1.0
Invert sar 0.8
Scrose: Invert sar 30:70 0.9
gcose 0.5-0.6
Frctose 0.9-1.2
Scrose: Frctose 90:10 1.0
Scrose: Frctose 80:20 1.1-1.2
Scrose: Frctose 50:50 1.1-1.2
Table 1. Relative sweetness o raspberry-blackcurrant sot drinks.
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SWEETNESS7
Figure 3. Sweetness related to the DE equivalent o glucose syrup.
BASIC SWEETNESS OF gluCOSE SYRuPS
gluCOSE SYRuPS
gcose syrp eists in any dierent versions de-
pendin on te deree o starc ydroysis. Tere are
aso soe variants wit dierent eves o rctose de
to isoerisation o te cose oece. gcose
syrps witot rctose are ess sweet tan scrose.
gcose syrps are iven a DE nber (cose eiv-
aents) based on te deree o breakdown. Te ier
te nber, te ore starc as been ydroysed, see
ire 3.
Starc
matodetrin DE4-20
gcose Syrp DE30
gcose Syrp DE40
gcose Syrp DE60
gcose Syrp DE90
gcose / gcose DE100
0
0.1
0.2
0.35
0.54
0.62
0.65
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Figure 4. Sweetness in resh and stored sot drinks.
SWEETNESS
Te iteratre ses any dierent vaes or te rea-
tive sweetness o cose syrps. Danisco tereore
ade tests wit dierent ies o scrose and cose
syrp to evaate te perception o sweetness. In te
oowin eape we copared non-carbonated
raspberry and wid strawberry sot drinks and a car-
bonated sot drink caed rit soda (sae type as
Sprite) sweetened wit eiter scrose ony (S 100) or
a 50:50 i o scrose and a cose syrp wit 9%
rctose at two dierent eves: S:F9 123 and S:F9 111
(123 and 111 indicate te aont o sweetener,
conted as a dry sbstance copared to te aont
o scrose).
A taste pane ranked te sweetness o te sapes on
a scae ro 1-9, were 1 was east sweet and 9 was
sweetest. Soe sapes were tested bot res ro
prodction and ater or onts o storae. Fire 4
istrates te reation between te sweetness o te
tree sapes and sows tat or te res sapes
S:F9 123 is cosest to te scrose-sweetened sape in
two appications, wie S:F9 111 coes coser in te
appication. Ater or onts’ storae a dose o
S:F9 123 is aso necessary in tis appication. Tis is
probaby de to inversion o scrose drin storae,
wic increases te sweetness. Te tests deonstrate
tat dosae tests st be ade or eac appication to
ake sre tat te prodct is sweetened optiay.
RaspberryFres
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 Wid straw-berry Fres
Frit sodaFres
Wid straw-berry
4 onts
Frit soda4 onts
S:F9123 S:F9111S100
SWEETNESS8
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Figure 5. Relative sweetness o selected sugar alcohols (polyols).
RElATIVE SWEETNESS
POlYOlS
Tere are any dierent poyos avaiabe today, bt
a ecept one is ess sweet tan scrose. Te reative
sweetness o te poyos appears ro ire 5. A
poyos ave a ore or ess prononced cooin eect
de to neative eat sobiity, wic ay add vae
to soe prodcts bt case probes in oters.
hIgh INTENSITY SWEETENERS (hIS)
Tere are any dierent hIS prodcts on te arket.
Tabe 2 ists te ones aowed in te Eu. Restrictions or
se in varios appications appy to a o te, see te
Eu’s sweetener directive (ttp://eropa.e.int/co/
ood/ood/ceicasaety/additives/co_eis_en.
t) or ore inoration on restrictions.
SWEETNESS9
E NumBER SWEETENERS AllOWED IN ThE Eu
E 950 Acesae K
E 951 Aspartae
E 952 Cycaic acid, Na-Cycaate, Ca-Cycaate
E 954 Saccarin and its Na-, K- and Ca-sats
E 955 Scraose
E 957 Taatin
E 959 Neoesperidin DC
E 962 Twinsweet (sat o aspartae and acesae)
Table 2. Sweeteners allowed in all EU countries.
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0
S u c r o
s e x y
i t o
C r y s t
a i n e
m a t
i t o
m a t i t
o S y
r u p
S o r b i
t o
m a n n
i t o
I s o a
t
l a c t i t o
P o y d
e t r o
s e
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Figure 6. Dependence on concentration.
Source: ABC International Consultants
RElATIVE SWEETNESS OF SODIum SACChARIN
Te reative sweetness o a hIS prodcts is iy
dependent on concentration and ph, as eepiied
in ires 6 and 7.
SWEETNESS10
Reative sweetness
0 5
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Scrose (%)
10 15 20 25
Figure 7. Dependence on pH and concentration.
Source: Zannoni Low Calorie Foods 1993
RElATIVE SWEETNESS OF SuCRAlOSE
Reative sweetness
3 4
1000
800
600
400
200
Scrose (%)
6 7 9
ph 3.1 ph 7.6ph 2.75
5 8 10 11 12
0100
Figure 8. Example o synergy in HIS mixes.
Source: von Rymon Lipinsky 1991
SWEETNESS SYNERgY
SWEETNESS OF ACESulFAmE / ASPARTAmE BlENDS
% Scrose
1000
8020
10
8
6
4
2
0
% Acesae K% Aspartae
6040
4060
2080
300 / bend
miin dierent hIS prodcts oten creates synery
eects restin in ier sweetness tan wen
sed separatey. Fire 8 istrates te eect o iinaspartae and acesae K.
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Oter ies o sweeteners aso enerate syneries.
Tabe 3 ists a nber o ies and teir syneristic
abiity.
SWEETNESS11
SWEETENER mIx SYNERgY
Aspartae + Acesae K Yes
Aspartae + Saccarin Yes
Saccarin + Cycaate Yes
Acesae K + Saccarin No
Scraose + Aspartae No
Scraose + Acesae K Yes
Scraose + Saccarin Yes
Table 3. Synergistic ability o selected HIS mixes.
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Favor
FlAVOuR12
Figure 1. Time-intensity curves o ructose, glucose and sucrose.
Source: Shallenberger RS, Taste Chemistry, 1993
Sweetness
0Tie
Frctose
Scrose
gcose
INTERACTION WITh OThER
TASTES AND FlAVOuRS
Besides sweetness tere are tree oter basic tastes:
sat, sor and bitter. Soeties ai is incded as
a it basic taste. In any ood systes we se
sweetness to baance te basic tastes and to enance
and odiy avors.
So applcatons
Beveraes, as and araades are a ies o sweet
and sor coponents. It is iportant to create a ood
baance between sorness and sweetness, wic is oten
acieved by addin a i o sar and citric acid. Tis is
a ood i becase te tie-intensity crves or bot
coponents are aost identica, i.e. te sweet and sor
tastes reac teir ai aost sitaneosy.
Te tie-intensity crves or te natra sars,
scrose, cose and rctose, are istrated in ire 1.
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-mal [email protected] | www.nodcsa.com
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FlAVOuR13
Te tie-intensity crves o dierent sweeteners vary
reaty. Te sweetness o, or instance, aspartae
and scraose asts oner tan tat o natra sars.
It aso otasts te sorness o citric acid to te eect
tat te sweet taste asts or too on. usin anoter
acid, e.. aic acid, can to soe etent copensate
or tis, as its sor taste asts oner. Te tie-intensity
crves o soe sweeteners, or instance Taatin
and Neoesperidin DC, are so dierent ro a acids
tat tey cannot be sed in sor appications becase
te sorness disappears even beore te sweetness is
perceived. Te sweetness is aso very on-astin,
see ire 2.
Figure 2. Time–intensity curves o selected sweeteners.
Source: Leatherhead Food RA Ingredients Handbook Sweeteners
Sweetness
0
Tie (s)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Saccarin Scrose NhDC Taatin gycyrriin
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FlAVOuR14
Scrose is oten sed in rit preparations becase o
its abiity to enance te avors o te rit. Tis abi-
ity varies or dierent types o sweeteners. To ind te
optia sweetener i it is necessary to peror tests
or every appication. however, soe ies are pre-
erred in ost appications.
Fire 3 sows te rests o tests ade to rank te
preerence o seected sweetener ies in two appica-
tions: non-carbonated raspberry and wid strawberry
sot drinks. A ies wit sar or cose syrp re-
dced te enery by 40% copared to te drink
sweetened wit sar ony.
RASPBERRY DRINK: A/S < ISAST < A/A < gh < Scrose < ISAS < ISA40 < ISAS+
Figure 3. Preerence ranking or non-carbonated sot drinks with total
(A/A and A/S) or 40% (ISA40, ISAS, ISAS+, ISAST, GH) energy reductioncompared to the sugar-sweetened drink.
WIlD STRAWBERRY DRINK:
gh < ISAST < ISAS+ < ISAS < Scrose < A/A < ISA40
ISA40 Invert sar, scrose, aspartae
ISAS Invert sar, scrose, aspartae, saccarin
ISAS+ Invert sar, scrose, aspartae, saccarin, neoesperidin DC
ISAST Invert sar, scrose, aspartae, saccarin, taatin
gh gcose syrp, aspartae, saccarin, neoesperidin DC
A/A Aspartae, acesae K
A/S Aspartae, saccarin
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FlAVOuR15
Btt applcatons
In bitter appications sc as cocoate and coee,
sar is oten sed to oderate or disise te bitter-
ness. usin taste panes, gavino eained te eect
o sar on coee and vice versa. Varyin aonts o
sar were added to a standard coee (100% coee)
prepared ro 100 ras o coee ade wit 1 itre
o water. It appears ro ire 4 tat sar does ave
a stron inence on te perception o te coee
avor and tat te eect increases wit increasin
aonts o sar, ato not ineary. likewise, te
bitterness o coee as a siniicant inence on te
sweetness perceived, as istrated in ire 5.
Figure 4. Eect o sugar on perceived coee taste.
Data rom Galvino et al, Chemical Senses, 1990.
Eperienced coee taste
Coee concentration
0 20 40 60 80 100
25
20
15
10
5
0
Back Coee
3 ra
6 ra
12 ra
sar/100
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FlAVOuR16
Figure 5. Eect o coee bitterness on perceived sweetness.
Data rom Galvino et al, Chemical Senses, 1990.
Eperienced sweetness
Sar (/100 )
2 4 6 8 10 12
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
hot water
Coee concentration
10%
40%
100%
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BulKINg
Tere are two ain rops o sweeteners: bk sweet-
eners and i intensity sweeteners (hIS). Bk sweet-
eners not ony add weit and voe to te prodct,
tey aso ave a bi ipact on otee and tetre.
hi intensity sweeteners are sed in sc sa
aonts tat tey aect neiter te voe nor te
otee o te prodct. Natra sars, cose
syrps and sar acoos are a bk sweeteners.
Wt/Volm
Bk sweeteners aways add soe weit to te prod-
ct. At ow concentrations, te voe is ony sity
aected, wereas tey contribte a sbstantia part o
te voe in prodcts wit a i sweetener content,
e.. a and araade. Bk sweetener sotions ave
sity dierent speciic density (k/3). Density aso
depends on concentration and teperatre, as istrat-
ed in tabes 1-2 and ires 1-2. Tabe 3 and ire 3
sow te voe acieved at dierent concentrations
o sar or cose syrp.
In dry appications, te weit/voe reation de-
pends on partice sie and partice sie distribtion.
For ordinary caster sar, te density is approiatey880 k/3. Te vae ay vary dependin on andin.
Voe
VOlumE17
DeNSiTy OF AqueOuS SugAr AND gLuCOSe SyruP SOLuTiONS AT 20°C
gcose gcoseW % Scrose Invert Frctose gcose syrp DE42 syrp DE63
0 998.20 998.20 998.20 998.20 998.20 998.20
10 1038.10 1038.10 1038.50 1037.70 1039.07 1038.57
20 1080.97 1080.74 1081.74 1079.85 1083.17 1081.90
30 1127.03 1126.30 1127.76 1124.81 1130.68 1128.36
40 1176.51 1174.95 1177.07 1172.74 1181.73 1178.11
50 1229.64 1226.82 1229.65 1223.79 1236.48 1231.35
60 1286.61 1282.00 1285.55 1278.05 1295.01 1288.26
70 1347.49 1340.49 1344.67 1335.57 1357.34 1349.00
80 1412.2 1402.20 1406.78 1396.30 1423.43 1413.76
Table 1. Density (kg/m3) o aqueous sugar and glucose syrup solutions at 20°C.
Source o data: Leatherhead Food RA Scientic & Technical Surveys.
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VOlumE18
Figure 1. Density o aqueous sugar and glucose syrup solutions at 20°C.
DENSITY OF AquEOuS SugAR AND gluCOSE SYRuP SOluTIONS AT 20°C
Table 2. Density o aqueous sucrose solutions.
Source o data: Leatherhead Food RA Scientic & Technical Surveys.
Density k/3
Weit %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
gcose
Invert
gcose syrp 63DE
FrctoseScrose
gcose syrp 42DE
DENSITY (k/3) OF AquEOuS SuCROSE SOluTIONS
Teperatre°C 10% scrose 20% scrose 40% scrose 65% scrose
10 1040.15 1083.58 1180.22 1321.46
20 1038.10 1080.97 1176.51 1316.56
30 1035.13 1077.58 1172.25 1311.38
40 1031.38 1073.50 1167.52 1305.93
50 1026.96 1068.83 1162.33 1300.21
60 1021.93 1063.60 1156.71 1294.21
70 1016.34 1057.85 1150.68 1287.96
80 1010.23 1051.63 1144.27 1281.52
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VOlumE19
VOlumE/WEIghT (/k) FOR SugARS AND gluCOSE SYRuPS AT 20°C
gcose gcose W % Scrose Invert Frctose gcose syrp DE42 syrp DE63
0 1.002 1.002 1.002 1.002 1.002 1.002
10 0.963 0.963 0.963 0.964 0.962 0.963
20 0.925 0.925 0.924 0.926 0.923 0.924
30 0.887 0.888 0.887 0.889 0.884 0.886
40 0.850 0.851 0.850 0.853 0.846 0.849
50 0.813 0.815 0.813 0.817 0.809 0.812
60 0.777 0.780 0.778 0.782 0.772 0.776
70 0.742 0.746 0.744 0.749 0.737 0.741
80 0.708 0.713 0.711 0.716 0.703 0.707
Figure 2. Density o aqueous sucrose solutions.
DENSITY OF AquEOuS SuCROSE SOluTIONS (k/3)
Table 3. Volume/weight (l/kg) or sugars and glucose syrups at 20°C.
Source data: Table 1; 1/X * 1000.
Density k/3
Weit %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
10% scrose 40% scrose20% scrose 65% scrose
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VOlumE20
Figure 3. Volume/weight (l/kg) or sugars and glucose syrups at 20°C.
VOlumE/WEIghT (/k) FOR SugARS AND gluCOSE SYRuPS AT 20°C
Voe/weit /k
Weit %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
Motfl
At as ow dosaes as 7-10%, bk sweeteners provide
a dierent otee in beveraes or yort tan
i intensity sweeteners. In prodcts tat reire
even ier aonts o sweeteners, e.. stard and
ketcp, a tetriser is needed to obtain te sae te-
tre wit a i intensity sweetener as wen sin a
bk sweetener. In as and araades, were te
sar content noray is 35-60%, bk sweeteners not
ony add weit, voe and otee, tey aso in-
ence te eation process and, conseenty, ave a
bi eect on tetre. Dierent bk sweeteners ave
a sity dierent eect on eation and tetre.
gcose
Invert
gcose syrp 63DE
FrctoseScrose
gcose syrp 42DE
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VOlumE21
Figure 1. Solubility o sucrose in pure water.
Weit % Scrose
Teperatre °C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
100%
95%
90%
85%
80%
75%
70%
65%
60%
55%
50%
Scrose Water
SOluBIlITY
Basicay, teperatre and te ceica interaction
between a iven coponent and te water oece
deterine te coponent’s sobiity in water. Fire
1 sows ow c scrose can be kept in sotion in
pre water at teperatres between 0 and 140°C. At
teperatres above 100°C, pressrisation is necessary
to acieve te sobiity sown.
Te reativey i sobiity o scrose is an iportant
paraeter or its bkin eect in any oods and bev-
eraes. Te dissoved sar increases te viscosity o
water-based sotions or itres, restin in en-
anced otee.
Dissoved sar owers te reein point o ice
crea by preventin te water oeces ro co-
binin to or ice crystas, wic sows down te
reein process. Te roen water crystas no oner in
sotion increase te sar concentration in te re-
ainin sotion and ower te reein point even
rter.
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In bakery prodcts, te sobiity, or yroscopicity, o
sar akes it copete wit or proteins and starc
ranes or te avaiabe water, wic iniises -
ten oration and decreases eatinisation o te
starc. Tis akes te ina prodct ore oist and
tender, and te yroscopicity o te sar ensres
tat it reains tat way oner.
Te sobiity o scrose is ower tan rctose bt
ier tan cose, as sown in ire 2.
Te presence o oter inredients in te sotion or
prodct aects te sobiity and te potentia crystai-
sation. gcose syrps and invert sar are typicay
sed to avoid crystaisation o scrose, bt oter in-
redients sc as proteins, tetrisers and stabiisers
aso inence crystaisation.
Figure 2. Solubility o selected sugars.
Weit %
Teperatre °C
0 20 40 60 80 100
100
80
60
40
20
0
FrctoseScrose
lactose
VOlumE22
gcose
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VOlumE23
gcose 0 20 40 60 80 100
Scrose 100 80 60 40 20 0
Fire 3 sows te sobiity o cose, scrose and
ies o scrose and cose, and ire 4 sows te
sobiity o scrose, invert sar and ies o te two
sars. miin cose or invert sar wit scrose
increases te sobiity o te cobined sar atri
and aows or prodction o prodcts wit ier
tota sar soids tan wen sin sine coponents.
Te sobiity crves aso sow tat cose crystaisa-
tion is ikey to occr in i cose/ow scrose sys-
tes wit i tota soids. Since te ost coony
sed cose syrps contain ony a iited aont o
cose, cose crystaisation is ost ikey to occr
in systes wit i aonts o invert sar or iso-
cose, or in prodcts were are aonts o scrose
are converted into invert sar de to ow ph.
Figure 3. Solubility o selected sugars.
Weit % soids
40°C
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
Figure 4. Solubility o mixtures o sucrose and invert sugar.
Data rom Keysers, H. Zucker und Süsswaren Wirtschat. (1982); 35:147.
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
50°C
mIx OF SuCROSE AND gluCOSE – SATuRATION CuRVES
30°C
23°C
Scrose 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Invert sar 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Weit % soids
mIx OF SuCROSE AND INVERT SugAR – SATuRATION CuRVES
40°C
30°C
20°C gcosesatration
Scrosesatration
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VOlumE24
Scrose 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
DE42 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Figure 5. Solubility o mixtures o sucrose and glucose syrup DE42.
Data rom Birch, G.G., Green, L.F., Coulson, C.B., ‘Glucose Syrups and Related Carbohydrates’,
London, 1970.
Weit % soids
85.0
82.5
80.0
77.5
75.0
72.5
70.0
67.5
65.0
mIx OF SuCROSE AND gluCOSE SYRuP DE42 SATuRATION CuRVES AT 20°C
miin scrose wit cose syrp prodces even
ier weit % soids in sotion at ower tepera-
tres, as sown in ire 5. here 84 weit % soids in
sotion is reaced at 20°C by iin 23.7% scrose
wit 76.3% cose syrp DE42.
Reference:
harod mcgee, ‘On Food and Cookin – Te Science and lore o te Kitcen’, Scribner, 1984.
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Tetre
TExTuRE25
Figure 1. Phase diagram o the crystallisation o sucrose.
Scrose, % (w/w)
90
80
70
60
CRYSTAllISATION
Crystaisation o sars is desirabe in prodcts sc
as ondant, draees, de etc., bt not in any oter
prodcts ike a and eies. Crystaisation occrs
wen te sobiity iit o te sar, typicay scrose
or cose, as been eceeded and a spersatrated
environent as been created, as sown or scrose
in ire 1.
Te ter ‘spersatrated’ reers to te sitation were
ore sar tan teoreticay possibe ro te sobi-
ity data is in sotion. As indicated in ire 1, te
spersatrated sotion as been reaced eiter by
owerin te teperatre or by increasin te scrose
concentration, or bot. A etastabe reion eists
were te sotion is in act spersatrated bt in
practice no crystaisation is ikey to occr.
Teperatre °C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Spersatrated reion
metastabe iit
metastabe reionundersatrated reion
Sobiity iit
Evaporation
Cooin
Nodc Sa A/S | Lanboad 1 | P O Box 2100, 1014 Copnan K, Dnmak | Pon +45 3266 25 00
-mal [email protected] | www.nodcsa.com
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In te spersatrated state, above te etastabe
iit, crystaisation in iids is cataysed by te pres-
ence o sa partices, ro edes in te eipent,
stirrin or sakin. At very i viscosity, and in es,
te onset o crystaisation reires a ier deree
o spersatration, wic can occr wen a a is
cooed in te rerierator or te srace o a conec-
tionery e dries ot. Typicay i viscosity eans
sow crystaisation rates. gcose syrps and invert
sar are typicay sed to avoid crystaisation o
scrose, bt aso inredients ike proteins, tetrisers
and stabiisers inence crystaisation.
unwanted crystaisation o sars in prodcts ike
as and conectionery eies ay aect te appear-
ance o te prodcts, ivin te a rainy ook anda reyis coor, and te tetre o conectionery
prodcts can appear ’sort’ and crispy. Frterore,
te water activity o te prodct ay increase, as
water is ’seeed ot’ wen te sar soids are
concentrated in crystas. Increased water activity ay
aect te se ie o te prodct.
To avoid nwanted crystaisation in as and eies
te oowin isses sod be considered:
• Sucrose/glucosesyrupratiointherecipe
• Crystallisationofglucoseduetoincreasinginvert
sar content
• Tooheavymechanicalhandling:mixing,kneading
and pin
• Insufficientmixingofingredientsaddedafter
cookin
• Recyclingofproductsorintermediariesinthe
prodction ine
• Notoptimalstorageconditionsoffinishedproducts:i teperatre and varyin idity
Fzn-pont dpsson
Sars are eective in owerin te reein point o a
sotion. Tis is iportant in te anactre o ice-
crea prodcts and roen desserts. Froen prodcts
containin sars can be ade soter and easier to
scoop at a iven teperatre tan te sae prodcts
witot sars. Sars are sed to contro or prevent
te oration o ice crystas in tese prodcts. Te
ower te reein point, te ore diict or te icecrystas to or.
Te reein point is reated to te nber o oe-
ces in sotion. Te reater te nber o sote
oeces present, te reater te depression o te
reein point. monosaccarides are ore eective
tan scrose at owerin te reein point.
42 DE gcose syrp
0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
-3.0
-3.5
-4.0
-4.5
-5.0
-5.5
-6.0
-6.5
-7.0
-7.5
Concentration (%)
Scrose gcose
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
°C
TExTuRE26
Figure 2: Freezing-point depression o 42 DE glucose syrup,
sucrose and glucose
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EFFECT OF SugAR AND SWEETENERS
ON PECTIN gEl FORmATION
In as, araades and eies te on, strin-ike
pectin oeces convert iid into a soid-ike strc-
tre by bondin and orin a ine-esed network
tat ods te iid in its cavities. Pectin is a poyer-
ic carboydrate o i oecar weit and is ond
in a pants. Protopectin and ceose or te strc-
tre o te pant ce was. Soe rits, typicay ber-
ries, contain so c pectin tat tey can or es
on teir own, wie oter rits need sppeentary
ein aents wen sed or as and eies. Co-
ercia pectin or tis prpose is derived ro te
pee o citrs rits (eon, ie, orane and rape- rit), or ro appe poace.
Pectin consists priariy o a cain o aactronic
acid nits inked by α-1,4 cosidic bonds. Pectin
oeces ave a oecar weit o p to 150,000
and a deree o poyerisation o p to 800 nits.
Te aactronic acid cain is partiay esteriied as
ety esters. hi ester pectins (i deree o es-
teriication o te aactronic acid cain) can or
es wit te presence o sar at ow ph, wie ow
ester pectins (ow deree o esteriication) typicay
need caci ions present or orin es, bt can
work at ow sar contents or witot any sar at a.For akin a i ester (hE) pectin e certain
conditions are needed. Wen dissoved in water te
neativey cared pectin oeces irst need a ow
ph to redce te care and ereby redce one
barrier or akin te oece bond to itse. Net,
te avaiabiity o water oeces st be redced, as
te pectin oece wi oterwise tend to bond to
water rater tan to itse. Sar’s reat ydropiic
properties ake it idea or tis appication, so by add-
in sar in adeate antities te water is kept away
ro te pectin oeces, aowin te to interact
and or te network, i.e. te e. Typica conditions
or a akin are: ph o 2.8-3.4, pectin concentra-
tion o 0.5-1% and sar content o 60-65%.
Te ecanis beind ow ester (lE) pectin ein
is as oows: Wen positivey cared caci
ions are present, tey or brides between te nea-
tivey cared points o te pectin o e ces and a
network, or eswork, is ored.I scrose is sbstitted wit cose syrp, rctose,
poyos or bkin aents, te conditions or eation
and te caracter o te e dier. Te distribtion and
orientation o te -Oh rops appear to be te isse,
not teir eects on te coiative properties o water.
Frterore, dierent carboydrate sweeteners ave
dierent abiities to or stabe copees wit cati-
ons. Tis interaction can be navorabe to te ora-
tion o pectin e de to te decrease o caci ions
avaiabe to associate wit pectin oeces and, tere-
ore, decreasin e riidity. In ow ester pectin es,
te riidity essentiay depends on te capacity o tecarboydrate sar to copete wit pectin or caci
ions. Te interaction between carboydrates and water
is a secondary eect. Tis beavior it be o con-
siderabe iportance in dietary es.
TExTuRE27
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hE-PECTIN lE-PECTIN
gcose syrp DE40
gcose syrp DE60 – –
hFCS 42 –
hFCS 55
Frctose
Invert sar
In i ester pectin es, sipe sars ike cose,
scrose and atose tend to ive better tre e
strents tan i oecar weit oiosaccarides
ond in cose syrps. Te are oeces tend to
ive a i deoration e strent, bt wit ow
easticity and wit syneresis. Wen coosin cose
syrps or i ester pectin es, i eves o atose
and cose and ow eves o i oecar weit
oiosaccarides are iportant. Tabe 1 sarises
te eect on pectin e settin teperatre wen
sbstittin scrose wit oter sars. Te sbse-
ent eect on e strent is sown in tabe 2. Table 1. Eect o sugar composition on pectin gel setting
temperature (relative to sucrose).
Te ier averae oecar weit o te sweeten-er, te ier te tendency to increased settin
teperatre.
hE-PECTIN lE-PECTIN
gcose syrp DE40 – –
gcose syrp DE60 – –
hFCS 42 –
hFCS 55
Frctose
Invert sar –
Table 2. Eect o sugar composition on pectin gel strength
(relative to sucrose).
TExTuRE28
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ph °B DS% aw
Scrose 3.6 80.6 81.0 0.67
Frctose 3.6 79.9 80.6 0.66
gcose 3.6 80.4 81.2 0.65
Sorbito 3.6 79.1 80.7 0.65
xyito 3.6 78.1 81.2 0.63
Te eect o varios carboydrate sweeteners on te
e strent o pectin eies is istrated in te oow-
in case stdy in wic pectin eies were ade ac-
cordin to ora x1, see tabe 3. One tird o te
scrose, on a weit basis, was sbstitted by a iven
aternative carboydrate sweetener, and te e
CASE STuDY : gEl STRENgTh FROm BASIC SugARSBASE : FORmulA x1
Force (N)
Distance ()
Scrose
Frctose
gcose
Sorbito
xyito
strent o te restin pectin eies was easred.
Fire 1 sarises te rests or soe o te basic
sars, and ire 2 sows te correspondin rests
or te cose and rctose syrps isted in tabe 4.
TExTuRE29
Figure 1. Case study o gel strength – basic sugars.
Restin paraeters
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Figure 2. Case study o gel strength – glucose / ructose syrups.
gEl STRENghT OF PECTIN jEllIES WITh VARIOuS gluCOSE/FRuCTOSE SYRuPS
– FORmulA x1
Distance ()
gcose syrp DE40
gcose syrp DE60
Isocose
gcose syrp DE45
hi atose
Force (N)
BASIC FORmulA FOR CASE STuDY WITh PECTIN jEllIES WITh VARIOuS gluCOSE/FRuCTOSE SYRuPS – FORmulA x1
A. Water 30.0 k
Sodi 0.4 k
Citric acid 0.37 k
B. Pectin 1.5 kgrindsted xSS 100
Sar 5.0 k
C. Sar 46.0 k
gcose syrp 24.0 kWater evaporated to 100 k tota (as DS)
D. Citric acid 50% 0.74 k
Starc oded, 24-25 ors
Table 3. Basic ormula or case study o pectin jellies.
ph °B DS% aw
DE25 3.5 78.6 78.5 0.73
DE40 3.3 76.5 78.9 0.72
DE60 3.4 78.4 78.9 0.70
hm 3.4 78.0 78.5 0.72
ISO-gl 3.5 78.5 78.9 0.67
Table 4. Parameters or pectin jellies with glucose/
ructose syrups. Case study o ormula X1.
Parameters or pectin jellies with various glucose/
ructose syrups.
Reference:
mcgee, h.,’On Food and Cookin’, Scribner, 2003.
TExTuRE30
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PARTIClE SIzE FOR 90% OF ThE SugAR BulK DENSITY /
1.0-2.20 822
0.5-1.25 864
0.2-0.75 887
0.2-0.50 894
0.1-0.35 902
80%<0.1 565
PARTIClE SIzE
Sa patcl sz
An iportant stae in sar prodction is te crystai-
sation o scrose. Drin te crystaisation process a
speciic crysta sie and crysta sie distribtion are
obtained by strict contro o te nceation and
rowt paraeters o te scrose crystas.
Varios coercia rades o crystaised sar wit
dierent partice sies are obtained by screenin or
iin o te crystaine sar. By passin sar
tro vibratin ti-deck screens, te crystas are
separated into dierent sie ractions. Sie redction
can be obtained by rindin te sar crystas.
Sar partice sie is noray deterined by wayo a sieve anaysis in wic te partices are sorted by
sie, and te reations between te aonts o te
dierent ‘ractions’ are cacated. For crystaine,
non-screened sar it is assed tat te sie distri-
btion oows a nora distribtion. Based on tis
Table 1. Infuence o particle size on bulk density
(van der Poel et al., 1998).
assption te ean partice sie is cacated as te
ypotetica es apertre o a sieve tat aows 50%
o te sar to pass. Te standard deviation is sed as
a easre or te partice sie distribtion and is nor-
ay stated as te coeicient o variance, wic is te
standard deviation reated to te ean partice sie.
Te ean partice sie and te partice distribtion
deterine te pysica beavior o te sar, e..
bk density, ow properties and abrasion. Ceica
properties sc as prity and dissotion rate are aso
inenced by te crysta sie.
Bk density priariy depends on te partice sie
and increases wit decreasin partice sie, see tabe 1.
A narrow partice sie distribtion – i.e. te partices
are reativey nior in sie – eans a ower bkdensity tan or a wide partice sie distribtion.
In te atter case, te voids between te are partices
can be ied by saer partices, restin in ier
bk density.
TExTuRE31
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Te bk density deterines te space reired or
bk storae o sar in sios, and it aects voetric
dosin. In cobination wit te oistre content, te
partice sie distribtion deterines te ow proper-
ties o te sar. I crystaine sar is stored correcty
(above 10°C and at 40-65% Rh) it wi reain ree-
owin and can easiy be conveyed by eans o ravi-
ty, vac or copressed air.
As reards prity, non-scrose sbstances are ain-
y ond in te syrp i coverin te crysta srace.
Since te speciic srace area decreases arkedy wit
increasin crysta sies, sar wit a coarse crysta sie
is prer tan sar wit a ine crysta sie. Te prity
o icin sar and oter ied prodcts o corse de-
pends on te prity o te startin ateria. In ostcases, te prity o coercia sars is above 99.9%
wit te aor non-sar present bein water.
Te dissotion rate o sar depends on te sie o
te partices (oter conditions reainin constant),
as ine partices dissove ore rapidy tan coarse parti-
ces. however, wen partices becoe very sa tey
are diict to oisten and disperse and tend to p.
In practice tis is observed wen ore tan 5% o te
partices are ess tan 200 icron. Teperatre aso
aects te dissotion rate, since increasin tepera-
tre increases dissotion rates, see ires 1-2. Instant
Sar is ade ro iney ied sar spray-dried
onto water dropets. Tis process prodces aoer-
ates wit a poros strctre tat akes te prodct
rapid dissovin. Te averae partice sie o Instant
Sar is 200-400 icron. Te averae partice sie
o Icin Sar and Standard granated Sar is20 icron and 500-600 icron, respectivey.
Figure 1: Dissolution time o dierent sugars at 5°C.
DISSOluTION TImE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SugAR AT 5°C
% dissoved
Seconds
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Icin sar < 250 icron 250-400 icron
Instant sar Std. ranated 500-850 icron
TExTuRE32
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Sa patcl sz and applcatons
Te crysta sie distribtion aects te aity o te
oods in wic sar is ony partiay dissoved and it is
te ain contribtor to te strctre or consistency o
te prodct. Fine partices ive a soot tetre and,
as a re-o-tb, te otee is soot and no
partices are sensed wen ess tan 5% o te partices
are bier tan 30 icron.
In oded cocoate, sar is ond ainy in te
crystaine state, ato soe aorpos sar is
ored drin te precedin sar iin and coco-ate ass reinin. most o te aorpos scrose,
owever, recrystaises drin te concin process.
Te ain prpose o te reinin process is to redce
te partice sie to avoid a sandy-ritty otee in
te ina prodct. Partice sie aso inences te ow
and soid oration o cocoate.
In cookies and sweet biscits, were ost o te
sar is dispersed in te at pase, te partice sie
aects te do spread drin bakin and as sc
te diaeter and eit o te ina prodct. Te iner
te sar, te ore spread. Sar partice sie aso
aects te tetre o te cookie or sweet biscit and
ts te otee. A coarser sar prodces a crisper cookie.
TExTuRE33
Figure 2. Dissolution time o dierent sugars at 80°C.
DISSOluTION TImE AT 80°C
% dissoved
Seconds
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Icin sar < 250 icron 250-400 icron
Instant sar Std. ranated 500-850 icron
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
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Te tetre and otee o at/sar-based biscit
iins, toee/de and aripan are oter eapes
o ow sar partice sie inences te nctiona
properties o ood.
Sar partice sie is aso essentia or te tetre
and otee o icins, rostins and ondants.
In cassica ondant anactre te sie o te crys-
tas precipitated ro te spersatrated sotion
aects te otee. Soe o te actors aectin
te rain sie are te presence or introdction o
ndissoved sar crystas, te teperatre at wic
te aitation starts drin cooin, and te presence
o invert sar. Te ondant coor is aso inenced
by te sar partice sie, as sa partices ive a
witer icin or ondant de to a dierent reection
o it. A i aity ondant as a partice sie o
abot 10 icron.
In dry bends, were scrose is sed as a carrier or
oter inredients, incdin coors and avors,
crysta sie is an iportant property. Te risk o sere-
ation o inredients can be iniised by sin
screened sar wit a partice sie cose to tat o te
oter inredients or by sin Instant Sar, were te
poros strctre o te aoerates ensres ood
bindin o oter inredients.
TExTuRE34
References:
P.W. van der Poe, h. Sciweck, T. Scwart (1998): Sar Tecnooy, Beet and Cane Sar manactre (Bartens).
m. matoti, P. Reiser (1995): Scrose, properties and appications (Backie Acadeic & Proessiona).
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VISCOSITY
Te viscosity o scrose sotions and oter bk
sweeteners is iy dependent on te dry sbstance
and teperatre.
Pre scrose, rctose and cose sotions, and
ies o te, are a Newtonian, eanin tat te
viscosity is independent o te sear rate. however,
iy concentrated cose syrps can be sity
psedopastic, i.e. te viscosity decreases wen te
sear rate increases.
Te viscosity as been easred, sin ow crves
on a Boin VOR Reoeter, at dierent concentra-
tions and teperatres or seected sars, sar
ies and cose syrps. Te rests are presented
in tabes 1-2 and istrated in ires 1-2.
Table 1. Viscosity o sucrose, invert sugar, glucose and ructose at dierent Rt and temperatures. 1 mPas = 1 cP.
rt 65 72 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 84
tep. °C Viscosity Pas
Scrose 50 31 110 243 500 702 850 1040Invert 50 16 69 171 270 330 411 560 709 1100 1480
gcose 50 20 55
Frctose 50 17 50 120 180 220 290 446 580
Scrose 40 56 200 454 900 1220 1700 2270
Invert 40 26 125 372 500 780 998 1500 1780 2800 4230
gcose 40 32 110
Frctose 40 27 90 240 390 510 700 1050 1700
Scrose 30 97 415 1040 2300 3220 4800 6660
Invert 30 46 269 904 1700 2100 2880 4000 5650 9500 15400
gcose 30 56 220
Frctose 30 48 190 580 1000 1500 2100 3240 5000
Scrose 20 176 1020 2840 7000 10300 15000 21200
Invert 20 87 664 2588 5000 7400 10400 21000 42800 59000 72600
gcose 20 105 500
Frctose 20 92 490 1600 2300 4800 7000 11900 19000
TExTuRE35
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Table 2. Viscosity o glucose syrup DE40 and DE60 at dierent Rt and temperatures. 1 mPas = 1 cP.
rt 65 72 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 84
tep. °C Viscosity Pas
DE40 50 48 238 600 992 1130 1320 2500 3900 5460
DE60 50 32 99 230 401 516 686 945 1300 1860 2420
DE40 40 102 460 1120 1860 2800 3540 6500 11100 15000
DE60 40 51 184 370 836 1140 1540 2150 3020 4660 6840
DE40 30 207 987 2900 5080 7500 9590 20000 32000 49800
DE60 30 91 378 1120 2710 2880 4100 6180 8720 14900 21800
DE40 20 400 2370 8000 15300 24000 30700 70000 114000 219000
DE60 20 176 894 2800 6180 8870 12800 21100 32800 57900 93800
Figure 1. Viscosity o sucrose, invert sugar, glucose and ructose at dierent
Rt and temperatures.
VISCOSITY AT DIFFERENT Rt AND TEmPERATuRES
Viscosity Pas
Rt %
64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84
100000
10000
1000
100
10
Scrose 50°C Invert 50°C gcose 50°C Frctose 50°C
Scrose 40°C Invert 40°C gcose 40°C Frctose 40°C
Scrose 30°C Invert 30°C gcose 30°C Frctose 30°C
Scrose 20°C Invert 20°C gcose 20°C Frctose 20°C
TExTuRE36
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Figure 2. Viscosity o sucrose, glucose syrup DE40 and glucose syrup DE60 at
dierent Rt and temperatures.
VISCOSITY AT DIFFERENT Rt AND TEmPERATuRES
Viscosity Pas
Rt %
64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84
100000
10000
1000
100
10
DE40 50°C DE60 50°C Scrose 50°C
DE40 40°C DE60 40°C Scrose 40°C
DE40 30°C DE60 30°C Scrose 30°C
DE40 20°C DE60 20°C Scrose 20°C
TExTuRE37
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Table 3. Dierences between reractometric dry substance (Rt) and true dry substance (Ds).
FruCTOSe rt Ds DiFFereNCe De60 rt Ds DiFFereNCe
65.4 66.9 1.5 65 65.0 0.0
75.8 77.7 1.9 76 76.0 0.0
80.3 82.5 2.2 80 80.0 0.0
82.4 84.8 2.4 84 84.0 0.0
gLuCOSe rt Ds DiFFereNCe De40 rt Ds DiFFereNCe
62.4 63.7 1.3 78 76.6 -1.4
64.5 65.9 1.4 80 78.5 -1.5
66.4 67.9 1.5 84 82.4 -1.6
70.7 72.4 1.7
iNVerT rt Ds DiFFereNCe
65 66.3 1.3
76 77.9 1.9
80 82.1 2.1
84 86.3 2.3
Rt stands or reractoetric dry sbstance. Rt is te
sae as rea dry sbstance (Ds) or scrose, wereas
tere is a dierence between Rt and Ds or rctose,
cose, invert sar and soe types o cose
syrps. Tabe 3 sows te dierence between Rt and
Ds vaes o seected sars.
TExTuRE38
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Table 4. Viscosity o sucrose, glucose and ructose at 20°C.
Source o data: Leatherhead Food RA Scientic & Technical Surveys.
% WeighT ViSCOSiTy mPasSuCrOSe gLuCOSe FruCTOSe
1 1,028 1,021 1,028
2 1,055 1,052 1,054
5 1,146 1,145 1,134
10 1,336 1,330 1,30915 1,592 1,566 1,533
20 1,945 1,904 1,837
30 3,188 2,998 2,817
40 6,161 5,491 5,045
50 15,432 11,891 10,823
60 58,479 37,453 32,573
64 120,480 58,140
68 285,710 119,048
70 476,190 178,571
Fires 1-2 cover iy concentrated sar sotions
and can be sed by te ood indstry to coose te
rit pp or sar sotions.
In ood, sars are osty sed in ow concentra-
tions. Te viscosity o scrose, cose and rctose
at 20°C and at concentrations between 1% and 70%
appears ro tabe 4 and ire 3.
In as and araades, wic say contain i
aonts o sar, te viscosity o te sar as a bi
ipact on te otee o te prodct. Ato te
viscosity o beveraes is ite ow (say arond
10%), te viscosity provided by te sar is ite
iportant or te overa otee o te beverae.
Figure 3. Viscosity o sucrose, glucose and ructose at 20°C.
VISCOSITY OF SuCROSE, gluCOSE AND FRuCTOSE AT 20°C
Viscosity Pas
Weit %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
1000
100
10
1
Scrose gcose Frctose
TExTuRE39
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SuCROSE hYDROlYSIS
intodcton
Inversion o sar reers to te ydroysis o te disac-
caride, scrose, to te onosaccarides, rctose
and cose, in ea proportions (1:1). Te inversion
is cataysed by ydroen ions (acids) or enyes.
Frctose and cose are reerred to as invert sar.
invson of scos, fst od kntcs
Ater te inversion o scrose, te rotation ane o poarised it passin tro te sotion is
easred. Scrose is detrorotatory (ro latin
deter, rit), bt te restin itre o cose
and rctose is sity aevorotatory (ro latin
aevs, et). As te concentration o scrose is
ower and te cose-rctose itre as been
ored, te rotation ane is to te et. Te rotation
o te it is directy proportiona to te concentra-
tion o scrose (c) in te sotion, and te inversion
oows te eation:
n (c/c0) = - k t
wic is o irst order kinetics wit k as te rate
constant.
Te easred scrose concentration is potted verss
tie (t) on a sei-o pot ivin a strait
ine wit te sope –k.
Te deree o inversion, x, can be cacated by
te oowin eation:
x = 100(1 - ct/c
0)
k: rate constant ( . -1 . in –1)
c: sar concentration ( . -1)x: deree o inversion (%)
t: tie (intes)
Se lie
ShElF lIFE40
Figure 1. Inversion o sucrose.
Ch2Oh Ch
2Oh
hO hO
hOOh
Oh Oh
C12
h22
O11
Scrose
h20
h20
water
C6h
12O
6
gcose
Ch2Oh
hO
Oh
Oh
hOCh2
hO
Oh Ch2Oh
C6h
12O
6
Frctose
Oh
Oh
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rat of nvson n soft dnks,
jc concntat and mamalads
We ave stdied te rate o inversion in seected sot
drinks, ice concentrates and araades and te
iportance o ph and te concentration o scrose
and invert sar. Frit soda and sot drinks contained
abot 9% scrose, wid strawberry and raspberry
concentrates abot 47% and araades abot 65%.
A prodcts were sweetened wit eiter scrose (S)
onyor a i o scrose and invert sar (SI) in a
40:60 ratio.
Te concentration o scrose sowed a inor ipact
on te rate o inversion, wereas ph ad a very bi
inence (see ire 2). At ph 2.4 ony abot 10% o
te scrose was et ater 100 days, wie at ph 3.1
ore tan 60% o te scrose reained ater te sae
period o tie. Prodcts wit a ph eve o 2.9 and 3.0
sowed reativey sa dierences in te rate o inver-
sion. A coparison o ire 2 (te indins o or
stdies) wit ire 3 (tie reired or a 50% inver-
sion o scrose at dierent ph eves and teperatres)
sows reativey ood areeent between te rests.
ShElF lIFE41
Figure 2. Rate o inversion in sot drinks, juice concentrates and marmalades
at dierent pH.
Scrose % o start vae
Days o storae
0 50 100 150 200 250
100
80
60
40
20
0
Sodaso. SI ph 2.4
Sodaso. S ph 2.4
Sodaso. SI ph 3.0
Sodaso. S ph 3.0
Wid strawberry S ph 3.1
Wid strawberry SI ph 3.1
Raspberry S ph 2.6
Raspberry SI ph 2.6
maraade S ph 3.0
maraade SI ph 3.0
Frit soda S ph 2.9
Fritsoda SI ph 2.9
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Popts of nvt sa
Invert sar as severa properties tat pay an ipor-
tant roe in any ood appications.
It as a i ainity or water and is sed to ake
prodcts retain oistre. Tis is iportant in, or e-
ape, te bakin indstry were invert sar epsbakery prodcts retain oistre and proon se ie.
Since invert sar as a tendency to absorb oistre
ro te atospere, it keeps bread and cakes res
or a oner tie.
Invert sar inibits crystaisation and retains ois-
tre, and it is tereore sed in prodcts sc as
icin, cake iin and conectionery.
Addin invert sar to a scrose sotion ay increase
te dry sbstance content o te sotion de to i-
er sobiity o te cobined sar sotion copared
to a pre scrose sotion. Invert sar as ower water
activity tan scrose. low water activity as a preserv-
ative eect, restin in oner se ie.
gcose and rctose case a maiard reaction wen
eated wit protein-ric ood inredients. Te maiard
reaction rests in brownin and avor deveopent
in te prodct.
Invert sar aso aects te caraeisation process,
prodcin a brownin eect.
ShElF lIFE42
Figure 3. Time required or a 50% inversion o sucrose at dierent pH and temperature.
day
2 3 4 5
1000
100
10
1
2.4
14.4
1.44
or
in
20°C
40°C
60°C
80°C
100°C
ph
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WATER ACTIVITY AND ITS ImPlICATIONS
IN SugAR-RICh FOODS
most peope know tat a ba o sar can be et in
te kitcen cabinet or years witot any sin o spoi-
ae wie a sice o sot bread noray ods in a
ew days. Tis is to a are etent de to te very ow
water activity (aw) o pre ranated sar as co-
pared to tat o bread.
Water is a prereisite or ie on eart, and an
as tried or tosands o years to preserve ood by re-
dcin te water content o oodsts by way o dry-
in, sokin etc. however, te water content is not a
very ood easre o se ie. Fire 1 sows tat
te water content o oods at a certain water activity
varies consideraby. Dried rits, or instance, are
icrobiooicay stabe p to a water content o
18-25% wie te correspondin iit or nts can be
as ow as 4%. As a water activity o 0.7 is oten taken
as an pper iit or sae se ie it is very iportant
to know te acta water activity and not ony te
water content.
ShElF lIFE43
Figure 1. The water content o oods at a w
0.70, i.e. the upper limit or sae storage.
(Data rom L. R. Beuchat)
5 10 15 20 25
Dried rits
Dried sop ies
Weat or, pasta
Dried veetabes
Rice
Roed oats
Dried ean eat and fs
Ski ik powder
Dried woe e
Soya beans
Cocoa Woe ik powder
Nts
Water content (% w/w)
lower upper
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DEFINITIONS AND mEThODS
OF mEASuREmENT
Water activity is a easre o te aont o water
avaiabe or icrooranis etabois or oter
ceica reactions in a ood prodct. It is deined as
te ratio o te water vapor pressre o te ood (p)
to tat o pre water (p0) at te sae teperatre.
aw
= p / p0
As water vapor pressre decreases wen a ood dries,
aw
as, ts ranin ro a ai vae o 1 or
pre water to 0. Te aw
o ases or air, say reerred
to as te eiibri reative idity (ERh), is reatedto a
was:
%ERh = 100 * aw
Te epression Rh is sed wen te air is not in ei-
ibri wit its srrondins. Te reein point, boi-
in point and osotic pressre aso reate to aw.
Water activity can be deterined by a nber o
etods: direct easreent o te vapor pressre,
ravietric etods or by way o varios eectronic
devices. however, it is essentia tat te water activity
o a ood is easred wen te ood is in eiibri
wit te air above te ood and at a constant tep-
eratre. An increase in teperatre say akes
aw
o p.
I a oodst is aowed to adsorb water and te
increase in water content is potted aainst te corre-
spondin aw, te restin crve is caed a water sorp-
tion isoter. I te process is reversed and te
oodst is dried, te restin desorption crve wi
dier ro te previos one. Tis penoenon
is caed ysteresis and is sown or scrose in ire 2.
Scrose, as oter sobe crystaine coponds, is in
dierent pases at dierent aw
vaes: a crystaine
pase, an aorpos pase and a sotion. hysteresis
can be o reat iportance wen, or instance, a y-roscopic ood is stored nder ctatin idity/
teperatre conditions in a wareose. Tabe 1 sows
te concentration o soe sars at varios aw
vaes.
Copter proras or cacatin sorption iso-
ters or pre oodsts and itres are coer-
ciay avaiabe. Tey are based on ateatica
odein and eaborations o te reationsip be-
tween concentration and vapor pressre o idea
sotions iven by Raot’s aw, wic epresses
aw
= n1 / n1 + n2 were n1 is te oes o sovent and
n2 te oes o sote.
ShElF lIFE44
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Table 1: Concentration o sugars at various values o water activity at 25°C
Based on data rom: a Robinson and Stokes (1959), b Taylor and Rowlinson (1955),c Grover (1947), and d Cleland and Fetzer (1944).
CONCeNTrATiON OF SugArS AT VAriOuS VALueS OF WATer ACTiViTy AT 25°C
Scosa glcosb invt sac glcos spd De42
aw
(%, w/w, °Bri) (%, w/w) (%, w/w) (%, w/w)
1.000 0 0 0 0
0.995 8.52 4.45 2.05 1.670.990 15.45 8.90 4.11 3.34
0.980 26.07 15.74 8.22 6.68
0.960 39.66 28.51 16.43 13.36
0.940 48.22 37.83 24.65 20.03
0.920 54.36 43.72 32.87 26.71
0.900 58.45 48.54 41.09 33.39
0.880 62.77 53.05 49.30 40.07
0.860 65.63 58.45 57.52 46.75
Figure 2. Sorption isotherm o sucrose.
Based on data rom Labuza, 1984, Maurandi & Mantovani, 1975, and J. Vindeløv, 2001.
Water content %w/w
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Crystaine scrose Water content <0.06%
Scrosesotion
Aorposscrose
Desorption Adsorption
Satratedscrosesotion
ShElF lIFE45
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Slf lf
One o te ost siniicant eects o water activity is
its ipact on se ie. As water activity in a oodst
decreases, te nber o icrobia species abe to
row in tat environent aso decreases, as do teir
rowt rate. Beow te iit o 0.60, no icrobia
proieration occrs and te prodct becoes y
stabe in tat respect. At east as on as te prodct
is kept dry! Ony very ew speciaised yeasts and
ods are abe to row beow aw
0.70. Tereore,
tis iit is in practice say rearded as sae or
prooned storae.
Te inia aw
vae or soe icrooraniss and
te correspondin oodsts at te speciic vae is
istrated in ire 3. Te water content, and encete a
wo soe o te oodsts in te ire, ay
vary siniicanty, so it sod be rearded as indica-
tive ony. microbia rowt is o corse aso reaty
aected by oter actors ike teperatre, ph and te
avaiabiity o oyen and ntrients (e.. te type o
sars). Tis is wy a pre iid sar (e.. a sotion
o scrose at 65% dry atter), de to its ack o oter
ntrients and te inabiity o any yeasts to tiise
scrose, is ite stabe in spite o an aw
vae o abot
0.87 were any yeasts are oterwise abe to row.
In oodsts sc as carbonated beveraes, pickes
and as, not ony te redced aw
cased by a i
sar concentration, bt aso te ow ph o sc pro-
dcts contribte to prooned se ie. Tis is in con-
trast to any bakery and dairy prodcts, saces and
dressins were preservatives st be added to
acieve siiar se ie. Te iportance o bein care-
wen redcin te sar content o a oodst sod be pointed ot in order to avoid an increase in
aw
above te critica eve (0.90) or rowt o pato-
enic icrooraniss.
Figure 3. Minimum water activity or the growth o some microorganisms.
WATER CONTENT %W/W
ShElF lIFE46
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Cl. botin
Saonea
most bacteria
most yeasts
Stapyococcs
most ods
haopiic bacteria
Etree osopies
e.. soe ods and yeasts
No icrobia proifration
Fres veetabes, rits, eats,
potry, fs, ik
Cred eats (e.. a), certain ceeses
saai, soe dry ceeses
For, cakes, rice, beans, cereas,
rit ice concentrates
jas, oney, araade, aripan,
soe arsaows
jey, nts
Soe sar syrps, dried rits, oasses,
caraes, toee, de, raw cane sar
Cookies, crackers
ranated sar
aw
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Sporation and toin prodction is aso aected by
aw. mycotoin prodction is say inibited at a
ier aw vae tan is rowt, and erination o
spores say occrs at a ier aw vae tan spor-
ation.
Ot ffcts of wat actvt
Not ony icrooraniss are aected by water activi-
ty. Aso enyatic activities in enera as we as any
oter ceica reactions are aected, e.. te rancidi-
ication o at or te nonenyatic brownin o ood-
sts (maiard reaction). however, tese non-biooi-
ca reactions cease at a water activity beow 0.2.
more practica ipications o dierences in water
activity are o corse te oistre iration ro are-
as o ood coponents wit a i vapor pressre
(i aw or ERh) towards areas wit a ower vapor
pressre. Tis is o reat iportance in, or instance,
preservin te crnciness and crispness o dry cereas
or crackers as we as or te we-known oistre
iration ro war to cod areas in wareoses and
te probes tis ay create.
ShElF lIFE47
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Ferentation
FERmENTATION48
FERmENTATION FEEDSTOCKS
Fmntaton tcnolo
Ferentation tecnooy is te odest o a biotec-
nooica processes. Stricty speakin, erentation is
an anaerobic enery-yiedin etaboic process in
wic oranic coponds, sc as sar, serve bot
as eectron donors and as eectron acceptors. In
enera, owever, erentation is considered as any
process for the production of a prod uct by means of
mass culture of microorganisms , ts aso incdinte aerobic etaboic processes.
Ancient erented ood processes sc as te
akin o wine, bread, ceese, beer etc. are noray
ecded ro te concept o indstria erentation,
wic rater coprises te akin o prodcts ike
antibiotics, oranic acids, enyes, vitains, aino
acids, biopoyers etc.
Tere are severa types o erentation o wic te
ost coon are batc, ed-batc and continos
erentation. A specia type desined or soid edia is
te Soid State Ferentation (SSF).
Te ain process steps are:
T fdstocks
Te desin o te ntrient edi or rowt and
prodct oration is a key step. Te constitents o
te edi st satisy te eeenta reireents
or ce bioass, prodct oration and enery.
Ntrients are cassiied as acrontrients (e.. a
carbon sorce, nitroen, posporos, spr,
potassi, anesi) and icrontrients (traceineras, vitains and oter rowt actors). usay
te cost o te carbon sorce deterines te prodc-
tion cost, and tis is especiay prononced or i
voe/ow vae prodcts (e.. etano, sine ce
protein, enyes, oranic acids, aino acids) were
tey ay accont or te aority o te tota prodc-
tion cost. Wen prodcin ow voe/i vae
prodcts (e.. antibiotics, orones, vaccines),
owever, te aity o te carbon sorce becoesore iportant copared to te price.
Inoc
preparation
media
preparation
Fina
prodctFerentation
Separation/
Isoation
Downstrea processin
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FERmENTATION49
Soe iportant considerations in coosin eedstocks
or erentation processes incde price, avaiabiity,
consistency, stabiity, ease o andin and, o corse,
te eect on process prodctivity and downstrea
processin. Te eect on downstrea processin and
its interation wit te erentation step as becoe
an iportant area o deveopent to increase eicien-
cy and decrease costs.
Te ost siniicant carbon and enery sorces or
erentation are renewabe sars ond in pant
bioass, i.e. scrose and starc. Strctra poysac-
carides, e.. inoceose, are sti o secondary
iportance becase akin te carboydrates
accessibe is epensive and tie consin. however,
in recent years te tiisation o waste as a sorce o raw ateria as ained siniicance. Sc eedstocks
can be sed in Soid State Ferentations. generay,
te ier te cost o a iven ceica, te ower te
ipact cost o te eedstocks is ikey to ave on te
econoics o te process.
Sa bt dvd fdstocks
Scrose, wic is any o te eedstock reire-
ents entioned above, is one o te ost iportant
sbstrates or erentation at present. It is avaiabe as
iy priied ranated or iid sar. Te atter
cod be ore or ess inverted to cose and rctose
and a are especiay sitabe or deined edia. Bot
cose and rctose, te bidin bocks o scrose,
are readiy tiised by varios icrooraniss and
tereore can serve as ood erentation sbstrates.
Anoter sorce o scrose is oasses, te by-prod-
ct ro sar processin. moasses is sitabe or
cope sbstrates. Apart ro easiy tiised sars,
abot 44%, oasses aso contains any vaabe
icrontrients ike trace eeents, aino acids andvitains. Anoter advantae is te ow cost. In soe
cases to, a pre-treatent ay be necessary to
reove ndesirabe iprities.
Sar beet pp as been sed as a sbstrate in a
nber o Soid State Ferentations, e.. or enye
and avorins prodction.
Reference:
university o gep; ttp://www.oep.ca/~ee/426eedstocks.t
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Coor BROWNINg REACTIONS
Mallad acton
One o te ost iportant ceica reactions tat
occr in ood is te maiard reaction. It is critica in
te prodction o te any avor and coor co-
ponds in processed ood prodcts, bot desirabe
and ndesirabe. Te maiard reaction is a type o
non-enyatic brownin wic invoves te reaction
o redcin sars, ainy D-cose, and a ree
aino acid or a ree aino rop o an aino acidtat is part o a protein cain. Oter coon redc-
in sars are rctose, atose and actose. Scrose is
not a redcin sar bt yeasts or acids can ydroyse
scrose to cose and rctose. Te maiard reaction
is naed ater te ceist wo irst eained it in
detai. It is aso caed non-enyatic brownin to
dierentiate it ro te enyecataysed brownin
coony observed in resy ct rits and veeta-
bes, sc as appes and potatoes.
Te maiard reaction coprises a series o reactions
tat are ar ro bein ceary ecidated: Te cassica
scee o te ceica reaction is tat o hode ro
1953. See ire 1. Te reaction is eneray divided
into tree staes:
(1) Te irst stae invoves te sar-aine conden-
sation and te Aadori rearraneent. Te reac-
tion steps ave been we-deined and no brown-
in occrs at tis stae.
(2) Te second stae invoves sar deydration and
raentation, and aino acid deradation via
te Strecker reaction especiay at i tepera-
tres as sed in candy anactre. At te end o
stae two tere is a beinnin avor oration.
(3) Te tird stae is te oration o eterocycic
nitroen coponds. Brownin occrs at tis
stae.
Te acta reactions are ar ore copicated tan
tose otined above, and tere are any variations in
te patway. Te prodcts o tese varios patways
rane ro cooress to intensey coored and any
are voatie aroa coponds.
Increasin teperatre, increasin ph and ower
water activity a increase te rate o maiard brown-
in. Water is prodced drin te maiard reaction.
Ts, as a conseence o te aw o ass action, te
reaction occrs ess readiy in oods wit a i aw
vae. In addition, te reactants are dited at i awvaes wie, at ow a
w, te obiity o reactants is i-
ited, despite teir presence at increased concentration.
In practice, te maiard reaction occrs ost rapidy
at interediate aw vaes (0.5-0.8), and aw
is o ost
siniicance to te reaction in dried and interediate-
oistre oods, wic ave aw vaes in tis rane.
Wie te maiard reaction is se in soe cases,
it aso as a neative side. Reaction o redcin sars
wit aino acids destroys te aino acid. Tis is espe-
ciay iportant wit l-ysine, an essentia aino acid,
wic can react wie te aino acid is a nit o a pro-
tein oece.
COlOuR50
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-mal [email protected] | www.nodcsa.com
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COlOuR51
odose
sar
aono
copond
N-sbstitted
ycosyaine
s
s
A2h
2O
s
B
I - aono - I - deoy - 2 ketose
(1,2-eno or)
C-2h
2O
s
s
D
Aadori rearraneent
Sci base
o hmF or
rra
-3h2O
+ a-aono acids
s s
s
s
s
s
s s
E
Strecker deradation
CO2
adeyde
fssino
prodcts
(aceto,
pyrvadeyde
diacety etc.)
edctones
deydro
redctoneshmF or
rra
s
- aino cop’d+ h
2O
FFF
g
gg
g
gg
g
F
+ aino
copd.
wit or
witotaino cop’d
+ aino
cop’d
+ aino
cop’d
adiines
ados and
N-ree
poyers
+ aino cop’d.
adiines
or
ketiines
adiines
s s s
s s
s
s
s
m E l A N O I D I N S
(brown nitroenos poyers and copoyery
Figure 1. Hodge 1953.
maiard Brownin Patway
-2h +2h
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COlOuR52
FEATuRES OF mAIllARD REACTION
Presence o redcin sars and aino coponds (proteins, aino acids)
Reires dry eat and i teperatre – bakin, ryin, toastin
Rapid at ph>7.0, sower at ph<6.0
Coor: cooress → yeow→ brown→ dark brown
Beneits: contribtes to avors in bread, crsts, ik cocoates, caraes, des and toees
Drawbacks: oss o aino acids: ysine, istidine, arinine; (prodction o taenic eterocycic aines)
Mltn pont
Te etin point is te teperatre at wic te so-
id crystaine and iid pases o a sbstance are in
terodynaic eiibri at nora pressre. A
soids, ecept te aorpos ors, ave a deinite
etin point. Pre, crystaine soids et over a nar-
row rane o teperatres, wereas itres et
over a broad teperatre rane. Te etin points
can be sed to identiy coponds. Tabe 1 sows te
etin points o soe ono-, di- and trisaccarides.
Caamlsaton
Caraeisation is deined as te tera deradation
o sars eadin to te oration o carae aroa
and brown-coored prodcts (carae coors). Te
process is acid or base cataysed and eneray reires
teperatres >120°C. Above etin point, eted
dry sar takes on an aber coor and deveops an
appeain avor and aroa. Tis aorpos sb-
stance restin ro te breakdown o sar is known
as carae. under eat, caraeisation transors s-
ars ro cooress, sweet coponds into sbstances
ranin in coor ro pae yeow to dark brown and
in avor ro id, carae-type to brnt and bitter.
I eatin is contined caraeised sars break down
into back carbon. Caraeisation occrs in ood, wen
ood sraces are eated strony, e.. te bakin and
roastin processes, te processin o oods wit i
sar content sc as as and certain rit ices, or
in wine prodction.
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COlOuR53
Table 1. Melting points or some mono-, di- and trisaccharides.
Source: Sugar Technologists Manual, Z. Bubnik, P. Kadlec, D. Urban, M. Bruhns.
mONO- DI- AND ChEmICAl FORmulA mElTINg POINT °CTRISACChARIDES
Frctose C6h
120
6103-105
gcose C6h
120
6146
Scrose C12
h22
011
186 ± 4
matose C12
h22
011
160-165
lactose C12
h22
011
223
Ribose C5h
100
586-87
mannose C6h
120
6133
Rafnose C18
h32
016
118-120
Wen sar is eated te added eat enery can over-
coe te interoecar orces and sar ets to or a
iid. Tere is no teperatre cane drin te pase
cane. I te eted sar is rter eated, te sar is
caraeised beore it is ot eno to trn to vapor.
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IndeBrownin reaction 55-53
Bkin 16-19
Crystaisation 24-26
Eect o sar and sweeteners on pectin e oration 27-30
Ferentation eedstocks 48-49
Interaction wit oter tastes and avors 11-15
Partice sie 31-34
Sobiity 20-24
Scrose ydroysis 40-42
Sweetness 4-10
Viscosity
Water activity and its ipications in sar-ric oods 43-47