Gender, Trade and Development

Oxfam / Gender Action Network, Beijing, Oxfam / Gender Action Network, Beijing, ChinaChina

4 December 20064 December 2006

Overview

IntroductionIntroduction

I. Trade, development and Gender Equality: I. Trade, development and Gender Equality: In conflict or in synergy?In conflict or in synergy?

II. Gender and Trade: frameworks, II. Gender and Trade: frameworks, Empirical findings and Sectoral approachEmpirical findings and Sectoral approach

III.Towards a sustainable gender friendly III.Towards a sustainable gender friendly trade-development agendatrade-development agenda

Trade and development

Issues:Issues: Of social development & social Of social development & social

protectionprotection Social and gender equitySocial and gender equity Industrial developmentIndustrial development Employment, sustainable Employment, sustainable

livelihoods & working conditionslivelihoods & working conditions

Tensions between the role of trade and development

developmental costs of developmental costs of trade include lack of trade include lack of attention to production attention to production capacity in the domestic capacity in the domestic economy—due to economy—due to discontinuities in discontinuities in industrial and industrial and development policies as a development policies as a result of over focusing on result of over focusing on trade reform etc, lack of trade reform etc, lack of attention to human attention to human resource development etc.resource development etc.

social costs that can be social costs that can be linked to trade or that are linked to trade or that are trade related include trade related include included rising included rising inequality, food inequality, food insecurity, and trade insecurity, and trade liberalization induced liberalization induced fiscal revenue shortfall fiscal revenue shortfall which endangered social which endangered social sector spending. sector spending.

Where does gender equality, poverty eradication fits in?

Current patterns of trade (and trade rule-Current patterns of trade (and trade rule-making) present significant challenges for making) present significant challenges for gender equality objectives, which may have gender equality objectives, which may have significant untowards effects for long-term significant untowards effects for long-term development.development.  WHY?WHY?  

‘‘Gender’Gender’ Gender and growth/trade debateGender and growth/trade debate Female led export growth: limits and Female led export growth: limits and

constraintsconstraints

Defining gender

““gender as a relation of power, is a social gender as a relation of power, is a social stratifier that influences the distribution of output, stratifier that influences the distribution of output, work, income, wealth etc.” (IWGEM*). And work, income, wealth etc.” (IWGEM*). And since, ‘gender also influences the behavior of since, ‘gender also influences the behavior of economic agents” it is critical to our economic agents” it is critical to our understanding of the economy as well as the role understanding of the economy as well as the role of trade in the global economy. As noted by of trade in the global economy. As noted by feminist economists, “institutions, including free feminist economists, “institutions, including free markets, that mediate between macro and micro markets, that mediate between macro and micro levels of the economy bear and transmit gender levels of the economy bear and transmit gender biases so cannot be assumed to be gender neutral. biases so cannot be assumed to be gender neutral.

Trade, development and gender equality…

Mainstream economists Mainstream economists take a glance at gender take a glance at gender and trade/ growth, they and trade/ growth, they tend to see nothing but tend to see nothing but the good: trade the good: trade liberalization creates liberalization creates employment that benefits employment that benefits women and or import women and or import competition diminishes competition diminishes gender discrimination in gender discrimination in labour markets. labour markets. (Bhagwati, In defense of (Bhagwati, In defense of globalization)globalization)

Feminist Economics,Feminist Economics, trade trade impacts on: impacts on:

household economy & household economy & market economymarket economy

division of labor in between division of labor in between men and womenmen and women

paid and unpaid work and its paid and unpaid work and its contribution to the market,contribution to the market,

access to resources, intra access to resources, intra household distribution of household distribution of income and resources and income and resources and the condition under which the condition under which entrepreneurs do business.entrepreneurs do business.

Trade, development and gender equality…Gender issues and outcomes emanating from Gender issues and outcomes emanating from

globalisation and trade liberalization include…globalisation and trade liberalization include… Feminisation of labour marketFeminisation of labour market or or access to economic and social resources access to economic and social resources

(land, credit, technology & training) for women (land, credit, technology & training) for women relative to menrelative to men

or or unpaid work in home and communityunpaid work in home and community of tariff of tariff government budgets government budgets cuts in cuts in

social programs or social programs or in regressive taxes— in regressive taxes—impacts women more so than menimpacts women more so than men

Trade, development and gender equality…The present pattern of trade (and trade rule-making) presents The present pattern of trade (and trade rule-making) presents

significant challenges for gender equality objectives and have significant challenges for gender equality objectives and have implications for long-term development.implications for long-term development.

  

Empirical evidence on G&T

UNCTAD 2004, UN 1999 argue that trade may UNCTAD 2004, UN 1999 argue that trade may impact gender equality through:impact gender equality through:

  a positive or negative impact on growth and a positive or negative impact on growth and employment opportunities. When trade results employment opportunities. When trade results in increased income and employment, this can in increased income and employment, this can lead to reduction in gender inequality. This can lead to reduction in gender inequality. This can be easily offset by problems with the condition be easily offset by problems with the condition of work and lack of health and safety of work and lack of health and safety precaution.precaution.

Empirical evidence on G&T Relevant to South Asia Competitive pressures from trade and Competitive pressures from trade and

investment may reduce or encouraged investment may reduce or encouraged gender discrimination, in particular wage gender discrimination, in particular wage differential.differential.

Empirical evidence on G&T

Fontana and Woods 2000 found that in Fontana and Woods 2000 found that in Bangladesh there was a rise in female Bangladesh there was a rise in female wages to male wages. Battarchaya 1999 wages to male wages. Battarchaya 1999 noted less wage discrimination in the noted less wage discrimination in the export textile industry in Bangladesh export textile industry in Bangladesh compared to the other manufacturing compared to the other manufacturing sectors.sectors.

Empirical evidence on G&T

But later study by Begum argue that the But later study by Begum argue that the gap between male-female earnings gap between male-female earnings increased, 1990-1997 after an initial increased, 1990-1997 after an initial decline between 1983-1990 and the decline between 1983-1990 and the earning gaps was widest, the higher the earning gaps was widest, the higher the skilled category ( cited in F&G 2005).skilled category ( cited in F&G 2005).

Empirical evidence on G&T

The point is that gender wage gap by The point is that gender wage gap by itself is not enough need to also look at itself is not enough need to also look at occupational segregation. So the trade-occupational segregation. So the trade-wage-gap is contradictory.wage-gap is contradictory.

Empirical evidence on G&T

Facilitating or raising barriers to access by Facilitating or raising barriers to access by women to resources and services. (How can women to resources and services. (How can SMEs expand to the export market and or SMEs expand to the export market and or maintain domestic market share. Here the issue maintain domestic market share. Here the issue is financing and business incubation services, is financing and business incubation services, market knowledge, mobility, competitiveness market knowledge, mobility, competitiveness and linkage to international production and linkage to international production networks –as suppliers—in manufacturing as networks –as suppliers—in manufacturing as well as non traditional agricultural products). well as non traditional agricultural products). F&G 2005.F&G 2005.

Empirical evidence on G&T

Trade rules may facilitate or constraint Trade rules may facilitate or constraint government in applying policies or government in applying policies or regulation that address gender equality.regulation that address gender equality.

Empirical evidence on G&T

There is also the issue of the quality trade There is also the issue of the quality trade off in employmentoff in employment

Empirical evidence on G&T

There is also the issue of focusing only or There is also the issue of focusing only or mostly on women’s market participation mostly on women’s market participation and ignoring issues of well-being (in and ignoring issues of well-being (in terms of loss of leisure activities and terms of loss of leisure activities and double burden between market work and double burden between market work and reproductive work (F&G 2005). reproductive work (F&G 2005).

Empirical evidence on G&T

Study using Nepal shows that women are likely Study using Nepal shows that women are likely to increase market work, regardless of the to increase market work, regardless of the amount of time males spend in domestic work, amount of time males spend in domestic work, in response to tariff induced fiscal short value in response to tariff induced fiscal short value and imposition of value added tax. and imposition of value added tax.

The increase in women’s market activity showed The increase in women’s market activity showed up in expansion of Nepal’s agricultural sectors, up in expansion of Nepal’s agricultural sectors, The study concluded that “ (t)rade reform also The study concluded that “ (t)rade reform also increases the leisure time of men (F&G 2005)increases the leisure time of men (F&G 2005)

Empirical evidence on G&T

Trade in services in the region is also Trade in services in the region is also seen to be linked to socially reproductive seen to be linked to socially reproductive service & women’s migrant workservice & women’s migrant work

Gender and the success of trade and growth strategies.

Female employment in agriculture (mainly non Female employment in agriculture (mainly non traditional agricultural exports—Latin America traditional agricultural exports—Latin America and South Africa) and non-agriculture can lead and South Africa) and non-agriculture can lead to increase income in export oriented industries. to increase income in export oriented industries. (Frances Perkins found that a 1% increase in (Frances Perkins found that a 1% increase in the share of exports in developing countries the share of exports in developing countries may be associated with a 0.2% increase in may be associated with a 0.2% increase in female non agricultural employment cited in female non agricultural employment cited in UN 1995.)UN 1995.)

Gender, trade and growth

Gender, trade and growth contd.Gender, trade and growth contd. However, recent work on Taiwan, Hong However, recent work on Taiwan, Hong

Kong, South Korea and Mexico show a Kong, South Korea and Mexico show a decline or reversal of women’s share in decline or reversal of women’s share in manufactures—de-feminization. manufactures—de-feminization. Gender and Gender and the success of trade and growth strategies.the success of trade and growth strategies.

Gender inequality and growth problemsMicro economic empirical evidence and Micro economic empirical evidence and

macroeconomic analysis indicates that macroeconomic analysis indicates that gender inequality directly and indirectly gender inequality directly and indirectly limits economic growth, due to gender limits economic growth, due to gender differences in economic options, differences in economic options, incentives and productivity.incentives and productivity.

Micro studies show that Micro studies show that gender differences in access gender differences in access to assets limit the options of to assets limit the options of women; gender differences women; gender differences in labor remuneration lead in labor remuneration lead to conflict and affect labour to conflict and affect labour allocation at the Household allocation at the Household level; gender difference in level; gender difference in labor and other factor labor and other factor productivity limits productivity limits economic efficiency and economic efficiency and output.output.

Macro economic analysis Macro economic analysis on the determination of on the determination of growth. Findings in SSA: growth. Findings in SSA: gender differences in gender differences in education and education and employment, 1960-92, employment, 1960-92, served to reduce the served to reduce the annual per capita growth annual per capita growth by 0.8 percentage points by 0.8 percentage points (which it is argued could (which it is argued could have double economic have double economic growth over the last 30 growth over the last 30 years). years).

Gender inequality seems to account for 15-20% of Gender inequality seems to account for 15-20% of the difference in growth performance between the difference in growth performance between SSA and East Asia (Klasen 1999). Klasen argues SSA and East Asia (Klasen 1999). Klasen argues that Uganda could gain up to 2% points of GDP that Uganda could gain up to 2% points of GDP growth per year through addressing structural growth per year through addressing structural gender based inequalities in education (total years gender based inequalities in education (total years of schooling) and in formal sector employment.of schooling) and in formal sector employment.

The 2004 PEAP put this at 5% of GDPThe 2004 PEAP put this at 5% of GDP (Sources: Gender and Growth Assessment: (Sources: Gender and Growth Assessment:

Uganda. Feb. 1, 2005.)Uganda. Feb. 1, 2005.)

In linear programming models that examined the In linear programming models that examined the implication of change in gender division of implication of change in gender division of labour on productivity of output, it was found labour on productivity of output, it was found that if gender roles in farming was abandoned, that if gender roles in farming was abandoned, farm cash income would increase by about 10% farm cash income would increase by about 10% and productivity of labour by 15% and capital and productivity of labour by 15% and capital by 45% (Keller 1999 cited in Blacken). by 45% (Keller 1999 cited in Blacken).

‘‘Gender roles are not economic efficient… Gender roles are not economic efficient… necessity for the liberalization of division of necessity for the liberalization of division of labour’. Blackdenlabour’. Blackden

Gender differential in education and Gender differential in education and health are not an efficient economic health are not an efficient economic choice. Societies that under-invest in choice. Societies that under-invest in women pay a price for it in terms of women pay a price for it in terms of slower growth and lower income. Dollar slower growth and lower income. Dollar and Gatti: Are Good times good for and Gatti: Are Good times good for women? 1999women? 1999

 Why is gender important in trade agreements and policy? Gender analysis offers a more comprehensive, Gender analysis offers a more comprehensive,

in-depth and deeply integrative approach to in-depth and deeply integrative approach to look at trade and development.look at trade and development.

Gender analysis as developed within the body Gender analysis as developed within the body of feminist economic analysis focuses on the of feminist economic analysis focuses on the intertwine between the household sector, the intertwine between the household sector, the productive sector and the informal sector. productive sector and the informal sector.

Specific gender and trade issue in South Asia… Francisco and Durano: the linkages between Francisco and Durano: the linkages between

gender and trade in the Asia Pacific is clustered gender and trade in the Asia Pacific is clustered around five areas of concern:around five areas of concern:

1. Women’s livelihood and food security 1. Women’s livelihood and food security (linking Agricultural products to NAMA)(linking Agricultural products to NAMA)

2.Women’s employment, income, micro 2.Women’s employment, income, micro enterprises, and cross broader trade in terms of enterprises, and cross broader trade in terms of industryindustry

Specific gender and trade issue in South Asia…3.Women’s care work and access to care services 3.Women’s care work and access to care services

together with issues relating to Mode VI of together with issues relating to Mode VI of GATSGATS

4. Women access to food and essential medicines 4. Women access to food and essential medicines (TRIPS)(TRIPS)

5.Restrictions on domestic regulations that 5.Restrictions on domestic regulations that impacts governments ability to respond to impacts governments ability to respond to rights and development issues (linkages to rights and development issues (linkages to S&DT, NTB, Implementation and Accession).S&DT, NTB, Implementation and Accession).

 Why is gender important in trade agreements and policy? It seeks to explicitly pinpoint the transfer It seeks to explicitly pinpoint the transfer

costs and adjustment burden associated costs and adjustment burden associated with trade liberalization-induced trade with trade liberalization-induced trade reforms on the household economy, reforms on the household economy, unpaid labor, and the overall economic unpaid labor, and the overall economic empowerment of men and women. empowerment of men and women.

 Why is gender important in trade agreements and policy? it highlights the feedback effect between gender it highlights the feedback effect between gender

inequality and the performance of trade reform inequality and the performance of trade reform geared towards the promotion of trade geared towards the promotion of trade liberalization. liberalization.

Current research on gender and trade, highlight Current research on gender and trade, highlight a two-way intertwine between trade a two-way intertwine between trade liberalization and gender: trade liberalization liberalization and gender: trade liberalization can increase or decrease gender inequality and can increase or decrease gender inequality and gender inequality can lead to trade gender inequality can lead to trade liberalization not achieving the desired results.liberalization not achieving the desired results.

 Why is gender important in trade agreements and policy?

Recognition of the underlying and Recognition of the underlying and existing gender realities in the economy existing gender realities in the economy should compel policy makers to also should compel policy makers to also develop gender sensitive and anti-poverty develop gender sensitive and anti-poverty complementary policies or flanking complementary policies or flanking measures in the context of trade reform. measures in the context of trade reform.

 Why is gender important in trade agreements and policy?

Such Measures include child care provisions, Such Measures include child care provisions, changing or revising land and property rights, changing or revising land and property rights, providing incentives that allow credit providing incentives that allow credit institutions to lend to women borrowers and or institutions to lend to women borrowers and or building infrastructure (road, storage facilities) building infrastructure (road, storage facilities) closers to where women producers are located.closers to where women producers are located.

Gender consideration is also important for the success of trade and growth strategies. female employment in agriculture (mainly non female employment in agriculture (mainly non

traditional agricultural exports—Latin America traditional agricultural exports—Latin America and South Africa) and non-agriculture can lead and South Africa) and non-agriculture can lead to increase income in export oriented industries. to increase income in export oriented industries. (Frances Perkins found that a 1% increase in (Frances Perkins found that a 1% increase in the share of exports in developing countries the share of exports in developing countries may be associated with a 0.2% increase in may be associated with a 0.2% increase in female non agricultural employment cited in female non agricultural employment cited in UN 1995.)UN 1995.)

Gender consideration is also important for the success of trade and growth strategies. Joekes 1995, Standing 1989 and UN 1999 found Joekes 1995, Standing 1989 and UN 1999 found

that industrialization in NIEs (Taiwan, Hong that industrialization in NIEs (Taiwan, Hong Kong, South Korea and Singapore) is ‘as much Kong, South Korea and Singapore) is ‘as much female-led’ (the feminization of export) as it is female-led’ (the feminization of export) as it is ‘export-led’. This supports observations that ‘export-led’. This supports observations that “(t) employment of large numbers of women in “(t) employment of large numbers of women in the low-value chains of global production the low-value chains of global production networks often provides the stepping stone for a networks often provides the stepping stone for a systemic industrial strategy.”systemic industrial strategy.”

Gender and trade liberalisation II gender-differentiated impacts of the interplay gender-differentiated impacts of the interplay

between existing gender inequality and trade between existing gender inequality and trade policies include:policies include:

gender specific effects of trade-induced gender specific effects of trade-induced fiscal adjustmentfiscal adjustment gender specific effects of trade-induced gender specific effects of trade-induced employment effectemployment effect

gender effects of internal market gender effects of internal market adjustment.adjustment.

  

Trade liberalisation and women’s well-being & empowermentTrade liberalization is associated with the Trade liberalization is associated with the

intensification of competition between intensification of competition between and within economies in the MTS. This is and within economies in the MTS. This is often played out at the sub national level often played out at the sub national level in terms of industrial restructuring that in terms of industrial restructuring that creates tensions and dilemmas around: creates tensions and dilemmas around:

Tensions & Dilemmas

Poor and uneducated women versus Poor and uneducated women versus middle and more educated women over middle and more educated women over jobs, with the latter losing ground in jobs, with the latter losing ground in uncompetitive manufacturing sector uncompetitive manufacturing sector while the former may be experiencing while the former may be experiencing greater access to jobs in the emerging greater access to jobs in the emerging serviceservice

Tensions & Dilemmas 2

Regional competition between women. Regional competition between women. When regional trade arrangements as When regional trade arrangements as well as multilateral agreements divert well as multilateral agreements divert trade from one region to another or trade from one region to another or among countries in a region, women in among countries in a region, women in one sector, say textile, in one country or one sector, say textile, in one country or region may lose jobs to their counterparts region may lose jobs to their counterparts in the same sector in another country or in the same sector in another country or regionregion

Tensions and Dilemmas 3

Sustainability of income and livelihood.Sustainability of income and livelihood.

Threats to the sustainability of income and Threats to the sustainability of income and wages. Low wage bias plague women wages. Low wage bias plague women workers in the manufacturing sector and workers in the manufacturing sector and industrial agriculture. Increase industrial agriculture. Increase international competition in these sectors international competition in these sectors have implications for women’s long-term have implications for women’s long-term economic viability. economic viability.

Tensions & Dilemmas 4

Empowerment.Empowerment.

Jobs and income may increase some Jobs and income may increase some women’s ability to participate in women’s ability to participate in decision-making in the household decision-making in the household especially around expenditure, savings especially around expenditure, savings and investment decisions. and investment decisions.

Tensions & Dilemmas 5

This may bode well for improvement in This may bode well for improvement in children’s and women’s access to health children’s and women’s access to health and education. and education.

Tensions & Dilemmas 6

Perception of girls and women as Perception of girls and women as ‘liabilities’ versus assets to family may ‘liabilities’ versus assets to family may shift to more positive ones engendering shift to more positive ones engendering more education for girls at all levels more education for girls at all levels (primary, secondary and tertiary) and (primary, secondary and tertiary) and women’s autonomy in personal matters women’s autonomy in personal matters as well as contribute to reduction in as well as contribute to reduction in domestic violence.domestic violence.

Core Questions from gender sensitive approach1.1. Does trade policy and agreements Does trade policy and agreements

promote better access to services that promote better access to services that are essential for social reproduction and are essential for social reproduction and sexual and reproductive health sexual and reproductive health (medicines, water, electrification/fuel, (medicines, water, electrification/fuel, sanitation etc), particularly for groups sanitation etc), particularly for groups that have been traditionally that have been traditionally disadvantage or vulnerable to poverty?disadvantage or vulnerable to poverty?

Core question 2

2. What are the prevailing assumptions in 2. What are the prevailing assumptions in making the linkage between trade policy, making the linkage between trade policy, social and other policies in the social and other policies in the formulation of trade policy, trade formulation of trade policy, trade negotiations mandate and complementary negotiations mandate and complementary trade support programs?trade support programs?

Core question contd

3. Are differences between women and men 3. Are differences between women and men in terms of access to tangible (economic in terms of access to tangible (economic and social resource) and intangible assets and social resource) and intangible assets taken into account in the implementation taken into account in the implementation of trade policy and trade agreements?of trade policy and trade agreements?

Towards a sustainable gender sensitive tradeAt the national levelAt the national level Implement land reform for better access and Implement land reform for better access and

entitlement to land, especially for women.entitlement to land, especially for women. Incorporate gender sensitive provisions in Incorporate gender sensitive provisions in

domestic regulatory framework for servicesdomestic regulatory framework for services Pay greater attention to decreasing wage Pay greater attention to decreasing wage

disparitiesdisparities

Towards sustainable gender sensitive trade Create an adequate level of social Create an adequate level of social

protection/universal service provisos/ safeguard protection/universal service provisos/ safeguard cross subsidization of services in rural areascross subsidization of services in rural areas

Strengthen the visibility of women’s and men’s Strengthen the visibility of women’s and men’s unpaid labourunpaid labour        Performance requirement         Performance requirement for foreign service provider (Riddle). This will for foreign service provider (Riddle). This will benefit women-owned and other SMEs.benefit women-owned and other SMEs.

Employment and pay equity legislation Employment and pay equity legislation (Riddle).(Riddle).

Towards sustainable gender sensitive trade More systematic national treatment of More systematic national treatment of

remittances: offers steady income and better remittances: offers steady income and better quality of life; pull up effect on wages in home quality of life; pull up effect on wages in home country and increase women’s skill quotient; country and increase women’s skill quotient; benefit women directly; contributes to benefit women directly; contributes to infrastructure development and improvement in infrastructure development and improvement in access of the poor to essential services access of the poor to essential services (transportation, water, electricity, education and (transportation, water, electricity, education and health care) and overall living standards health care) and overall living standards (UNCTAD 2004) (UNCTAD 2004)

Towards sustainable gender sensitive trade Upwards harmonization and safeguards of Upwards harmonization and safeguards of

workers rightsworkers rights Gender equity and gender analysis and gender Gender equity and gender analysis and gender

indicators in assessing benefit gains, costs and indicators in assessing benefit gains, costs and losses from tradelosses from trade

The promotion of comprehensive approach to The promotion of comprehensive approach to human rights in all bilateral, multilateral and human rights in all bilateral, multilateral and regional trade agreementsregional trade agreements

Gender sensitive trade related capacity buildingGender sensitive trade related capacity building Gender sensitive export promotionGender sensitive export promotion

Summing up…

The role of women’s and men’s location The role of women’s and men’s location and participation in the economy and and participation in the economy and how directional shifts in trade orientation how directional shifts in trade orientation and trade reform impacts on existing gaps and trade reform impacts on existing gaps in men’s and women’s differential access in men’s and women’s differential access to resources and the labor market must be to resources and the labor market must be a critical factor in determining the a critical factor in determining the effectiveness of trade to the economy in effectiveness of trade to the economy in the medium and long term. the medium and long term.

Good practices that will promote benefits Good practices that will promote benefits for women from trade (liberalisation) for women from trade (liberalisation) policy must start with a trade policy that policy must start with a trade policy that is oriented towards poverty elimination is oriented towards poverty elimination and the promotion of gender equality as and the promotion of gender equality as explicit objectives.explicit objectives.

It must be centred in a gender aware It must be centred in a gender aware model of the economy that specifically model of the economy that specifically incorporates the reproductive and incorporates the reproductive and informal sectors of the economy. informal sectors of the economy.

This means that attention must be paid to This means that attention must be paid to the institutional factors that affect the the institutional factors that affect the supply and demand for women’s labour. supply and demand for women’s labour. These would include:These would include:

    Men’s and women’s time allocationMen’s and women’s time allocation

  Women’s bargaining power and control Women’s bargaining power and control of household resources: land and income. of household resources: land and income.

Recognise and take action to mitigate the Recognise and take action to mitigate the fact that the economic activities of fact that the economic activities of women are constrained by technological women are constrained by technological disparities, factor market rigidity, disparities, factor market rigidity, information bias, and the inter sectoral information bias, and the inter sectoral mobility of resources. mobility of resources.

The above points to the need for supportive The above points to the need for supportive policies at national and sector levels to policies at national and sector levels to create and enabling condition for women create and enabling condition for women and men to adjust to price incentives and and men to adjust to price incentives and other changing economic circumstance other changing economic circumstance brought about by trade liberalisation. brought about by trade liberalisation.

  

This would include mechanisms to promote This would include mechanisms to promote more gender sensitive expenditure more gender sensitive expenditure allocations for skill development, and allocations for skill development, and skill upgrading, day care and family skill upgrading, day care and family assistance etc.assistance etc.