1

A Review of Contemporary Gathering Practices of Pacific Island People’s in Preservation of Bio-cultural Diversity Keywords: Pacific, Oceania, harvest, gather, Indigenous Knowledge, Indigenous Ecosystem, Traditional Ecological Harvest, subsistence, sustainable harvest, biodiversity IS750: Bio-cultural Diversity Studies Katie L. Kamelamela University of Hawaii at Manoa Botany Department MS

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Worldwide there is limited data on contemporary gathering practices (Berkes, 1999;

Wehi & Wehi, 2010). Harvesting of wild and naturalized resources plays a vital role in

supplementing incomes as well as providing social, ecological, economic and cultural

services (Figure 1) for millions (Ticktin, 2004). Understanding what resources (ex: flora,

fauna) are currently gathered and what species various communities would like to

gather more of can provide insight for bio-cultural diversity conservation efforts as

well as identify potential collaborations with local community members. Oceania is a

region expanding larger than any continent on earth (Picture 1, cover page) and

currently there is no synthesis of what harvesting practices are occurring in this vast

area. The main objective of this paper is to understand the scope of research

conducted on gathering of resources in the islands of the Pacific Ocean from New

Guinea eastward.

It is critical for indigenous people and academics to communicate an understanding, or

world views, of how a society conceptualizes the environment they depend on for

living, and what the society considers valuable in their ecological system (Nazarea,

1999; McGregor, 1995; Aiona et al., 2007). Needs of local communities and

technology of resource managers have been married around the world through

actions such as synthesizing species lists (Handy and Handy, 1991; Te Rangi Hiroa,

1957), plant matrices (Ticktin, 2004), and integrating global information systems to

map locations of local cultural priority (Hunnington, 2000). In this indigenous

perspective the conservation of biological and cultural diversity are intimately

3

connected: the perpetuation of traditional knowledge, cultural traditions and practices

necessitates the long-term availability of culturally important plants, habitats and

landscapes. Identifying contemporary societal needs, to perpetuate customary

gathering practices, can create support for both cultural and conservation

management goals (Ticktin, 2004; Wehi & Wehi, 2010). These results can also serve to

benefit both native and non-native resource managers in the understanding of Pacific

ethnoecological conservation and the solutions indigenous communities can provide.

In response to the 1992 Science of Pacific Island Peoples Conference in Suva, Fiji,

where the many island nations of the Pacific Ocean, including representatives from

Australia and New Zealand, met three recommendations rising from the conference

include:

i) indigenous peoples of the Pacific Islands should be encouraged to tell their

own stories, the sources of indigenous knowledge should be recognized,

and the voices of indigenous peoples should be included in the stories

about the Pacific told by non indigenous peoples,

ii) environmental impact assessment and national development plans must

recognize and acknowledge that wild foods and other wild land resources

are important economic and social assets of indigenous Pacific Islanders,

and

iii) the University of the South Pacific and other Pacific Island universities are

urged to promote the legitimization of indigenous knowledge and pedagogy

in science to stand along-side Western curricula and pedagogy (Morrison et

al., 1994).

4

In Mere Roberts’ (1995) Indigenous knowledge and Western science: perspectives

from the Pacific points i) and iii) are addressed, identifying and illustrating “issues

raised by the teaching of indigenous knowledge and Western science as distinct but

not totally dissimilar knowledge systems within a single curriculum framework”. In

this paper I seek to locate studies that integrate both indigenous knowledge and

western science in research project results, as described by Roberts (1995), to the best

of the principal investigator(s) ability. Almost ten years after the meeting in Suva, Fiji a

literature review would be appropriate to identify where integrations have been made

between i) indigenous Pacific Island peoples voices, ii) recognition of wild gathered

resources as social and economic benefits and iii) where various Universities have

contributed in these capacities. This research seeks to empower other academics,

Pacific Islander communities and students who are interested in the sustainability of

gathering wild and naturalized resources throughout Oceania.

Natural History of Oceania Oceania is 1/3 the size of earth and larger than any continent on the planet. The liquid

continent of Oceania is framed by the Americas in the west and, Japan, China, Russia

and Australia in the east, reaching far to the North Arctic and Southern Antarctic seas.

With 42 nations and 23 territories within the Pacific plate, Oceania represents an even

greater diversity of languages, dialects, cultures and oral traditions. The Pacific plays

an integral role in international trade with its more than 86 major ports and harbors

(Moana Nui, 2011; APEC, 2011). Along with its importance to international trade the

position of the Pacific region is politically charged with its location between and

current occupation by, historical, current and future world powers.

5

Three regions within Oceania are wider known as Melanesia, Micronesia and

Polynesia. These areas consist of “high”, mostly volcanic islands, “low,” coral

limestone islands, and mostly ring like structures called “atolls” (Cox & Banack, 1991)

in tropical to subtropical, and sometimes temperate climate in the case of New

Zealand and outlying islands. Before contact with any humans these land masses were

originally colonized by flora and fauna brought either by wind, waves or on the wings

of birds. The isolation of these many islands created a natural filter for what plants,

animals and even what humans are able to live here. Many of the areas colonized by

Pacific Islanders were successful because voyagers brought necessary domesticated

plants, animals and technologies (navigation, house building, fishing, cultivation, rope

making, medicine skills etc.) with them (Figure 1). Along with familiarizing themselves

with the local environment for over 10,000 years (Howe, 2007) Melanesians,

Micronesians and Polynesians are still equipped to inhabit these islands through a

mixture of cultivation and wild gathering skills, in most cases with exposure to the

global market.

The Pacific Islands were the most difficult and therefore the last places on earth to be

reached by humans. Besides Pacific Islander oral traditions, to trace human migration

movements through Oceania modern scientific techniques have closely observed

technological, linguistic and botanical trails which delineate Pacific peoples’ ancestral

routes from Southeast Asia (Howe, 2007). Today many island nations in Oceania,

which were most successfully traveled and documented during the three Pacific

voyages of Captain Cook, have been colonized by imperial powers (United States,

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Colonization (flora, fauna,

human)

Voyaging

Medicine

Cultivation

Religion

Fishing, Gathering,

Hunting

Oral tradition (dance, music)

France, Great Britain, Japan, and Chile)

as security and tourism outposts in the

Pacific. The introduction of imported

processed foods, customs and beliefs

has impacted traditional lifestyles,

landscapes and practices of Pacific

Islanders (Gewertz and Errington,

2011). Due to the limited landmass of

many island nations’ impacts of

environmental contamination and

over exploitation of harvesting resources directly affects food security more so than in

continental areas and mentalities. The aim of this paper is to explore some of the

harvested natural resources and issues raised by the researchers and peoples of the

Pacific Islands in preservation of bio-cultural diversity.

Main questions included in this study are:

1) Where are gathering practices being recorded in the Pacific?

2) What types of gathering practices in Pacific have been recorded?

3) How do these studies inform future research in Oceania?

Because Oceania is about 1/3 the size of earth I anticipate that:

1) Most gathering practices will be recorded from urbanized areas (i.e. Polynesia;

Hawaii and New Zealand) of Oceania that have University infrastructure,

2) Due to the large amount of water in the region fishing will dominate as the

primary form of studies, and

Figure 1. Knowledge domains in the Pacific Islands necessary

for survival.

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3) A broad idea of what type of research and where it is being conducted will help

inform academics and communities where work is to be continued or who to

partner with, potentially.

METHODS

Research Criteria & Extended Keyword Search

Biological Abstracts has “an expansive index to the world’s life sciences journal

literature, with topics ranging from botany to microbiology to pharmacology”. A

literature review was conducted online in the Biological Abstracts database, which is

housed within the Web of Science, utilizing keywords which fit criteria of:

i) Research conducted in Oceania (specifically the Pacific Islands within

Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia), and

ii) Contemporary harvest or gather.

Keyword searches were further refined by utilizing Pacific Islands instead of Pacific, by

itself. Keywords utilized were also region specific with Melanesia, Micronesia or

Polynesia. Note that the word contemporary was not used in keyword searches only

harvest or gather both key terms were not searched for simultaneously. Although the

word contemporary was never utilized in a keyword search all papers relating strictly

to historical or previous gathering practices (prior to the arrival of Europeans, 1700s)

were not included in final results of this study.

The piqued interest of this paper is within traditional knowledge systems of Pacific

Islanders, to attain a broader range of results key phrases such as Indigenous

Knowledge, Indigenous Ecosystem, Ethnoecology and biodiversity were also input. All

general searches were further refined with criteria of i) and ii) stated. Due to the

8

limited amount of refined search returns it was necessary to review the original papers

which fit the criteria and input keywords that overlapped with this study including

phrases such as subsistence, sustainable harvest, and traditional ecological harvest.

Again each keyword search was refined utilizing criteria i) and ii).

Paper Cataloging

Each article that contained sufficient criteria was cataloged by downloading a pdf and

scanning literature for data material. Using Microsoft Xcel, all criteria fitting papers

were reviewed for:

1) Research location,

2) Item being harvested,

3) Scientific name (if available),

4) What institution(s) conducted the research? (if available), and

5) Keywords relating to this project were recorded (if available), as well as all

other keywords attached to each article for future search reference.

Data Management

Each research paper was unique in its location and objective so general categories

were generated to gain greater insight as to where research is being conducted

(Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, Oceania), what researchers and/or communities

are interested in (bird, crab, fish, limpet, mammal, marine mammal, mineral, plant,

prawn, reptile, sea cucumber, sponge, turtle) and where researchers are traveling

from to conduct these projects (United States, Australia, Guam, Fiji, Canada,

Micronesia, Japan, France, American Samoa).

9

RESULTS

For the entire Pacific Island region 24 articles (Appendix I) was recovered relevant to

contemporary harvest or gathering of wild resources ranging from terrestrial, aquatic

and marine ecosystems. In general limited results were retrieved thus the reason for

needing to revisit original papers for more search words to expand result returns.

Locations of Harvesting Studies Conducted

Four regions were decided for categorizing locations where studies occurred. Three

areas named are Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia (Picture 2) with the fourth

representing the pan-Pacific region, Oceania. Studies under Oceania were generally

review papers that went over more than one region of the Pacific Islands. Only one

paper in the Oceania category included migration patterns of the gray whale that was

not restricted to the area under review but was shown to affect general carbon cycling

in the Pacific due to harvesting (Pershing et al., 2010). Locations where studies took

place include Melanesia (New Caledonia; Solomon Islands: Roviana, Roviana Lagoon,

Marovo; Fiji: Navakavu, Oni i Lau), Micronesia (Palau Islands, Pohnpei), and Polynesia

(Hawaii; New Zealand; American Samoa). Specific locations were not given for all

studies.

10

Picture 2: Map of the Pacific Ocean with delineations of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.

Types of Items Harvested

Studies conducted within the Pacific Islands were recorded to have researched or

mentioned the harvest of fish, plants (seaweed, timber, ferns), birds, bats, lizards,

nickel, prawns, limpets, crab, whales, turtle and sea cucumbers within a contemporary

context (Appendix I). Scientific names were provided for some but not all species

under harvest. Traditional names were provided for a couple species. Means of

collecting resources ranged from traditional methods, with little or no equipment, to

commercialization of items (i.e. sea cucumber). Many of the items harvested were

consumed for nutritional or utilized for cultural purposes (Ticktin et al., 2007; Lyver,

11

2002; McCoy, 2008) at a local level and some for international consumption (Buckius,

2010).

Origin of Contributing Authors

Institutions that were found to contribute to the research arena of contemporary

harvesting in the Pacific islands include universities, government agencies, cultural

advisory groups and a consulting firm from the Pacific area. Traditional peoples, as

recognized as cultural advisory groups in this context, were included as authors in the

Solomon Islands (2), Fiji (1), and New Zealand (2). Government agencies in the Palau

Islands, New Caledonia, American Samoa, Hawaii and Kosrae, Micronesia were

included in reports as authors where the research was conducted. University

institutions that contributed to papers in their local area include University of South

Pacific (Fiji), University of Hawaii at Manoa, Victoria University of Wellington (New

Zealand), University of Otago (New Zealand), College of Micronesia, and University of

Waikato (New Zealand). It is possible that indigenous voices were contributing as

faculty or students (Ticktin et al., 2007) at Universities or as a government employees

but there is no way to tell in the capacity of article titles and contact information.

Many institutions traveled to the Pacific Islands to carry out research including

Australia, Canada, the United States (ex: California, Arizona, Montana, New Jersey,

etc.), Japan and Guam. All of these countries have the Pacific Ocean as a border on one

side or are surrounded by the Pacific themselves. All of these countries have an

economic stake within the Pacific Ocean and its’ resources.

DISCUSSION

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Many result returns were received for general search words (traditional ecological

harvest, ethnoecology, subsistence, sustainable harvest and traditional ecological

harvest) but when criteria were applied, especially Pacific Island or terms related to

Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, these left limited to no search results left to sift

through the second point of criteria, gather or harvest. In general there are limited

research articles which review activities in the Pacific Islands. Also there are limited

research articles relevant to harvesting practices. This finding of limited harvesting

research being conducted in the Pacific Islands is consistent as in other regions of the

world (Ticktin, 2004).

Despite limited findings of 24 articles, between the 4 regions, diverse research was

conducted in 3 various ecosystems, of 12 different life forms, by 11 countries, between

continental and island nations, and 43 authoring representatives of scientific or

traditional knowledge systems. In a couple of cases local informants were included as

authors who provided for the integration of traditional ecological and scientific

knowledge into reports (Leopold et al., 2009; Ramstad et al., 2007), but in most cases

marrying of the systems did not occur to such a great extent.

Locations of Harvest

By categorizing research locations into 4 regions it is clearer as to what has been

studied for harvest and where (Table 1). I hypothesized that more urbanized areas

such as those in Polynesia would receive greater research attention but in reviewing

where article studies occurred an equal percentage (33%) of investigations were

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published from Polynesia and Melanesia. Both regions are home to four year

universities, together Polynesia and Melanesia, account for 66% of research conducted

in the Pacific related to harvesting practices. Although not an official region Oceania

interests researchers specifically for fish and whale species, the greatest economic

opportunity and subsistence reliance. Micronesia seems to have the least research

focus as far as a region. The reason research is less than in other regions of Oceania

may be in part to limited higher educational institutions as well as great linguistic

diversity. Unique studies are still occurring in Micronesia such as bat and prawn

harvest which increases research diversity of the Pacific Islands.

Ecosystem Harvest Focus

More than anticipated, findings revealed a range of terrestrial, aquatic and marine

research conducted in the area (Table 1) with 12 life forms recorded in the Pacific for

harvest. I hypothesized that fish inquiries would be dominate in harvesting studies but

found that fish investigations comprise only 64% of marine and 38% of total

investigations followed by plants at 21% with all other species and minerals occurring

just once. Half of the life forms and 58% of the studies were found in marine locations.

Terrestrial research accounts for 38% of total studies completed in the region, which

includes gathering of plant, animal and mineral resources. Plant studies accounted for

56% of terrestrial investigations but this represents members from dicots (Drew et al.,

2005), monocots (Lauer and Aswani, 2010) and fern allies’ families (Ticktin, 2007).

14

Terrestrial habitat provides for 38% of all life forms recorded as well as for aquatic

resources to surface above ground. Aquatic or fresh water ecosystems, in the islands

received 4% of the research focus and 8% of life forms accounted for, the introduced

freshwater prawn (Buden et al., 2001). Although a small amount of research has

occurred in streams and freshwater bodies of the Pacific Islands it is known that

harvesting still occurs in these locations and that studies, what limited they are, are

being conducted.

Table 1. Contemporary Harvesting Studies Conducted in the Pacific Islands, N=23

articles

Region Terrestrial Aquatic Marine

# ST

UD

IES

IN R

EGIO

N

% O

F TO

TAL

STU

DIE

S

CT’

Bir

d

Mam

mal

Rep

tile

Pla

nt

Min

eral

Pra

wn

Fish

Lim

pet

Cra

b

Mar

ine

Mam

mal

Turt

le

Sea

cucu

mb

er

12

Melanesia 0 0 0 2 1 0 3 0 1 0 0 1 8 33% 5

Micronesia 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 13% 3

Polynesia 1 0 1 2 0 0 2 1 0 0 1 0 8 33% 6

Oceania 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 5 21% 2

Subtotal 1 1 1 5 1 1 9 1 1 1 1 1

TOTAL 9 1 14 24

% 38% 4% 58% 100% CT’= Biodiversity count, number of life forms recorded for harvest in each region, 0 = the exclusion of research recorded in a region or for harvest does not mean that gathering does not occur for items in areas, % = rounded to the nearest whole number.

Locations and Visiting Researchers

A mix of visiting as well as local researchers conducted studies in the Pacific region

(Table 2). In all 43 authors represented universities, government agencies, cultural

advisory groups and a consulting firm interested in resources harvested from the

Pacific. Of the 11 countries identified as contributing knowledge of gathering practices

15

7 are actually part of the Pacific Islands and each location (as indicated in yellow, Table

2) has been able to contribute as an author in their home region. Continental

countries are interested in the general resources of Oceania more so than those of

Micronesia and Polynesia and Pacific Island nations are interested in local issues more

so than cross oceanic areas. Although the interests of harvested resource types are

equal between Melanesia and Polynesia twice as many countries invested in research

in Melanesia, than in Polynesia. In addition more local Melanesian knowledge

resources were integrated into reports as authors than in any other region but Pacific

Island region was able to integrate some indigenous knowledge of ecosystems into

some reports.

Table 2. Contemporary Harvesting Studies Conducted by Various Countries in the Pacific

Reg

ion

un

der

inve

stig

atio

n

Researching Countries

# O

F A

UT

HO

RS

FOR

REG

ION

% O

F TO

TAL

AU

THO

RS

CT” Continental Island

AU

STR

ALI

A

USA

CA

NA

DA

FIJI

GU

AM

MIC

RO

NES

IA

JAP

AN

A. S

AM

OA

SOLO

MO

N IS

.

NEW

ZEA

LAN

D

NEW

CA

LED

ON

IA

11

Melanesia 4 2 0 4 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 16 37% 8

Micronesia 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 7 16% 4

Polynesia 2 4* 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 11 26% 4

Oceania 4 2 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 9 21% 5

Subtotal 11 10 1 4 3 2 2 2 2 5 1

TOTAL 22 21 43

% 51% 49% 100% CT”= Country count, number of countries recorded to research harvest in each region, Yellow= indicate research being conducted by home regional institution(s), *= Hawaii, a Pacific archipelago, is part of the United States of America; 1 of 4 studies were completed in Hawaii, 0 = the exclusion of researchers recorded in a region does not mean that investigation does not occur by countries in areas, % = rounded to the nearest whole number.

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Overall institutions from Australia represented the greatest amount of authors

contributing research of harvesting practices in the Pacific, with most interest in

Melanesia, Oceania, Polynesia and then Micronesia. The United States of America

(USA) is the only other country that completed studies in all four regions with a priority

of Polynesia followed by all other regions equally. The USA is the only country that

conducted research in all regions as well as contributed a piece which integrates voices

of Pacific Island peoples (Hawaiian) and acknowledges wild resources gathered as both

an economic and social asset to the community (Ticktin et al., 2007).

Future implications for Research of Harvesting in the Pacific Islands

Harvesting of fish, plants, animals and minerals occurs across the Pacific by humans,

both by native and non-native resource users. The obstacle is to ensure that future

generations, who choose to live in the Pacific Islands, are also able to partake in the

same or similar resource abundance in order to sustain a good quality of life. Island

nations within the Pacific are interested in local resources whereas Continental nations

are focused on resources available throughout Oceania. As suggested in Suva, Fiji

1992 it is imperative that Pacific Island nations and universities take greater

participation in resource management and the integration of local voices into stories

told by indigenous and non-indigenous peoples (Morrison et al, 1994).

Melanesia turned out to be the focus of more countries, authors and harvest of

biologically diverse species than all other regions. As far a species in the Ocean fish

were the priority and on land plants dominated studies. Although limited research

17

results were obtained that integrates local knowledge into studies at least

investigations where local voices are being integrated will impact Pacific Islander

populations and customs. Despite information available there is still little research

being conducted on plant harvesting, even with the high dependency in tropical

islands for food security. More research is necessary in the area of plant harvesting

and future applications of where local and conservation concerns cross in all regions of

the Pacific Islands. Culture changes landscapes and culture is embodied by landscapes

(Nassauer, 1995).

18

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22

APPENDIX I

RESULTS OF KEYWORD SEARCH

1. RESEARCH LOCATION

2. HARVEST

3. SCIENTIFIC NAME

4. RESEARCH INSTITUTION

5. JOURNAL

6. PUBLICATION YEAR

23

Location Harvest Scientific name Institution(s) of Research Journal Author(s) Year

1 Oceania Fish CSIRO Marine Laboratories Ambio Johannes, R. 1982

2 Oceania Fish University of Queensland Human Ecology Chapman, M. 1987

3 Micronesia Mammal

Pteropus pilosus, P. mariannus pelewensis,

Emballonura semicaudata palauensis

Guam division of Aquatic and Wildlife resources,

US Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Conservation and

Entomology

J. of Zoology London Wiles et al. 1997

4 Polynesia Fish Hawaii Cooperative Fishery

Research Unit, Biological Resources Division

Fisheries Research Friedlander and Parrish

1997

5 Melanesia Crab Cardisoma hirtipes University of Melbourne Pacific Science Foale, S. 1999

6 Micronesia Prawn Machobrachium spp.

College of Micronesia, Queensland Center for

Biodiversity, Dept. of Agriculture, Div. of

Aquatic and Wildlife Resources Guam

Pacific Science Buden et al. 2001

7 Polynesia Bird Puffinus griseus University of Otago Wildlife Society Bulletin Lyver, P. 2002

8 Micronesia Plant Terminalia carolinensis

Standford University, USDA Forest Service,

University of Hawaii at Hilo, Standford University

Wetlands Ecology and Management

Drew et al. 2005

9 Melanesia Fish Southern Cross University,

University of Guam, University of the South Pacific

Fisheries Research Kuster et al. 2005

10 Polynesia Plant Microlepia strigosa,

Sphenomeris chinensis University of Hawaii at Manoa

Biodiversity & Conservation

Ticktin et al. 2007

11 Melanesia Fish

University of California Santa Barbara,

University of Queensland, James Cook University,

University of Tokyo

Coral reefs

Aswani et al. 2007

24

Location Harvest Scientific name Institution(s) of Research Journal Author(s) Year

12 Polynesia Turtle Chelonia mydas University of Queensland,

IUCN Marine Turtle Specialist Group

Ecological Modeling Milani et al. 2007

13 Polynesia Reptile Sphenodon sp.

University of Montana, Victoria University of

Wellington, Waikawa Marae,

Ngati Koata no Rangitoto kit e Tonga Trust

Conservation Biology Ramstad et al. 2007

14 Polynesia Fish National Park of American

Samoa, The Nature Conservancy

Fisheries Research Craig et al. 2008

15 Polynesia Limpet Cellana spp. San Jose State University Pacific Science McCoy, M. 2008

16 Oceania Fish

University of the South Pacific, Chief and master fisherman,

Master fisherman and former magistrate,

University of the South Pacific

Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography

Thaman et al. 2009

17 Oceania Fish

University of New South Wales, University of Queensland,

National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Macquarie University,

Conservation International Pacific Islands Program,

Guam Environmental Protection Agency,

Australian National University, The Nature Conservancy, Edith Cowen University,

University of Queensland, Department of Conservation

Kauri Coast Area

Conservation Biology Kingsford et al. 2009

25

Location Harvest Scientific name Institution(s) of Research Journal Author(s) Year

18 Melanesia Fish

Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement,

University for the South Pacific, Fiji Locally-Manages Marine

Area Network

Biodiversity and Conservation

Leopold et al. 2009

19 Melanesia Plant University of Tokyo Human Ecology Fusuwara, T. 2009

20 Melanesia Plant seagrass San Diego State University,

University of California-Santa Barbara

Environment Management

Lauer and Aswani

2010

21 Melanesia Mineral Nickel The State University of New

Jersey Geoforum Horowitz, L. 2010

22 Oceania Marine

Mammal

University of Maine, Gulf of Maine Research

Institute, University of British Columbia

PLoS one Pershing et al. 2010

23 Melanesia

Sea cucumbe

r Holothurians

University of Queensland, Hawken Building University,

University of Queensland

Environmental Management

Buckius, C. 2010

24 Polynesia Plant University of Waikato Conservation Biology Wehi and Wehi 2010