Geographical Record

American Geographical Society

Geographical RecordSource: Geographical Review, Vol. 34, No. 1 (Jan., 1944), pp. 135-158Published by: American Geographical SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/210598 .

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GEOGRAPHICAL RECORD

NORTH AMERICA

ESQUIMALT NAVAL BASE. The establishment and activities of Esquimalt, the naval base on Vancouver Island, which has been a port of call for British naval vessels since i848,

have been chronicled in a recent publication by Major F. V. Longstaff, "Esquimalt Naval Base: A History of Its Work and Its Defences" (Victoria, I941).

War with Russia (i854-I856) was the incentive for the building of the shore establishment on Duntze Head, the only available harbor under the British flag on the North Pacific. Valparaiso had formerly been the headquarters for ships on the Pacific station, and for some years after the building of the base at Esquimalt the two were alternately designated as headquarters, since wars and insurrections in South America during the latter half of the century kept a large part of the fleet in southern waters. During this period (roughly I850-I895) the movement of the ships on the Pacific station developed into a kind of routine. Sailing northward from Valparaiso, the ships would call at Iquique, Arica, Callao, Paita, Panama, Acapulco, and Mazatlan, proceeding to Esquimalt in time for the celebration of Queen Victoria's birthday, May 24. A summer patrol to Alaska or the Bering Sea followed, and with the autumn came a wide swing out into the Pacific, touching at Honolulu, Tahiti, the Marquesas, and Easter Island, and thence back to Coquimbo and Valparaiso.

In I910 the ships and base at Esquimalt were transferred to the Dominion government, and as no Canadian naval force existed at that time, officers had to be obtained and trained. A naval college was established at Halifax, and a training vessel, the Rainbow, was stationed at Esquimalt, but the outbreak of war in I914 interrupted the peacetime training plan.

After the war the equipment and facilities at Esquimalt were rapidly expanded, and today, besides the large naval barracks and training establishment, the base provides dry- dock and marine repair facilities, a coaling wharf, oil bunkering at the rate of 200 barrels an hour, and anchorage for seaplanes.

LIVELIHOOD AREAS OF THE UNITED STATES. The revised edition of the Na- tional Resources Planning Board's "Area Analysis-A Method of Public Works Planning" (by a Special Subcommittee of the Land Committee, Tech. Paper No. 6, I943) contains an added map of the "Livelihood Areas of the United States" with accompanying commen- tary. The map, for which chief credit goes to F. J. Marschner, is on the scale of I: 7,500,000

and shows 235 units. Its purpose is "to provide a framework for a regional evaluation of the employment-occupational-resource structure of the country. Such an evaluation will seek to discover both the short- and long-range adjustments which will be required in order to use the resources of an area wisely, to ease stresses in the local economy, and to minimize fluctuations in employment."

The units differ in size and population, and the map may advantageously be compared with the Census Bureau's "Population Density Map by Minor Civil Divisions: I940,

I 2,500,000, compiled under the direction of C. E. Batschelet. Some of the units, such as the Aroostock area of Maine, are well defined-would, indeed, be well defined under any category. The delineation of others, especially in the southeast and between the Mississippi



I36 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

and the Rockies, presented difficulties, and many modifications of this first essay at classification may be expected. In illustration of concept and procedure, two units on which area-analysis reports have already been prepared are cited-the Willamette Valley of Ore- gon and the "problem area" of the cutover lands of northwestern Wisconsin.

OREGON FIBER FLAX. There are two kinds of flax: fiber flax, from which linen and other spun products are made; and seed flax, which supplies linseed oil and linseed meal. Almost all the flax (more than 3 million acres in I940) grown in the United States is seed flax. However, in 194I about II,400 acres of fiber flax was planted in the Willamette Valley of Oregon. The Oregon fiber-flax industry, which supplies about 98 per cent of the fiber flax grown in this country, is the subject of a recent study by Edward L. Rada and D. B. DeLoach (The Oregon Fiber-Flax Industry, With Particular Reference to Market- ing, Oregon State Monographs: Studies in Economics No. 3, 1942). The rapid rise in the prices of fiber flax since 1939 has served to place the cooperatives in a more favorable position and has encouraged farmers to grow more flax. In I942 the fiber-flax acreage in Oregon was I8,ooo; in I943 it was I4,000 (total flax acreage in the United States was nearly 412

million in i942 and nearly 6 million in 1943).

The United States is the largest consumer of fiber-flax products in the world. It imports 97 per cent of its requirements, 70 per cent in the form of flax manufactures, 27 per cent as raw flax. Most of the remaining 3 per cent is supplied by domestic flax from Oregon, together with small amounts from Washington and Michigan. The six Oregon flax-processing plants depend on the twelve United States flax-manufacturing mills for their markets. Most of these mills are dependent on a high protective tariff they have been able to maintain on flax manufactures. The two Oregon flax-manufacturing mills, at Salem, provide the principal outlets for the local processing plants, though some fiber is shipped to Eastem mills that are now outbidding the Salem mills for Oregon fiber. Both Oregon mills have developed exceptionally stable markets for their products. One produces principally sacking twine and related products; the other specializes in fish nets and seines. Ore- gon fiber is highly satisfactory for sacking twine, but for seines and fish nets it is inferior in

quality to Belgian flax. Hence the second mill has in the past imported fiber from the Netherlands and Belgium to supplement and mix with the local fiber.

The method of selling flax fiber is unique in agricultural marketing. All sales are made

through four or five brokers in New York. The State Flax Industry handles the sales of

almost all the Oregon fiber through a mutual agreement with the cooperative processing plants. No market-price quotations are available. A broker will not release prices to the

Oregon marketing agency until the agency has made a bona fide offer to sell a certain

quantity of fiber through his agency. Sales are made from samples, and the prices for Ore-

gon fiber are based on the prices paid for foreign fiber of the same quality. The increased

dependence of Eastern manufacturers on Oregon fiber has given the Oregon industry a

seller's market, with a resultant demand for higher prices. Comparatively speaking, the

prices for fiber flax at present are considerably out of line with prices for other farm crops and for competing fibers. This situation invites a substitution of other fibers for flax fiber.

The industry will not fully realize this until it again has to operate on a buyer's market. Production of fiber flax is a rather uncertain business: cash costs are high; a profitable



GEOGRAPHICAL RECORD I37

crop is dependent on ideal weather; special skills are required to grow the crop; and the producer must usually incur the cost of processing before he can market his product. The profitable processing of fiber flax is especially uncertain. Labor costs are high; flax is easily destroyed; poor weather during retting and drying may limit the capacity of the plant; and the price situation is unknown until the fiber is offered for sale.

The fiber-flax industry is now in a favorable cost-price position. The postwar situation is unpredictable. There is reason to believe, however, that the survival of the Oregon flax industry will depend on continued govemmental protection and assistance unless the producers and processors can reduce their costs to approach more nearly those of their foreign competitors.-ALDEN CUTSHALL

THE GEOLOGY OF CRATER LAKE NATIONAL PARK. As is well known, the death throes of Mt. Mazama, ancestor of Crater Lake, provided the scenic West with an unrivaled jewel, but, as is not so well known, they also provided an unrivaled section of the internal structure of a volcano. To all who are interested in volcanoes it must seem a fortunate coin- cidence indeed that within the same twelvemonth scientists of the North American conti- nent should have been favored with an unequaled opportunity to study the birth throes of a volcano in the eruption of Paricutin (see below) and with the appearance of a definitive, quite possibly the definitive, study of the death throes of a volcano, Howel Williams' "The Geology of Crater Lake National Park, Oregon" (Carnegie Instn. Publ. 540, I942).

Crater Lake was first discovered in I853 by J. W. Hillman, the head of a party of pros- pectors, who, more interested in gold than in reflections of emerald, turquoise, and lapis, were apparently so little impressed that the lake required several "rediscoveries" and years of enthusiastic advertising by W. G. Steel to bring it before the public eye. The area was made a national park in I902.

The Oregon Cascades are not a simple volcanic pile; the range is complex, consisting of the Western Cascades and the High Cascades. The Western Cascades are older (Eocene to Miocene) and contain sediments and an abundance of pyroclastics; basic andesite pre- dominates; the rocks are gently folded and today show a mature topography. The High Cascades are younger (Pliocene to Recent) and "form a plateau surmounted by steep-sided shield volcanoes of olivine basalt and olivine-bearing basic andesites, and by younger com- posite cones, chiefly composed of hypersthene andesite, that lie along or near the crest." Crater Lake lies in the High Cascades, apparently at the intersection of a principal north- south fracture zone and an oblique fault trending north-northwest that to the south delimit the Klamath Lake graben.

The cone of Mazama, rising some 60oo feet above the basement, was built chiefly by a succession of thin flows of hypersthene andesite, averaging only 20 to 30 feet in thickness. The small amounts of pyroclastic material are evidence that there was relatively little explosive activity in this period of the volcano's history. That the magma chamber which supplied Mazama was rather shallow is indicated by the absence among the explosive ejecta, and also among the basic inclusions (which form a striking feature in the flows), of material which could be attributed to pre-Eocene time or even to rocks of the Western Cascades. There is abundant evidence, however, that Mazama was no simple structure: the earliest vent was near the Phantom Ship, but the locus of activity shifted many times, resulting in




overlap and unconformities within the lavas; radial fissures were filled with andesite and dacite dikes, sixteen of which can be seen today in the inside walls of the old volcano; parasitic cones formed on the flanks and around the base; fumaroles and solfataric activity altered the rocks to clay and opal and produced the iron stains that furnish much of the attractive coloring to be seen on Garfield Peak and Eagle Crags and beneath Hillman Peak.

The north wall of Crater Lake is much lower than the south wall, and the center of the lake lies about a mile north of the former summit of Mazama. This eccentricity is due in large part to a ring fracture which developed at about the time Mazama had reached its full height and up which came the lavas that formed the Northern Arc of Vents, including the Watchman, Hillman Peak, Llao Rock, and Sentinel Rock. These lavas are dominantly dacite, and this difference (from basic andesite) is a harbinger of old age in a volcano, as is the growth of parasitic cones and viscous domes on its flanks.

Explosions and showers of pumice heralded the final cataclysm. To the southwest prac- tically no pumice fell (see the instructive map), the distributing winds blowing dominantly from that direction, but to the northeast the deposit is a foot thick seventy miles from the lake, and the finest dust may have encircled the globe. The period of pumice eruptions must have been short. More awesome even than the pumice showers were the pumice flows- sheets and streams of incandescent gas-charged pumice particles that poured down the canyons as density currents. One of these rushed 35 miles down the valley of the Rogue River; another swept northward, somehow traversed Diamond Lake, I3 miles distant, and emptied down the valley of the North Umpqua. Williams estimates the velocities at more than a hundred miles an hour and records 6-foot blocks of pumice carried for 20 miles! Unlike the pumice falls, which were distributed as an even blanket by the winds, the flows were controlled by the topography and are found chiefly in the canyons.

Williams, basing his calculations on more data than have heretofore been available, arrives at an estimate of 6.5 cubic miles of rock and magma thus emptied out of the volcano, but this is less than half the I7 cubic miles that all students of Crater Lake agree were removed from Mt. Mazama to form the present caldera. These figures in themselves provide Williams' answer to the classic enigma of Crater Lake: explosion or collapse? Only engulfment, with possibly some assimilation by magma, can account for the remaining Io.5

cubic miles, and this tremendous collapse may well have been as cataclysmic as that of Krakatao in i883.

Other interesting topics discussed in Professor Williams' monograph are correlations between glaciation and volcanism, evidence that Mazama was built principally in the Pleistocene and destroyed perhaps only 5000 years ago, microscopic petrography, the arti- facts beneath pumice layers that point to the presence of man at least in the later stages, comparisons with other calderas, and descriptions of post-caldera eruptions-for example, Wizard Island, possibly not much more than 8oo years old. Other features calling for men- tion are the abundant maps, line drawings, block diagrams, and cross sections that enhance the text and the 28 plates of photographs, several with benefit of parallel diagrams, brought together for convenient reference near the end of the volume. In particular, the plates provide a comprehensive guide to the lake and its environs, so that even he who must run while he reads could, within a day, see and have interpreted for him many of the instructive and critical sections in this unique area. Clearly the book is a "must" for tourist and volcanologist alike.-IAN CAMPBELL




PARICUTIN, A NEW VOLCANO. Paricutin was a small settlement in the state of Michoacan, Mexico, about 330 kilometers west of Mexico City; it is now ash-covered and abandoned. The landscape in that section of the Mexican plateau is characterized by numerous small volcanic cones of Quaternary or Recent age rising from I50 meters to more than 300 meters above the average level. The inhabitants gained a livelihood by tapping the sur- rounding pine forests for resin and by cropping the volcanic soils of the small valleys.

Beginning on February 5, I943, strong earth tremors were felt in the region. The climax was reached on February 20. On that day the owner of a small parcel of land, locally called Cuiyutziro, two kilometers northwest of Paricutin, was preparing his cornfield, when he observed smoke and vapors issuing from a small rift in the field. Then came earthquake shocks accompanied by subterranean rumblings. The cultivator fled. The next morning the inhabitants found that a small cone had risen in the field. Three days after the beginning of eruption the cone had built up to 50 meters in height, with an angle of rest of 3Io

to 340 for the volcanic debris. When reporting on August I0 on the activities of this new volcano Engineer Ezequiel Ordoniez (El Volc"an de Paricutin, Mexico, 1943) stated that the cone had reached a height of 310 meters and an east-west basal dimension of II00 meters (see also Francisco Valencia R.: El Volcan de Cuiyutziro [Paricutin], Rev. Mexicana de Geogr., Vol. 4, I943, pp. 59-77).

The activity of the new volcano has been characterized by short periods of violent eruptions at intervals of one to two months followed by diminishing activity. (For excellent photographs see T. I. Rees: The Birth of a Volcano, Geogr. Mag., Vol. i6, I943, pp. I47-I5I; F. H. Pough: Paricutin Is Born, Natural History, Vol. 52, I943, pp. I34-I42;

Porfirio Hernandez and Jose Gonzalez Ortega: Un nuevo volcan en Mexico, Rev. Geogr. Americana, No. ii6, Vol. I9, I943, pp. 255-264.) During maximum eruption the ejection of bombs, scoriae, and cinders was accompanied by flows of scoriaceous, basaltic lava. Cinders and fine ash covered the near-by countryside to a depth of some io centimeters, clogged the water conduits of Uruapan, 35 kilometers away, and affected crops to about the same distance. Traces of ash were noticed as far away as Mexico City. Volcanic bombs ejected from the crater were as much as 3 to 4 cubic meters in volume and 8 to io tons in weight.

Parker D. Trask, who saw the new volcano on three occasions, is reporting on its activities in Scietnce (probably a December, I943, issue). A week after its birth the volcano was erupting bombs, mostly of highly vesicular basalt; at three months Dr. Trask found that the explosions were less forceful and a much larger proportion of ash was being ejected; at four months a phase of lava activity was in evidence, with many flows issuing from within the cone. When all the numerous reports are brought together there will be a unique body of firsthand data for a definitive study of the volcano.

SOUTH AMERICA

EXPLORATIONS IN THE VENEZUELAN GUAYANA. Although colonization of the Venezuelan Guayana, some 320,000 square kilometers of territory south and east of the Orinoco, has been under consideration since the early days of the Spaniards, the region remains to this day but little explored. The state of Bolivar, forming about two-thirds of this vast region, has a population density of only one to two square kilometers. Here tributaries of the Orinoco, notably the Caroni and its tributary the Paragua, the Aro, the Caura,




the Crevato, and the Cuchivero, flow northward, and their falls and rapids constitute Ven- ezuela's main water-power reserves. A botanical investigation in the lower Caura basin was recently carried out by Llewelyn Williams for the Venezuelan government in connection with the systematic study it has undertaken of the Guayana region. A narrative of the expedition was published in the July, I94I, number of the Geographical Review; the botanical report now appears as "Exploraciones botanicas en la Guayana Venezolana: I-El medio y bajo Caura" (Servicio Botanico, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, Caracas, I942).

Stress is laid on the useful products of the region, of which the tonka bean or sarrapia is at present most important. The sarrapia tree grows in the forest with other species, but the harvest fluctuates considerably from year to year as a result of variations in weather. The possibility of utilizing the savannas near Maripa and Aripao for cultivating these trees under more advantageous conditions is suggested. Other products are rice, cacao, coffee, tobacco, vanilla, chicle, and barbasco. The last is a potent insecticide and one of those products for which we look to the American to replace the Far Eastern tropics.

Communication in the Caura basin is extremely difficult during the rainy season. Bridges across streams and year-round roads are the first necessity for agricultural colonization.

The territory of Amazonas, embracing the headwaters of the Orinoco and the Casi- quiare, is also included within the Venezuelan Guayana. Here products of economic importance include rubber, oils, and palm fibers, notably the chiquichiqui fiber, as Llewelyn Williams points out in "Natural Resources of Venezuela" (Chronica Botanica, Vol. 7, I942-

I943, pp- 75-77). Chiquichiqui fiber is exported in considerable quantity by way of the Rio Negro and Brazil, "in preference to the long haul down the Orinoco, made costly and difficult by the many rapids, especially those of Atures, which have to be negotiated." Does this portend that the navigable Casiquiare, a Venezuelan stream, is destined to find greater use in commerce as a means of access to the Brazilian Negro-Amazon waterway than to the Venezuelan Orinoco?

Another of the more important river valleys of the state of Bolivar, that of the Para- gua, was explored in I940 by two missionaries, Brother C. de Armellada and Brother B. de Matallana (Exploracion del Paragua, Bol. Soc. Venezolana de Ciencias Naturales, No. 53,

Vol. 8, I942, pp. 6i-iio). Using two Iy2-ton-capacity canoes, one with motor and the

other towed, they penetrated the entire valley above La Paragua, as well as its continuation

the Paramichi and its tributaries the Carutn, the Antavari, the Pao, and the Marn. The upper Paragua had been visited as far back as I770, and according to the "Mapa

coro-grafico de la Nueva Andalucia" of D. Luis de Surville (published by Antonio Caulin

in his "Historia . . . de la Nueva Andalucia," Madrid, I779) there had been three settle-

ments along the river before that date. One of these was Barceloneta, now La Paragua, above the confluence of the Paragua and the Caroni. The others were San Jose, near the

mouth of the Caruin, and Guirior, at the headwaters of the Paragua, but of these the explorers were able to find not even a trace, nor did the Indians of the region seem to know any- thing about them.

The Paragua traverses a series of plains and thresholds in its generally northward course.

At the crossings of the plains there are labyrinths of channels among large and small islands.

At the thresholds there are cascades and rapids, but none that caused serious delay. The



GEOGRAPHICAL RECORD 141

basin of the Paragua forms a parallelogram measuring about 300 kilometers in length from south to north and about I00 kilometers in width. The first 24 kilometers south of La Paragua has savanna growth, then comes a transition zone of 3o kilometers, and from this point to the upper limits of the watershed there is dense tropical forest, "without a single square meter free of vegetation."

The explorers found no difficulties of terrain that would make road building unduly expensive. A year-round highway about I50 kilometers in length between Ciudad Bolivar and La Paragua might serve as the principal means of ingress to the Paragua basin, supple- menting the river. From La Paragua the arteries of the Paragua and its navigable feeders would be used, with subsidiary highways penetrating inland from heads of navigation. The Indians have a system of trails connecting the Paragua waters with the Caroni waters on the east and the Caura waters on the west and crossing the Sierra Pacaraima on the south.

It seems odd that none of the early expeditions in search of rubber and gold in this region ever reached points south of the confluence of the Paragua and the Caruin, about halfway from La Paragua to the Brazilian frontier. Yet Brothers Armellada and Matallana climbed the ridge of the Pacaraima in a single day after reaching the head of navigation on the Paramichi, and there they found a masonry pyramid in a clearing in the forest, mark- ing the frontier between Venezuela and Brazil. Such are the inconsistencies of exploration in the Guayana.

An idea of time requirements for the upstream journeys is obtained from the explorers' log: 8 days ascending the Paragua from La Paragua to the mouth of the Caruin, and 8 days from this point to the mouth of the Paramichi, distances of about i8o and I60 kilometers respectively according to their map. On the downstream trip the entire course was covered in io days. About 300 Indians, representing 5 different language groups, were encountered along the way.-WILLIAM E. RUDOLPH

MORE ABOUT PERUVIAN FISHERIES. The report of the United States Fishery Mis- sion to Peru in 194I (see p. 96) has been followed hard by a second publication of the Guano Administration relating to fisheries and coastal oceanography and to recommendations regarding the development of the former. This is "Pesqueria y oceanografia del Peru' y proposiciones para su desarrollo futuro" (I943), by Dr. Erwin Schweigger, who for the past five years has conducted investigations in Peru for the Guano Administration. It is a volume of 3 56 pages, or nearly as long as the mission's report, and about two-thirds of it is broadly concerned with fish and fisheries. The remainder of the text has at least an indirect bearing.

The sponsors are at pains to point out, in view of the similarity of findings in the two documents, that Schweigger's manuscript was nearly completed at the time the other went to press and that the two were not compared until after publication.

Space does not permit adequate discussion of Schweigger's report, which is less well integrated than the other, more discursive and controversial, and yet filled with pertinent information. Financial aid to fishermen by means of loans, modernization of gear, stations for experiment and instruction, and centralization of main fishing ports in the several zones of the long coast are among the matters stressed in the author's "Proposiciones para el futuro."




Schweigger devotes considerable space to the so-called "abnormal" summer seasons of recent years and strongly disagrees with Vogt's (papers cited in Schweigger's bibliography, p. 356) conclusions regarding the accompanying biotic "crashes," particularly since these affected the guanay (cormorant), most important of the guano birds. The prime food fish, the anchovy, according to Schweigger, did not abandon the Peru Coastal Current at such times. On the contrary, it remained in the region but followed its planktonic food to greater and cooler depths during the warm-water overflows, thus putting itself out of reach of the guanay. Schweigger's suggestion that the guanay may be a "newcomer" in the Peruvian avifauna, not yet fully acclimated as compared with endemic seafowl, is, however, pure and meaningless speculation. He may not be aware, incidentally, that other species of cormorants have been observed by human divers to feed at depths as great as 70 feet.

References to the beginnings of an "artificial guano" industry in Peru, i.e. a fish-meal and oil project, with the anchovy as the principal source, ring somewhat forebodingly in the ears of an ecologist. Many such undertakings elsewhere have ended, sooner or later, in the exhaustion of the supply. There are strong indications that the Peruvians, possessed of a unique environment, an enviable abundance of the eaters and the eaten, room for expanding or improving the breeding grounds of the birds, and assurance of a natural fertilizer

that man's ingenuity has not equaled or even approached, would do well to concentrate on the betterment of their free, organic producers of irreplaceable wealth rather than sigh after short cuts by way of competitive machinery.-R. C. MURPHY

THE NEW BRAZILIAN TERRITORIES. Brazil today is experiencing a steady growth economically and culturally; the boundary of the active population is advancing westward -Marcha para oeste, as the slogan of President Vargas puts it. Settlement, which so long followed the line of the meridians, is now expanding in the direction of the parallels, climb- ing the seaboard mountains and spreading out on the plateaus. In line with this movement five new territories have been created in the frontier zone, under direct administration of

the federal government. It is hoped to stimulate settlement and economic progress in these lands of sparse population but considerable potential wealth. The descriptions of the terri-

tories prepared by the Conselho Nacional de Geografia of Brazil may be summarized thus:

Amapa. This territory, taken from the extreme northeast of the state of Para, covers an

area of I40,880 square kilometers. It has a total population of 30,000 and a density of 0.2

to a square kilometer. In the west is an undulating crystalline plateau with an average alti-

tude of i5o meters. From its base, at a maximum altitude of about IOO meters, a broad

alluvial lowland slopes eastward between the French Guiana boundary and the mouth of

the Amazon. The climate is that of the lower Amazon basin: much of the region has an

average annual rainfall of 3000 millimeters; temperatures are always high. The three main rivers are the Jar, which forms the western boundary and is a tributary

of the Amazon; the Oiapoque, the boundary with French Guiana, which flows to the

Atlantic; and the Araguari, which, with its tributary, the Mapari, occupies the central area

and also flows to the Atlantic. A great part of the region is covered with the typical Amazonian forest, the hile'ia; nat-

ural campos, however, form islands in the midst of the forest. The coastal campos are sub-




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FIG. i-The five new Brazilian territories

ject to inundation during much of the year; in the dry season they make good pastureland. This is a region of placer gold and a great variety of timber.

Rio Bronco. This territory, taken from the extreme northem part of the state of Ama- zonas, has an area0 f2S5o,1i6o square kilometers; the population is i 5,ooo, the density o.o6 to a square kilometer. Much of the territory is composed of crystalline rocks and has an altitude of about 200 meters; isolated peaks and mesas reach mooo meters. Two-thirds of the territory is covered with the virgin forest of the Amazon. In the northeast are broad pasturelands, the campos do Rio Bronco, with less rain and lower temperatures. The Branco River and its tributaries, which are navigable for small boats and barges, water the territory.

Grazing in the natural pastureland is important. Pastural colonies, such as that of Sio Marcos, are maintained by the federal government. The one urban center is Bo6a Vista.

Guapore'. This territory, taken from the southern part of the state of Amazonas and the




northwestern part of the state of Mato Grosso, has an area of 256,400 square kilometers; the population is 30,000, the density o.i to a square kilometer.

In the northeast is the northem slope of the Central Plateau; in the northwest, the Amazon plain; in the center, the tableland of the Parecis; and in the southeast, the Guapore Valley.

The region is watered by the Puruis, by the Madeira and its right-bank tributaries, and by tributaries of the Mamore and the Guapore. In the Mamore is found the most important waterfall of the region-that of the Teotonio, i 8 meters high.

The people live along the navigable rivers, along the Madeira-Mamore railroad, and in the three cities of Guajara-Mirim, Porto Velho, and Labrea. The southern part of this region is climatically similar to central Brazil, characterized by two seasons, dry and rainy. The northwestern part has a climate similar to that of Amazonas-constant high temperatures and heavy rainfall fairly evenly distributed throughout the year.

Ponta Porai. This territory, taken from the state of Mato Grosso, has an area of I06,480

square kilometers; the population is go,ooo, the density o.9 to a square kilometer. The territory is about equally divided between the Paraguay River plains on the west

and the great sandstone plateau on the east, which gets its name from the Serra de Maracaju and the Serra de Amambai. This plateau slopes gently to the east, sending its waters into the Parana River. The tributaries of the Paraguay overflow when it rains, making the well known swampland, pantanal, of the Paraguay River.

The inundated area furnishes good grazing in the dry season. The higher lands are dominantly savanna country, campos cerrados; on the southem slopes this gives place to the famous campos de Vacaria. Grazing and the quebracho and herva-mate industries are the chief economic activities.

The railroad, Estrada de Ferro Noroeste do Brasil, runs through the territory to P6rto

Esperanqa, which will be one of the stops of the transcontinental line from Arica to Santos. Navigation on the Parana River is possible in small boats to Guaira at the southeastern

extremity of Ponta Pori. Navigation on the Paraguay River is international. Urban centers are Porto Murtinho, Bela Vista, Ponta Pori, and a large part of the municipios of Maracaju, Nioaque, Miranda, and Corumba.

Iguiassuz. This territory was taken from the western part of the states of Paran'a and Santa Catarina; its area is 65,200 square kilometers, its population 8o,ooo. The entire terri-

tory lies in the headwaters region of the Parana River. Climate is subtropical; a heavy rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year. Except for the attractive pasturelands of the

campos of Palma and Guarapuava, the region is largely forested. It is considered one of the most suitable areas for future white settlement in Brazil. Its potential wealth lies in its for-

ests, its possible mineral deposits, and the well known waterfalls of Iguassut and Sete Quedes (Guaira). The territory also contains the Iguassu National Park.

Thus Brazil has now seven territories, including Acre and Fernando de Noronha. Slowly and methodically Brazil is working out a reasonable territorial redivision of its

domain.-JORGE ZARUR

JAPANESE COLONIES IN PERU AND BRAZIL. Considerable interest has been dis-

played in recent months, quite understandably, in the size, character, and significance of




the colonies of Axis nationals in Latin America. In this connection, a timely and informa- tive study of the Japanese in Peru and Brazil has been issued by the Institute of Pacific Relations in cooperation with the Latin American Economic Institute (J. F. Normano and Antonello Gerbi: The Japanese in South America, Inst. of Pacific Relations Internatl. Research Ser., New York, I943).

Japanese immigration into Peru dates from I898, when some I200 Japanese were brought in as contract laborers. Other small groups came within the next io years (984 in I903 and 774 in I906). In spite of a high mortality rate and the return of many of the contract laborers to their homeland, a steady trickle of immigrants continued, until by I922,

according to a Japanese-Peruvian source, some 20,000 Japanese had arrived. The same source estimates, however, that only 20 per cent of these remained and sent to Japan for their families. By far the greater number then moved to the cities and towns and became tradesmen, thus changing from an agricultural to a commercial group. Another wave of immigrants came during and after the First World War, but the movement was most extensive between I925 and I930. Japanese figures show that 7269 Japanese emigrated to Peru during that time. Several factors contributed to the flow of immigrants, among them the so-called Exclusion Act of I924 in the United States, the growing prosperity of Peru, and the activities of the Kaigai Kogyo Kaisha (Overseas Development Corporation), a government-sponsored organization for the promotion and control of Japanese emigration. Most of the new immigrants were small traders and artisans; a few were skilled workers; nearly all of them were relatives or friends of established Japanese residents.

The number of Japanese citizens and Japanese-born Peruvian citizens now in Peru is probably between 20,000 and 25,000. More than 80 per cent live in the department of Lima and in Callao Province, most of them in the cities or the outlying towns. As has been said, by far the larger number ofJapanese in Peru are now engaged in retail trade and small industries. For example, one reliable source reports that before I914 there were only four Japanese stores in Lima; by I924 there were more than two thousand; and about I934 it was estimated that two-thirds of the bakeries and saloons and half of the barbershops in the province of Lima were in the hands of the Japanese (Anita Bradley: Trans-Pacific Rela- tions of Latin America, Inst. of Pacific Relations Internatl. Research Ser., I942). Statistics show that 5225 Japanese were engaged in commerce and industry in I934, and only i899 in agriculture. Even the latter group had changed in nature, most of them having become yanacones (semi-independent farmers renting land on a share-cropping system) largely specializing in cotton growing in the Chancay and Rimac Valleys.

Japanese emigration to Brazil began a few years later than to Peru (I907) but was impelled by the same factor. The first experiment was not very successful, but after the formation of the Kaigai Kogyo Kaisha, in I9I7, emigration increased. It was not until I924, however, the year of the exclusion act in the United States, when the Japanese Emi- gration Council sent a mission to South America, that the government concentrated its efforts on establishing "a centralized, rationalized management of emigration to Brazil." Special schools were set up in Japan, in which the prospective emigrant received instruction in the Portuguese language, Brazilian history, economics, and geography, tropical hygiene, tropical agriculture, and other pertinent subjects. The immigration was thus a matter of permanent colonist-settlers rather than of transient contract laborers. The immigrants



146 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

and their families were cordially received and encouraged in Brazil, and by I933 more than half of the total Brazilian immigration was Japanese, and Japanese figures for I934 show that 22,960 persons, or 82 per cent of the total Japanese emigration of that year, went to Brazil. In I934 restrictive legislation was introduced, and in I938 the Brazilian Council on Immigration and Colonization devoted itself to the new policy of preventing the formation of alien racial groups difficult of assimilation. "No settlement may contain more than 25 per cent of aliens of any one nationality, and at least 30 per cent of every settlement must be Brazilian." Pierre Monbeig has described such a community in Barao de Antonina, Sao Paulo (Geogr. Rev., Vol. 30, I940, pp. 260-27I).

The total number of Japanese in Brazil at present is probably not more than 230,000.

Most of them are settled in the state of Sao Paulo or have spread into the bordering states of Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso, Parana, and Rio de Janeiro; a relatively small number (some 20,000) have settled in the newer colonies of the Amazon basin. In contrast with Peru, in Brazil by far the greater number of the Japanese are agriculturists; Japanese-Brazilian sources give the proportion as go per cent. Although coffee growing constitutes a large part of the agricultural activity of the immigrants, other crops also show the influence of the Japanese. The rice crop, for example, increased from 688,ooo tons in I926 to I,502,220 tons in I939.

Banana plantations and truck gardens are largely in Japanese hands, and the colonists dom- inate the newer crops also (cf. P. E. James: Japanese Colonization in Brazil, ibid., Vol. 27,

I937, pp. I45-I46). It is also worthy of note that, in spite of their elaborate training in Brazilian economy, the Japanese colonists have remained almost completely apart from the native Brazilians.

THE FOUR-HUNDREDTH ANNIVERSARY OF THE DISCOVERY OF THE AMAZON. The year I942 was the fourth centenary of Orellana's discovery of the Amazon River, and in several of the countries whose territories lie partly within the Amazon basin it was a year of special celebrations. A number of publications authorized in connection with these celebrations have now appeared. In Peru, the year was declared by government decree the Afo Amazonico, and the Geographical Society of Lima devoted Numbers i and 2

of its Boletln for I942 to articles on the discovery and on various aspects of Peruvian Ama- zonia (Bol. Soc. Geogr. de Lima, Vol. 59, Nutmero extraordinario del IV Centenario del Descubrimiento del Rio Amazonas). The Instituto Ecuatoriano de Estudios del Amazonas published as Volume i of its "Biblioteca Amazonas" both the version of Carvajal's account of the discovery of the Amazon contained in Oviedo's "Historia general y natural de las Indias" and Jose Toribio Medina's version of the same document published in I894, together with Medina's critical study of the friar's account. (It is to be noted that these same works are included in the American Geographical Society's Special Publication No. 17,

"The Discovery of the Amazon According to the Account of Friar Gaspar de Carvajal and Other Documents," as published with an introduction by Jose Toribio Medina, translated from the Spanish by Bertram T. Lee, edited by H. C. Heaton, I934.) In Colombia, the press of the Biblioteca Nacional also published the Medina version of Carvajal's account, with a brief selection from Medina's notes (Descubrimiento del Rio de las Amazonas: Relaci6n de Fr. Gaspar de Carvajal, exfoliada de la obra de Jose Toribio Medina, edici6n de Sevilla, I894, porJuan B. Bueno Medina, Bogota, I942), and the Ministerio de Educa-




cion published together in one small volume the Maldonado and Acufia accounts of the first and second discoveries respectively (Relaciones del descubrimiento del Rio de las Amazonas, por Fr. Jose de Maldonado O.F.M. y Fr. Cristobal de Acufia SJ., reimpresion de la edicion de I642, revisada y anotada por Juan B. Bueno Medina, Bogota, I942).

In Brazil, various geographical and historical societies held commemorative meetings on February 12, I942, the anniversary of the day on which Orellana entered the Amazon from the Napo River, and an entire number of the quarterly joumal of the Instituto Bra- sileiro de Geografia e Estatistica was devoted to articles on the Amazon and Amazonia including an extensive bibliography (Rev. Brasileira de Geogr., Vol. 4, No. 2, 1942).

EUROPE

THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION IN GREECE. "When the time comes for the reconstruction of Greece it will surely be important to know how many people were actually being supported on land of various types and in regions of differing accessibility." Alan G. Ogilvie essays an answer to the question in a map on the scale of i: I,750,000 (accompanying his "Population Density in Greece," Geogr. Journ., Vol. IOI, I943, pp. 25I-

260). It is based on a study of topographic maps, mostly on the scale of i: IOO,00O, and uses the figures of the I928 census. The date is important; for this latest official census "dis- closed the manner in which the great floods of immigrant refugees, absorbed by the nation between I919 and I923, had affected the distribution of population," though changes following land reclamation were still in progress at the time.

In I928 the population of Greece was 6,204,684. If the population of the ten largest cities and towns, all on the seaboard, is deducted, the average density of the remaining dominantly rural 5 millions is found to be IOO to a square mile, or for the mainland alone about go to a square mile. The population units on the map are "natural districts or areas of characteristic distribution." The result is a patchwork of sizes and densities. Topography is the first control. (According to tables of hypsometric zones in the Annuaire Statistique de la Grece, nearly two-thirds of the population live below 200 meters, or on one-third of the area of the country.) Densities range from o to 225 to a square kilometer (58o to a square mile). Uninhabited areas are few; there is little land not used for pastoral purposes at least. The highest density is that of the small plain of Messinia in the southern Pelopon- nisos, truly a garden spot where fertile soil and warmth are combined with an abundant water supply. Water supply in the plains is, in fact, of the utmost importance, embracing the problem of too much as well as that of not enough; for poor drainage and malaria have been deterrents to settlement. The population of the larger islands "may be said generally to correspond to their respective agricultural capacities." Kerkira (Corfu; the revised spell- ings of the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names are used), a large producer of olive oil, has the highest density, nearly 500 to a square mile.

AFRICA

RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE SAHARA. The improvement of mail service with French North Africa has enabled us to receive recent publications from Algiers. They show that French geographers and their colleagues have




not remained idle under the difficult conditions of wartime but have added materially to our knowledge of French Africa, particularly the Sahara. In I937 the University of Algiers established an Institute of Saharan Research, presided over by Dr. Rene Maire, professor of botany in the University of Algiers. In I942 appeared the first volume of a series planned as a yearly publication, Travaux de l'Institut de Recherches Sahariennes. This volume attests the variety of interests and the high standards of the institute. The first article, byJ. Savornin, "Le Sahara dans son cadre geologique," gives a summary of current ideas on the geology of the Great Desert. Savornin agrees in the main with Wegener's theory of the shifting continents; he stresses the importance of structural and geomorphological considerations of the line of contact of the crystalline equatorial shield with the bordering sedimentary plat- forms: this glint line should be a clue to the understanding of the structure and paleogeog- raphy of Africa north of the equator. For all that is implicit in its conception, Savornin's brilliant and original presentation calls for thorough discussion.

Two articles are concerned with the main human problem of the desert, nomadism. Louis Leschi, a historian, discusses the relations of ancient Rome with the great nomadic tribes of the central Sahara in "Rome et les nomades du Sahara central." The discussion centers on the theory built up by S. Gsell and E. F. Gautier that the camel was introduced into North Africa in the third century by the Romans, who thereby gave the Berber nomads the indispensable means of turning on the invaders. Leschi, basing his criticism on recent work by Jerome Carcopino and Julien Guey on the limes in southern Algeria, doubts whether the development of camel herds and transportation could have been thus achieved within one century; he believes nomad possession of camels was a worry for the Roman province as early as the second century at least. He concludes also that commercial relations between Rome and oases deep inside the Sahara existed and were much more active than has generally been assumed.

In "Le nomadisme pastoral dans le Sahara franqais" R. Capot-Rey essays a principle of classification of the nomadic tribes. "Nomadism" is a vague term, covering so wide a variety of modes of life and kinds of migration that definition is necessary. Augustin Ber- nard first outlined several categories of nomadism, chiefly according to range of migrations; recently P. G. Merner slightly modified Bernard's classification by taking into account the regularity of the migrations and differences in economic features. With a large number of data, chiefly from his own personal investigations, Capot-Rey attacks the problem anew. He considers the diversity of nomadism as an expression of the problem of dry-season pasture (summer on the northern fringe of the Sahara, winter on its southern fringe) and its solution. An interesting map shows summer and winter pastures for the principal groups of tribes. Two main classes of Saharan nomads are described in detail: those going outside the Sahara for the dry season and those migrating the year round within the desert and seeking dry-season pasturage in the mountains, the valleys, or the erg. The tendency toward sedentation is general, whether it takes the form of shortening the range of the annual migration, a seasonal interruption of the wandering, or fixation near some water point (and French colonization has created a great many new ones); nomadism may then take the form of transhumance, a traditional mode of pastoral life in the semiarid lands around the Mediterranean. Sedentation is becoming more and more a mass trend, and one that changes the whole picture of the French Sahara. An excellent illustration of this thesis can




be found in Capot-Rey's detailed analysis of one typical migration, "La migration des Said Atba ou 'la Zenetie ressuscitee,' " published in the Revue Africaine (Algiers, No. 388-

389, I94I, pp. I70-I86). This first volume contains also two detailed ethnographic studies of tribes of the cen-

tral Sahara: Jean Dubief's "Note sur les chronologies des Kel Ahaggar et es Taitoq" and Lieutenant G. Mounier's "Le travail des peaux chez les Touareg Hoggar." Through such careful field investigations we begin to understand the life of these isolated and, until recently, mysterious peoples. In a short article one of the most stubborn advocates of the Transsaharan Railroad, C. Maitre-Devallon, stresses the importance and the ease of building of the railroad begun in I94I to link the Mediterranean to the Niger. A few short notes follow the articles: Andre Basset suggests some rules for the transcription of certain geographical names of the Sahara; Paul Deleau sums up with the aid of map and profile recent studies of the coal deposits in the region of Colomb-Bechar, an important if brief contribution, for the critical shortage of fuel is one of the chief problems of North African economy; two notes deal with measurements of magnetism in the desert in I940 and I94I.

The Institute of Saharan Research is deeply interested in this last subject; its first publication was a magnetic map of the Sahara for I93 8 by A. Lasserre and J. Dubief on the scale I: 5,000,000 (Inst. de Recherches Sahariennes Publ. Hors Ser. No. 1, I940).

Other important contributions on the Sahara, mostly regional monographs, have appeared in the Revue Africaine published by the Algerian Historical Society. Capot-Rey's article on the migration of the Said Atba has already been mentioned; this same author studied the hydrology of the Mzab, in the Algerian Sahara (Contribution a l'hydrologie du Mzab, Quatrieme Congres de la Federation des Societes Savantes de l'Afrique du Nord, Algiers, Societe Historique Algerienne, no date). Capot-Rey considers that, in view of the irregularity of desert hydrography, a careful study of floods would meet an outstand- ing need. The Saoura is the only wadi in the Algerian Sahara the regime of which is well known, thanks to the work of E. F. Gautier and M. Larnaude. Capot-Rey lists the recorded floods of the Mzab, considers their relation to the rainfall, and shows that most of them were caused by local rains but that at long intervals powerful and destructive floods occur and only on these rare occasions does a wadi have a flow of water along its entire course. Floods have undoubtedly had a strong influence on the choice of the sites for the Mzab settlements. But the concentration of oases near the Wadi Mzab, in which floods are less frequent, is to be explained by historical causes: here passed one of the main roads of the Ibadite Empire, of which the oases of Mzab are the remnants. Thus, even in this extreme and simple environment of the desert, the geography of settlement is in part determined by history and tradition.

An excellent regional study of the northern fringe of the Sahara in eastern Algeria has been made by Professor Jean Despois, "La bordure saharienne de l'Algerie orientale" (Revue Africaine, No. 392-393, I942, pp. I97-2I9). Eastern Algeria is the region of the Maghreb where the transition from the Tell to the Sahara is the sharpest. There the desert depressions reach to the very feet of the Atlas ranges (the depressions of Zibane and Hodna are locally called the "Sahara of Sidi Aissa"). As a result, part of the Atlas waters drain toward the fringe of the desert, which has here more wadies and springs and therefore more cultures and population. The people of the mountains have colonized a strip of the




desert; the nomads, on the other hand, often ascend into the lower massifs. Conflicts of interests are frequent, especially disputes on the use of the water. The area has been much studied and discussed by historians: it belongs to the frontier region of Ifrikya, where the Roman limes passed. The abundant water supply helped a southward movement of the limes, deeper into the Sahara. This region was a focal center of the imperial strategy of many empires that extended over North Africa. To the west of the Zibane and Hodna passes an important historical and linguistic boundary separating eastern and western Algeria.-JEAN GOTTMANN

ASIA

MINERAL RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIALIZATION IN THE FUTURE OF INDIA. In the vast complexity that is the question of India one thing is clear-the need of objectivity lest we "lose sight of fundamental economic realities which are most important for any long-term solution of Indian problems." This is the thesis of an article by Charles H. Behre, Jr., in the October, I943, number of Foreign Affairs (PP. 78-93). He examines the distribution of India's mineral wealth (see map, i : I6ooo,ooo) in relation to the political future, specifically to the Moslem separatist movement. According to the category "religions" in the I93I census, 68 per cent of India was Hindu, 22 per cent Moslem; in the I94I census, according to the category "communities," 65 per cent was Hindu, 24 per cent Moslem. The Moslem population lives chiefly in the northwest-Baluchistan, North-West Frontier, Kashmir, Sind, and the Punjab-and the northeast-Bengal and Assam (see the map of distribution by communities, I: 4,800,000, accompanying the Cen-

sus of India, I93 I, Vol. I, Part i). These seven provinces roughly define the proposed Mos-

lem state of Pakistan, as distinguished from Hindustan. The allocation of mineral resources in these two divisions is summarized by Dr. Behre thus: "Hindustan has great reserves of coal and iron; it has excellent reserves of the more important ferro-alloy metals (though these must be supplemented by the import of others) and of the non-metallic minerals and

gold; it has considerable reserves of bauxite and some copper. Pakistan has a small amount of coal and iron; few ferro-alloys; and little bauxite. But Pakistan has as much of the ferro-

alloys, other than manganese and chromium, as has Hindustan; it has adequate reserves of the other subsidiary minerals, except magnesite; and it has most of the oil. The leading feature of the complicated picture is, as we have noted, that Moslem Bengal is geologically a continuation of Hindu Bihar and Orissa. Speaking very generally, about go percent of India's coal and 92 percent of her iron would be in Hindustan; the remainder would be in

Pakistan, but the grade (and rank) of the latter is relatively poor. Hindustan would have most of the ferro-alloy and subsidiary minerals which complete the requirements of a rela-

tively autonomous industrial realm; yet Pakistan would have some of them. Under conditions of moderate industrialization and with fairly high living standards, India as a whole would have less oil than she needed for her internal combustion engines; most of what she had would be in Pakistan.

"Our second conclusion, in short, is that the Hindu and Moslem areas of India are

interdependent. Not only would Hindustan need some of the resources of Pakistan; for industrial life, Pakistan would desperately need great quantities of the resources of Hin- dustan."



GEOGRAPHICAL RECORD I5I

The reserves of good coal in the Bihar and Orissa and the Godavari fields are estimated at more than i6,500 million tons. In I938 India produced somewhat more than 28 million tons (Sir L. L. Fermor: India's Mineral Resources and the War, Asiatic Rev., Vol. 36, I940,

pp. 733-X44); not all of this, however, was retained for home consumption. Reserves of economically minable iron ore have been estimated at 2700 million long tons. In Bihar and Orissa the vast ore bodies bear much resemblance to the Lake Superior iron ores. In I938,

2 Y4million tons of iron ore was raised and I12 million tons of pig iron produced; one- third of the pig iron was exported, however. This was in a country of nearly 400 million people. The industrialization of India has only just begun. The war has proved a stimulus and has given a hint of possibilities, though many difficulties have been encountered (A. J. Grajdanzev: India's Wartime Economic Difficulties, Pacific Affairs, Vol. i6, I943, pp.

i89-2oi), not least the basic problem of food. India is a country of villages-700,000 villages, where the specter of famine is never far away. Industrialization is one of the means of amelioration, and in manifold ways industrialization would be easier in one united India than in two separate Indias. The facts are clear. "India's mineral resources and her poten- tialities for industrial well-being are realities. Yet . . . it is not so much the facts as the way men look upon them which largely determines action."

This last statement, developed at some length, relieves a generally accurate article of a tendency to view the economics and sociology of a complex problem in terms of mineral resources alone. It is valuable to weigh the future possibilities of a land unit by its natural resources, but the point can be overstressed. The growth of the steel industry in the great Tata works (see, for instance, J. L. Keenan's "A Steel Man in India," Duell, Sloan & Pearce, New York, I943) illustrates the operation of economic and social factors that can no more be attributed to the available natural resources than can the growth of the steel industry in a Germany almost totally lacking in iron ores.

WORLD AS A WHOLE AND LARGER PARTS

AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION IN THE AMERICAS. "Agricultural Coopera- tion in the Americas" by Ernest S. Hediger (Foreign Policy Repts., Vol. I9, I943, pp. I58- I67) is an excellent summary and documentation of recent developments in this field. Strategic raw materials have first place. Rubber, wild and plantation, is the "number one problem." Collaboration of the United States with Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru in the Amazon Basin involves an emergency program of a magnitude to match the two million square miles of its locale. The far-reaching activities include provision of means of communication and health and sanitation measures: "it is expected that by the end of I943 fifty infirmaries will be in operation in the Brazilian section of the Amazon territory alone." The program looks to a production of 70,000 tons of wild rubber in I944. Long-range prospects for tropical America as a rubber producer are considered hope- ful. Dr. E. N. Bressman, director of the Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences at Turrialba, Costa Rica, is quoted as saying that, "given the opportunity of cultivating high-yield and disease-resistant varieties, American planters could produce natural rubber for as little as 5 to 6 cents a pound and thus face any competition."

Second in consideration come fibers. The program based on the Rio de Janeiro conference of I942 includes: "(i) cultivation in Panama, Honduras, Guatemala and Costa




Rica of 40,000 acres of abacia (Manila hemp); (2) doubling the present henequen fiber pro-

duction of Haiti; (3) acquisition of all exportable surplus of henequen, flax and ixtle produced in Mexico; (4) contracting with the principal producers of Cuban fibers for all the exportable surplus; (5) an agreement with Peru to buy the country's linen surplus and extend linen cultivation; and (6) experimentation with, and study of, the cultivation of

other fibers." Among the "other fibers" is roselle, a quick-growing plant similar to the

ute of India, but apparently less laborious of cultivation. The matter of drugs and insecticides also looms large. The former director of forestry

of the Philippines, Lieutenant Colonel Arthur F. Fischer, flew two million cinchona seedlings out of Mindanao as the Japanese were closing in on the island. A large number have

been allotted to Costa Rica and Guatemala, where environmental conditions are believed

to be particularly favorable-the largest cinchona plantation in the Western world is in

Guatemala. Seedlings have also been sent to Peru and Ecuador, where, on the eastern slope

of the Andes, the cinchona plant has its native habitat. Pyrethrum is being grown in vari-

ous countries of the Americas to supplement the East African product. Pyrethrum seed

from Kenya is being widely distributed. Besides the io,ooo pounds recently sent to Brazil,

large quantities have been allocated to Russia, to replant the devastated Caucasian fields,

and smaller quantities to other African territories and to Australia, Ceylon, and Jamaica (East Africa and Rhodesia, Oct. 7, I943; The African World, Oct. 9, I943). Rotenone, from barbasco, root of Lonchocarpus, has had a spectacular development. Shipments from Peru

increased from I2,000 kilograms in I933 to I,544,000 kilograms in I942; "barbasco exports already represent a higher total monetary value than those of any other single product

shipped from the Peruvian Amazon." Rotenone is also under experimental production in

the El Oro rehabilitation project in Ecuador. War demands for wood-such as the heavy requirements for plywood for planes and

PT boats-are turning attention to the largely unexploited resources of Latin America (on

the need for a policy of exploitation see Arthur Bevan: Consider the Forests of Tropical

America, Agriculture in the Americas, Vol. 3, 1943, pp. i83-I86). A mission to Ecuador is concentrating on balsa (wood of trees of the genus Ochroma; see S. J. Record and R. W.

Hess: Timbers of the New World, New Haven, I943, pp. 96-97), lightest of woods, which

first came into wide use in the First World War for buoyancy equipment. Balsa wood has

been virtually a monopoly of Ecuador (Francisco Banda C.: Ecuador's Balsa, Bull. Pan

Amer. Union, Vol. 77, I943, pp. 626-630), but other countries of tropical America, nota-

bly Costa Rica, are rich in balsa. In Central America another mission is investigating the

possibilities of local hardwoods for various construction purposes on the Pan-American

Highway. The total number of missions concerned with development of natural resources

in the Americas is large, "too large to permit complete listing." Cooperative food projects include the furnishing of fresh foods to the greatly increased

population of the Canal Zone, from both Panama and Costa Rica. Then there are the

cooperative experiment stations, to which "the United States furnishes agriculturists qual- ified to direct the program and head the agronomic, horticultural, and pest and disease-

control activities. The Latin American republics supply agriculturists to work in cooperation with these experts, provide land, buildings, skilled and unskilled labor, and the general operating expenses of the production station." Tingo Maria, in Peru (see p. I2 of this



GEOGRAPHICAL RECORD 1 53

number of the Geographical Review), was the first to be set up; another station is being established at San Andres in Salvador; and another is planned for El Recreo in Nicaragua. Out- standing among cooperative institutions are, of course, the institute at Turrialba and the newly opened Inter-American Meteorological Institute at Medellin, Colombia. Science for September 24, I943, reports the opening of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana, near Tegu- cigalpa, a foundation of the United Fruit Company, which thus seeks "to cooperate in a practical manner toward the further development of agriculture in the Latin American countries."

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

CONCERNING FISHERIES. Resolution XXXI of the Final Act of the United Nations Conference on Food and Agriculture includes the declaration: "Consideration of questions relating to fish and marine products is important in any program designed to meet imme- diate and long-term food and other requirements." Many governments are already con- sidering such questions. Elsewhere in this number of the Geographical Review R. H. Fiedler tells of Peru's concern. We have lately referred to East African fisheries (Geogr. Rev., Vol. 33, I943, pp. 325-326), and in Nattire for March 27, I943, E. B. Worthington summarizes studies on "Freshwater Fisheries in the British Colonial Empire" (pp. 353-355). "Much work is being done to increase the supply of meat by the many Colonial departments devoted to agriculture and veterinary work, and the special organizations aiming at the control of pests such as tsetse flies and locusts. Nevertheless meat is still very short as an article of diet among Colonial peoples and is likely to remain so. It is natural, therefore, to turn to the possibilities of providing the deficient ingredients from fish, which already con- tribute materially, but could do much more." In an article entitled "Development of Indian Marine Fisheries" (Science and Culture, Vol. 8, I942-I943, pp. 435-443 and 474-478) B. Sundararaj, former director of fisheries, Madras, is concerned with repairing a "dismal tale of neglect or half-hearted local endeavour without any consistent or co-ordinated policy." Mr. Sundararaj makes specific suggestions for improvements in methods and gear.

MiltonJ. Lobell, Dr. Fiedler's associate on the Peruvian mission, in "Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow in the Caribbean Fisheries" (Bull. Pan Amer. Union, Vol. 77, I943, pp. I34-I39), discusses another tropical region where fish contributes the main protein element of the diet. The greater part of the fish that feeds "over I5 million people living in the Caribbean countries" is imported, just as it has been since salt fish were first carried from the Grand Banks to feed the workers on the West Indian sugar plantations. The disrup- tions caused by the war have emphasized the desirability of setting up a domestic industry. In at least some of the Caribbean countries certain handicaps, such as lack of cheap salt and adequate transportation, are already being amended; "perhaps the airplane will be the magic carpet of the future for carrying fish," says Mr. Lobell, pointing out that "regular transportation of fish by this means was in operation in both Colombia and Honduras in I942." Tropical waters, however, are not so generally productive as cooler waters. More- over, in the Caribbean there are no areas of shallow (less than ioO fathoms) water compa- rable with the Grand Banks; and where shallows do exist, coral growth may be an impedi- ment to modern fishery methods. However, certain areas show high productivity. "In general, it is known that large schools of pelagic fishes-tuna, bonito, Spanish mackerel, king-




fish, and others such as marlin and swordfish-pass westward through certain channels into the Caribbean." Mr. Lobell cites, in particular, Venezuela as offering a good example of what can be done in the utilization of marine resources.

Northeastern North America, with all the favoring circumstances, has not yet taken full advantage of its fish resources. "Production records of the fishing industry show a serious lack of balance-overexploitation of a few species on one hand, wasteful underex- ploitation of many species on the other. Although 600,000,000 pounds of seafood are caught by New England fishermen each year, 85 percent of this poundage consists of only IO

species, while the remaining 70 species are landed in quantities so limited that they make up

only I5 percent of the total catch" (R. L. Carson: Food from the Sea: Fish and Shellfish

of New England, U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Conservation Bull. 33, I943). For the opposite picture of the full utilization of the resource one turns to Japan.

"More than 400 kinds of fish are used as food in Japan, and are of more or less commercial

importance," says Albert W. C. T. Herre, who has specialized in the study of the fisheries

of the western Pacific (Japanese Fisheries and Fish Supplies, Far Eastern Survey, Vol. I2,

I943, pp. 99-IOI. See also G.-H. Smith, Dorothy Good, and Shannon McCune: Japan: A

Geographical View, Amer. Geogr. Soc. Special Publ. No. 28, I943, pp. 30-32. A compre-

hensive account of the fisheries is given by Hansjulius Schepers: Japans Seefischerei: Eine

wirtschaftsgeographische Zusammenfassung, Breslau, I935). "Few people in this country

[the United States] have any idea of the importance of fish and fisheries in Japanese every-

day life and in empire economics. More than 30% of the people are supported directly and

indirectly by fisheries. Fish are second only to rice in the Japanese diet.... To Japan her

fisheries are more than the equivalent of all the livestock industries of this country." Before

the war Japan's fishing activities stretched from the Arctic to the Antarctic (whaling);

they may be classed under three categories, northern, central, and southern. The northern

fisheries-those of Sakhalin, the Kuriles, Kamchatka, and the Bering Sea-were operated

mainly for export products, chiefly salmon and crab; activities here have been largely

curtailed. The central fisheries furnish the fish for home consumption; fishing is intensive,

and Mr. Herre expresses the opinion that the home waters are being slowly depleted. The

southem fisheries include those of the Ryukyu and Bonin Islands, Formosa, and Nanyo

(the Mandated Islands). "Besides this, Japanese trawlers and mother ships were operating in the Yellow Sea, the China Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and off the northwest coast of Austral-

ia. There was also a good deal of poaching in Philippine waters from Formosan bases. .. .

Japanese trawlers were also busy on the Pacific coast of Mexico and the coast of Argentina, and floating factories operated on the Mexican west coast." That the legal and political

aspects of a national fisheries industry are apt to be of peculiar interest is well demonstrated

by Japan. "About fifteen years ago the Japanese Government began a deliberate policy of

expanding Japanese fisheries in foreign waters. Japanese fishermen became important or

dominant factors in a multitude of places throughout the Philippines, Malaya, and the

Dutch East Indies.... By the operation of her fishermen in tropical Pacific waters, Japan

gained (a) an important source of foreign exchange; (b) large supplies of katsuwobushi

and other desirable fish; (c) a hold on the economic life of various regions; (d) vested inter-

ests of value in bargaining for further economic and political penetration. Thus throughout Indonesia bona fide Japanese fishermen (not merely disguised naval officers) became




entrenched in the economic life, and as far as possible in the political life, of a vast area." The prime problem in fisheries development is touched on by A. G. Huntsman in

Science for August 6, I943 (Fisheries Research in Canada, pp. II7-I22). "In contrast with fish handling," he says, "the crying need in connection with the actual fishing is not for the application of the knowledge we have but for more knowledge." The theory of deple- tion as formulated by E. S. Russell (The Overfishing Problem, Cambridge, England, I942)

he terms a "bogie to frighten the credulous," and he cites certain anomalies; for instance, the record catch of herring in the intensively fished Passamaquoddy waters in I94I. With Dr. Huntsman's last sentence there can, however, be no disagreement: "We have still much to learn."

To end on a note of cooperation: The International Board of Inquiry for the Great Lakes Fisheries, created in 1940, has issued its "Report and Supplement" (I943). Dr. Hunts- man and D. J. Taylor are the Canadian members of the Board, Hubert R. Gallagher and John Van Oosten the United States members. Mr. Gallagher and Dr. Van Oosten contrib- ute a "Supplemental Report" of much interest, describing the earlier attempts at conservation, the present status of the fisheries, and the changes they have undergone and present- ing recommendations; full statistical tables and a bibliography are given. The inquiry was pressing on two scores: although the last decade has shown some recovery, the catch is still far short of that of earlier years; at the same time the fisheries today occupy a more important place than ever in the national economy.

GEOGRAPHICAL NEWS

THE SEPTEMBER MEETINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOG- RAPHERS. The Association of American Geographers convened in Washington, D. C., on Friday and Saturday, September I7 and I8, I943, anticipating by three months the customary time of its annual meetings. Sessions were held in the Hotel Washington.

Professor J. Russell Smith, president for the year I942, during which scheduled meetings were postponed, was chairman of the Friday morning session; the remaining sessions, designated the fortieth annual meeting, were in charge of President Hugh H. Bennett. The presidential addresses were delivered during the regular sessions. Professor Smith developed the theme of "Central Grasslands and Peripheral Farmlands as Factors in Recurring Cycles of Eurasian History," and Dr. Bennett discussed "Adjustment of Agriculture to Its Envi- ronment."

Several papers were concerned with the war situation and the postwar period of reconstruction. "The Natural Regions of Burma," by Hellmut de Terra, and "Africa: Maps and Man," by S. Whittemore Boggs, dealt broadly with war theaters. (Mr. Boggs's paper was published in the Department of State Bulletin for September I8, I943.) In "Regionalism in World Order" Robert S. Platt pleaded for world unity, emphasizing that regional boundaries of any kind whatever are of a conventional character and do not really separate peoples. "Industrial Trends in the Pacific Northwest," by Otis W. Freeman and Hallock F. Raup, "The Effects of World War II on Population Trends in the United States," by Clyde Kohn, and "Post-War Land Settlement Problems in the United States," by Carleton P. Barnes, showed, in different ways, the impact of the war on this country. Howard L.




Cook presented a paper entitled " Land Treatment for Flood Abatement," in which he suggested that large-scale programs of flood control may be instituted in the postwar period.

Research in cartographic methods held the attention in two papers by Erwin Raisz, "New Maps and Methods" and "Cartographic Representations of World Problems," and in one by Richard Edes Harrison, entitled "A New Method of Constructing Map Grids" (see his article "The Nomograph as an Instrument in Map Making," Geogr. Rev., Vol. 33,

I943, pp. 655-657). In the nature of a progress report on a major project was "A New Population Dot Map of the World," by Clarence B. Odell. Methods in the discovery and

presentation of data were demonstrated by Willis Gehrke in "The Wind-Flow Diagram: A Device for Gaining a Unified Picture of Winds in a Locality" and by Edward L. Ullman in "Experiments in the Delimitation of Tributary Areas: Mobile, Ala." A. H. Meyer illustrated a little-recognized function of professional geography in "Defense Geography of Valparaiso, Indiana: A Study in Urban Civilian Defense." Meredith F. Burrill described "The Reorganization of the United States Board on Geographical Names," and a phase of the work of this board was discussed by Burton W. Adkinson under the title "Some Re- search Problems in Geographical Names." Dr. Burrill also contributed an illustrated descrip- tion of Alaska at the special Friday evening session, of which Colonel Lawrence Martin was chairman.

"Research Planning in the Latin American Field for the Post-War Period," by Preston

E. James, set the stage for the forum topic on "Wartime and Post-War Contributions of Geography." The forum, with a panel including Richard Hartshome, Oliver E. Baker, Robert B. Hall, Wallace W. Atwood, Sr., Harold H. McCarty, Charles C. Colby, and Charles E. Kellogg, elicited lively discussion.

An unusually rich cartographic display, containing items contributed by many Wash- ington bureaus and agencies as well as by the speakers, was a constant source of interest to the 225 registered members and guests, many of whom also attended the Thursday evening meeting of the American Society for Geographical Research. N. H. Darton and John K. Rose were among the participants in this interesting session. The fortieth annual meeting was brought to a pleasant close with a tea served by the Society of Woman Geographers.

The executive council reached some decisions believed to be of general interest. The

Annals, which has heretofore accepted papers by members only, is now available for the

publication of introduced studies, a natural development of the plan, long in force, per- mitting the introduction of papers to the annual program. In recognition of the many original contributions of geography in all its branches during the past few years of increased research opportunity, the council accepted thirty-three men and women for nomination to membership in I944. No definite plans were made for the forty-first annual meeting. -RALPH H. BROWN, Secretary

"ESTADISTICA": JOURNAL OF THE INTER AMERICAN STATISTICAL INSTI- TUTE. The appearance of a periodical devoted to the statistical activities of the American nations is a notable step in the development of our knowledge of economic and social conditions in the Americas. Estadastica, the quarterly journal of the Inter American Statistical Institute, was issued for the first time in March, I943, and the June and September numbers have now been received. The sponsoring body is "a professional organization estab-




lished in I94I to foster statistical development in the Western Hemisphere." Its president is Dr. M. A. Teixeira de Freitas of Brazil; its secretary-general, Dr. Halbert L. Dunn of the United States Census Bureau; the editor of the journal is Dr. Juan de D. Bojorquez of Mex- ico. We may already say without hesitation that this product of inter-American cooperation is a valuable tool for social scientists concerned with inter-American problems.

Each number (I92 pages) contains about a dozen main articles, which deal with "problems of statistical administration, problems of official statistical practices, and problems of theory and method." The articles are in Spanish, English, Portuguese, or French, prefer- ably in the native language of the contributor (if one of these), and summaries are provided in other languages. To the March, June, and September numbers articles were contributed by representatives of Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Haiti, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Canada, and the United States, and also of the International Labour Office and the Pan American Sanitary Office. Many of the articles reflect a concerted effort to standardize the collection and presentation of statistical data in the member countries. This was an important topic also at the First Inter-American Demographic Congress, held in Mexico City from October I2 to October 2I, I943, of which the detailed agenda are published in the September number. Other articles deal with current statistical practice in the contributor's country. The principal subjects discussed are the effect of the war on the organization of governmental statistical bureaus and on the economic life of the countries, methods of pop- ular presentation of statistical information, the need for improvement in the standard of living and of public health, and the possibilities of international cooperation in these matters. Several articles provide authoritative information about recent national censuses in Brazil, Mexico, Panama, and Puerto Rico; and others give striking analyses of current economic conditions in Chile, Mexico, Peru, and the group of Latin-American countries that relied on exports of agricultural raw materials before the war.

In addition to the principal articles, each number contains several short articles, signed or unsigned, notes of more restricted scope, and a section of news items about the activities of the Institute and of the statistical agencies in the individual countries. An unan- notated list of "Publications Received" appears in the June and September numbers.

The editor is to be congratulated on his substantial achievement. A generous breadth of interests is here combined, as too rarely happens, with conciseness and clarity of expression and with careful documentation. Subscriptions at the rate of two dollars a year may be entered through the secretary-general of the Institute, in Washington.

ACTA AMERICANA. Acta Americana is the periodical publication of the recently founded Inter-American Society of Anthropology and Geography (see Geogr. Rev., Vol. 33, I943,

p- 159). The first number, January-March, I943, includes a statement by Jorge Zarur on geography in Brazil, an analytical plan of the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Sta- tistics, and a short notice by Federico A. Daus of some recent geographical studies in the Argentine Republic. Other contributions of geographical interest are a report on "Anthro- pological Research Needs and Opportunities in South America," by Julian H. Steward; an examination of "Le caractere de la conquete jesuitique," by Alfred Metraux; a contribution to the genetics of maize, "Races of Zea Mays II: A General Survey of the Problem," by Edgar Anderson; and a regional delineation of the superior indigenous cultures in Cen-




tral America, "Mesoamerica," by Paul Kirchhoff. Leslie Spier offers the memorial "Franz Boas and Some of His Views." In a section entitled "Brief Communications" Carl Sauer proposes an interchange of notes and queries, and there are the customary sections on notes and news and reviews of current literature.

APPEAL IN BEHALF OF THE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF PERU AND THE LIMA GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. The following excerpts are from an appeal recently received from Mr. Archibald Macleish, Librarian of Congress.

"The National Library of Peru and the Lima Geographical Society suffered a disastrous fire on the tenth of May, and many thousands of books and manuscripts were destroyed. The Peruvian Government has set aside sufficient funds for a new building designed to hold eventually one million volumes, and many countries and institutions in the Americas are assisting in the rehabilitation of these important cultural institutions....

" [The National] Library particularly needs books in the following categories: i, United States classics in English and Spanish translations of them; 2, standard reference books; 3, books on librarianship and library problems; 4, books produced by United States authors on Latin American culture-particularly Peruvian culture; 5, books on teaching of the English language, including grammars, dictionaries and other teaching aids; 6, files of a few selected standard periodicals such as the Atlantic Monthly, Harpers, and Foreign Af-airs.

"The Lima Geographical Society, in addition, desires to rebuild its collection of maps and geographical works on the nations of the world.

"On behalf of the Committee [to Aid the National Library of Peru and the Lima Geo- graphical Society], I take pleasure in inviting you to participate in this movement by pre- senting new or used works in good condition in the categories listed above....

"All gifts should be sent to the Hispanic Foundation of the Library of Congress, marked 'For the National Library of Peru,' where they will be acknowledged, preserved as a collection in a locked stack, and then presented as a unit to the National Library of Peru and the Lima Geographical Society.... If two copies of the same book arrive from different sources, the duplicate copy, if not needed by the National Library or the Lima Geographical Society, will be presented to some other appropriate Peruvian library. If in doubt as to whether volumes are suitable, it is suggested that you correspond with the Secretary of the Committee at the Hispanic Foundation of the Library of Congress."

OBITUARY

SIR MARK AUREL STEIN. Sir Aurel Stein, archeologist and explorer, died in Kabul on October 28 at the age of 8o. Hungarian by birth, he acquired British nationality in order to facilitate the pursuit of his avowed lifework, archeologic and geographic exploration in

Asia; and it is singularly appropriate that his last days were spent in a locus of his activities, just across the Indian frontier. Sir Aurel's three greatest expeditions were carried on under the aegis of the Survey of India. Their results, magnificently presented in a form consonant with their authoritativeness, appeared as "Ancient Khotan" (1907), "Serindia" (I92I), and "Innermost Asia" (I928). The gist of these monumental works and of the narrative accounts of the first two journeys was used for a succinct account, "On Ancient Central-Asian Tracks" (1933). In briefer summary it formed the substance of the Royal Geographical



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