Globally Important Agriculture Heritage System (GIAHS)
Application
Integrated Agricultural System of
Tri Hita Karana – Tri Mandala in Bali, Indonesia
Coordinating Ministry of Human Development and Culture
Republic of Indonesia
2015
Collaborated by:
Local Government of Karangasem District, Bali – Bogor Agricultural University –
Udayana University
GIAHS proposal
Globally Important Agriculture Heritage System
(GIAHS) Initiative
SUMMARY INFORMATION
Name/Title of the Agricultural Heritage System:
Integrated Agricultural System of Tri Hita Karana – Tri Mandala in Bali, Indonesia
Requesting Agency/Organization: Local Government of Karangasem District
Country/location/Site:
Karangasem District, one of the nine districts in Bali Province, is located in the eastern part of Bali Island (Annex 1).
Accessibility of the site to capital city or major cities:
From Soekarno-Hatta (Jakarta) Airport, Karangasem District could be reached by taking a domestic flight to Ngurah Rai (Denpasar) Airport, which takes about 2 hours and driving from Ngurah Rai (Denpasar) Airport to Amlapura, capital city of Karangasem District, which takes about 2.5 hours.
Approximate Surface Area: 839,54 km2
Agro-Ecological Zone/s: tropical climate; rice, peanut, soybean, vegetables in the wet land; corn, snake fruit, coconut, cashew nut, banana and jack fruit in the dry land.
Topographic features:
Karangasem District is laid in the mount foot of Gunung Agung, with various topographic features ranging from mountainous, hilly to flat in the low land area.
Climate Type: Tropical Monsoonal Type
Approximate population: 568,737 (Source: Dinas Kependudukan dan Catatan Sipil, Karangasem District, 2014)
Number of working force in agriculture, plantation, forestry and fishery:116,100 (47.24% of total labors, 2014)
Karangasem District
Bali Island
Indonesia
Main Source of Livelihoods: Agriculture, Fishery, Animal Husbandry, and Tourism
Ethnicity/Indigenous population: Balinese
Summary Information of the Agricultural Heritage System
Agriculture system in Karangasem District is a sustainable land use system based on Tri Hita-Karana (THK) and Tri Mandala (TM) philosophies of Bali. This agriculture system is globally
important, due to: (1) limited land and water resources which are features of island regions, are overcome and enabled agriculture to prosper by using the local wisdoms based on its unique philosophy; and (2) has since sustained food production and livelihoods of a large population about 570 thousand in 2014 over a long period more than ten centuries.
Tri Hita Karana (THK) is a philosophy for everything and attaining happiness (welfare) while
maintaining the harmony between man and God (e.g. religion), man and man (e.g. organization), man and nature (e.g. agriculture field). Tri Mandala (TK) is also a philosophy that
keeps harmony according to the space utilization; utilization of land is divided into three stages according to the differences in the degree of sanctity, (i) the upper for protected area, (ii) the middle for human living, and (iii) the bottom for agriculture production. Based on these two philosophies, area of land is used sustainably by some management systems. One example of such agricultural systems under THK and TM is Subak for rice field water management, and another system is called Abian for dry land management to grow both annual and perennial crops.
Under Subak and Abian management, agriculture has provided enough food and become the
means of major income for their livelihoods in the region. Agro-biodiversity is conserved, such as beras bali (Balinese rice), upland crops, fruit trees, flowers, vegetables and livestock, as well as precious genetic resources from specific crops and livestock such as salak bali (snake fruit), jagung seraya (Balinese corn), kelapa dalam variety of coconut, cashew nut, and Sapi Bali (Balinese cattle) through agricultural production. In addition, by using local wisdom and traditional techniques, water is efficiently used and shared fairly, the stone terraces are built to prevent erosion in the steep slopes of the fields.
Tri Hita Karana (THK) and Tri Mandala (TM) philosophies are deeply established in the way of life in Bali, including the rituals related to agriculture. Also, it has conserved rich food culture and unique calendar. Through THK and TM implementation, the agricultural land cover can be seen throughout the year both in rainy and dry seasons, whether rice plant or upland cash crops, e.g. peanut, soybean, corn, vegetables crops, and flowers. The agriculture zone strictly adheres the Palemahan aspect of THK philosophies, which is practiced in Nista Mandala of TM. Palemahan
expresses the relationship between farmer and environtment. In addition, this sustainable land utilization has created beautiful scenery as remarkable landscape of the mountains and sea.
However, agriculture in this region is also exposed to threats such as young people moving away from agriculture and development of large-scale resort area. For these reasons, with the opportunity of the GIAHS designation we should inherit this good land use system and pass on to the next generation by committing our efforts to conserve high-quality agricultural land, developing value added agriculture, agro-tourism and so on.
Description of the Agriculture Heritage System
I. Characteristic of the Proposed GIAHS
Global (National) Importance
(a) Geographical features and landscape
Karangasem District has an area of 83,594 ha,
with 91.26% dry land, various topographic
landscapes, ranging from green mountains and
hills to flat low land with dry beaches. Such varied
landscapes depict various uses of land and
enclosed land use for agriculture. Thus, it is really
important to have sound water management to
support sustainable agriculture activities (Fig.1).
Fig. 1. Subak and Abian system practices for terraces paddy field (top and bottom left) and
upland management (bottom right)
(b) Tri Hita Karana and Tri Mandala Philosophies
Tri Hita Karana (THK) as a Hinduism philosophy in Bali implemented agricultural
systems such as Subak and Abian. It consists of three concepts. The first, “Parahyangan” is the
relation between human and God(s), which is implemented as Pura Sawah (temple in the paddy
field). The second is “Pawongan”, implemented as man and man relationships, farmers‟
organizations (pekaseh/leader and pawongan/member). The last one is “Palemahan”,
relationships between human and nature, such as paddy field/dried field and its boundaries.
Tri Mandala (TM) is a regional division based on Hinduism concept implemented in Bali.
This concept has been adopted in most parts of traditional villages. TM consists of 3 zones,
namely Utama Mandala (the Main Zone, the upstream areas which can either be mountains or
hills), Madya Mandala (the Middle Zone, the median areas such as the slope of the hills and the
Fig. 2. Diagram of THK (top) and TM (bottom) philoshophies
low land), and Nista Mandala (the downstream areas, such as beaches or seashores). This TM
concept can be implemented in stages, from bio-regional scale to village scale. In a village
scale, Subak and Abian are implemented by allocating the zones for specific purposes, such as
temples as religious places are built in Utama Mandala zone, while residential buildings are
located in Madya Mandala zone, and agriculture cultivation is conducted in Nista Mandala zone.
Such TM concepts are in line with universal concepts adopting THK (Fig 2).
Fig. 3. Pura Subak as Parahyangan
aspect of THK
(c) Subak and Abian
Balinese people have known Subak since
the 11th Century. This can be traced back from the
finding of the Writings of Purana Klungkung King
(994 Saka/the year of 1072). Subak is an irrigation
system which has developed due to strong
Hinduism influence. To Balinese people, irrigation
is not merely to provide water for plants, but water
can also be used to build a man-made eco-system
flow. Temples located near water springs (THK implementation on Parahyangan concept) is the
main focus of cooperative management system in distributing water to irrigation channels (Fig.
3). Subak has been recognized as a leading and advanced irrigation system. This agricultural
system, being implemented for centuries, has been sustained by the rural people in Bali. Subak
is an independent system performed by the community in order to manage the division of water
irrigation for paddy fields. This system is managed hierarchically by groups and each member of
the groups is assigned to have a specific role (this is an implementation of THK on Pawongan
concept). Finally, Subak is also known as a local wisdom which enables farmers to be in
harmony with the nature and to gain optimum harvest (this is an implementation of THK on
Palemahan concept).
Abian is a farmers‟ organization which performs agricultural activities on dry land. In
Balinese language, “Abian” means garden, or yard, or rice field. Albian is considered the same
as Subak, which reflects the function of Pawongan, with humans act as actors performing
activities, in which the organization traditionally has a leader, members, and mechanisms to
achieve its goals. The main tasks include physical work (Palemahan aspects), which is in line
with the concept of Tri Hita Karana Similarly, in the concept of Tri Mandala, agricultural land
which is managed by using Abian lies in Mandala nista, the land devoted to agriculture. The
activities include not only cultivating annual and perennial crops, but also raising cattle. In
managing the area, although it is in Mandala nista zone, the agricultural activities must also
attempt to sustain their environment. Thus, Abian also practices a combination of agricultural
activities, such as agro-forestry or agro-silvo-pastural, to maintain agricultural diversity.
Fig. 4. Pura Abian as Parahyangan
aspect of THK
The realtionships between humans are expressed
by Subak organization or Abian organization, which
consists of “Krama Subak” or ”Krama Carik”, with
Subak members as an element of society
(Pawongan). The Bali people believe that humans
are also a part of nature. Therefore, humans
should live in harmony among themselves, with
other living creatures and their nature (Palemahan)
. Every farmer should maintain the environment
well, whether in Subak system or in Abian system.
It‟s not only on how to manage land and water
management, but also on how to conserve
agriculture diversity, conserve genetic resources,
manage low carbon emissions, as well as
landscape beautification preservation. Their
practices can be seen through how Subak
distributes water in rainy and dry seasons by
shifting the systems. At the same time agricultural diversity such as rice and upland cash crops
“palawija”, vegetables and flowers could be maintained well in the same landscape unit. The
same thing is also practiced in Abian system, especially for the combination of perennials trees,
annuals crops, and live stocks. That is why this agriculture system is globally important.
Moreover, humans have a social responsibility to obey customary laws and regulations,
particularly those pertaining to public domains such as land and water use, legal transactions of
land transfer, and collectiveness in religious ceremonies. Humans may benefit from nature, but
they should not over-exploit it. It is their responsibility to maintain the environment sustainably
and conserve nature for future generation. In this case, GIAHS is not about the past but about
the future. The THK-TM philosophy has been practiced by the Bali people for a long time; it
creates and maintains the spectacular landscape and agriculture activity with the Subak and
Abian system.
Fig. 5. Rice fields in Subak System
(foreground) and Coconut plantation in
Abian System (background)
1. Food and livelihood security
Agriculture is still the leading factor supporting the economy of Karangasem district. The
biggest contribution comes from the agriculture sector, which also contributes the most in the
Regional Gross Domestic Product (RGDP). In 2014, the contributions of agriculture, forestry,
and fishery to RGDP were IDR 2,888,760.60 (in million IDR) or 26.711% of the total RGDP of
Karangasem, which was IDR 10,785,065.91 (in million IDR). Such agriculture activities involved
116,100 farmers (47.24% of total labors, 2014) working in this sector, with the paddy field area
as much as 7,140 ha (8.50 %), and dry land/yard/garden as much as 28,327 ha (33.74%) of the
greenery open spaces (BPS-Statistics of Karangasem District based on 2012 National Labor
Force Survey).
Such strong role in agriculture is due to the intensive attempt of Karangasem District to
maintain the land use devoted to agriculture. Besides rice, farmers also cultivated corn of local
variety ”Seraya” in West Seraya Village, Seraya Village, and East Seraya Village, with the
planting area as much as 952 ha and the production of 1,161.40 tons, and an average
productivity of 1.22 ton/ha. Other crop plants contributing to RDGP include cassava and sweet
potato (Ipomea batatas). Ground peanuts (Ipogea arachis) with the local variety of ”Culik” from
Abang and Kubu Sub-Districts were also cultivated in the area of 1,425 ha, with the total
production of 1,549.28 ton, and an average productivity of 1.067 ton/ha.
The government program in extending the area for rice-corn-soy bean (PAJALE) in 2015
resulted in a growing area of paddy field to 7,149 ha in 2015. Such a program managed to make
soy bean (Glycine max) reach its highest production increase of 457.25 percent.
The use of dry land generates a lot of food
crops through the production of fruits.
Karangasem produces banana (26,261 ton) and
jackfruit (9,703 ton). Some parts of beaches
having dry climate produce local varieties of
coconut, and cashew nuts, which grow well in
those areas. Coconut and cashew nuts are the
leading products of estate commodities. In 2012,
the production was 13,692.06 and 2,701.49 tons
respectively. Mango of Arumanis variety is
cultivated in a planting area of 4,060 ha, and a
harvesting area of 1,765 ha, reaching an average
Fig. 6. Fisherman village in Manggis Sub-
District
productivity of 11.66 ku/ha, with the production of 2,057.99 ton, spreading in various locations of
Karangasem District.
The local variety of snake fruit (Salacca zalacca), popularly known as “salak bali”,
especially “salak gula pasir”, is still the leading commodity of Bebandem, Selat and Rendang
Sub-District. The total planting area is 4,209 ha, with the harvest area of 3,149 ha, and an
average productivity of 95.2 ku/ha. In 2012 the production reached 33,756 ton, which showed
an increase of 21.97 percent from the previous year.
The agricultural sector also includes the
fishery sub-sector (marine and fresh water)
and cattle raising. Karangasem District
consists of four Sub-Districts, namely Abang,
Karangasem, Kubu and Manggis, which
borders with beaches (Fig. 6). These four
regencies have farmers‟ groups consisting of
fishermen and fresh water cultivators with
138, 112, 87, and 48 groups respectively.
These figures keep increasing year by year
(Table 1). The last update in 2014, there was a total of 323 groups of fishermen in Karangasem
District. The total production of fish reached 22,120.56 ton with the value as much as IDR
299,551,155,000.00, or contributing by about 2.77% of RGDP. The fish mostly produced in
Karangasem district was tuna, with the total production reaching 13,4849.9 ton (2013).
Tabel 1. Fisher Group/Fish Farmer/Processing of Fisher Product, Production (ton), and Value
(IDR) in Fisheris Sub-sector at Karangasem District, 2009-2014
Year Fisher Group/Fish Farmer/
Processing of Fisher Product
Production
(ton)
Value
(IDR x 1,000)
2014 415 22,120.56 299,551,155
2013 414 21,394.86 253,618,574
2012 373 19,103.89 203,761,524
2011 373 18,814.83 173,830,680
2010 329 17,121.83 145,310,504
2009 323 14,766.38 109,174,889
Source: Fishery Statistic Data, Karangasem District, 2014
Fig. 7. Local rice
variety “padi
Bali”(left); various
Bali local rice,
such as “beras
merah (brown
rice)” and “ketan
hitam (black
sticky rice)”
(right).
Most of Karangasem District is a dry land, which is good to be used for cattle raising,
especially that of Abian. The cattle are mainly raised in the wild by using the unit system of
agro-silvo-pastural. In 2014 the population of cattle was as follows: Bali cows of local variety
(122,369 heads), Horses (31 heads), Buffalos (37 head), Bali pigs of local variety Bali (73,677),
Saddle Back pigs (28,555), Landrace pigs (142,977), goat (19,280), chicken (838,901) and Bali
ducks (55,462). The products from agriculture, fishery, and cattle raising are used to sustainably
fulfill the need of the community members.
2. Biodiversity and ecosystem function
Practical agriculture activities are in line with the concept of “Palemahan” in THK
philosophy, and in “Nista Mandala” zone in TM. In THK philosophy, farmers are expected to live
in harmony with the nature, and in TM spatial management, farmers must also sustain the
nature so that they can sustain the production. Such attempts can be done by converting
diversed agriculture activities, and diversed genetic resources.
Agicultural diversity
Agriculture in Karangasem District spreads from hilly highland with terraced paddy fields
to low lands near beaches. Agriculture is even performed in hilly dry land which borders
beaches. The diversed landscape has diversities of land resource conditions, either in land
fertility or water availability. These result in highly diversed agricultural activities and products.
In Subak system and practices, where water is relatively abundant, paddy field is the
leading type. Apart from the new varieties of rice, Karangasem also has the local variety called
“padi Bali” (Fig. 7), which generally takes shorter time to harvest, i.e. 210 days, and the
structure of the plants is taller, and the rice tastes better is more preferred by local people.
Another local variant is “ketan hitam” (black sticky rice).
Fig. 8. “Mangga Wani” (left), “Manggis Bali” (mid), and “Duren Bali” (right)
In dry season, the amount of water decreases; thus, Subak system will apply water
allocation shifts. Those who are not allocated to get water will tap water by means of
“ngegadon”, and the land will be cultivated with vegetables and palawija. Annual plants include
corn, ground peanut, soy bean, sweet potato, cassava, green bean, and various types of
vegetables and flowers (Annex 2).
The Abian system focuses on planting Karangasem local varieties, including “Mangga
Wani”, “Manggis Bali”, with its big size, “Duren Bali” (Fig. 8) with its small size but very sweet
taste, and the most popular “Salak Bali” (Bali snake fruit).
Wani is fruit belonging to mango family (Anacardiaceae). In Indonesia, one of the
cultivating places of wani is in Bali. The population of this fruit in Bali has now been decreasing
due to the abundance of imported fruits. On the other hand the mangosteen commodity is still
abundant in Karangasem District (462 ha). This commodity has so far been cultivated by
farmers in Bali but can only fulfill an export need of 675 ton (only about 6% of the total demand).
Production of Durian Bali of Karangasem is small in size but compared to other durians, this
variety tastes sweeter and so is a popular variety with the consumer.
In the eastern part along the seashore, there is a local variety of corn, called “Jagung
Seraya” (Fig. 9), which only grows in Karangasem and serves as staple food for the community
in Seraya. There is also a local variety of “Kelapa Dalam Forma Bali” variety) (Fig. 10), which
originates from Pulukan village, Bali. There is potential increase the production of the local
varieties of crop. There has been a source of certified prime seed of local Bali coconut.
Fig. 9. Local corn variety of “Jagung Seraya”
Fig. 10. Local coconut variety of “Kelapa Dalam Forma Bali”
Genetic Diversity Salacca zalacca (salak)
The local wisdom through the philosophy of THK and TM conserves genetic diversity as
the main focus so that agriculture practices can be sustained. Karangasem has genetic diversity
having globally important value, i.e. “salak Bali” (Bali snake fruit) belonging to the family of
palmae. Snake fruits in Bali originate from South East Asia, and are generally cultivated
commercially. Consumers favor Salak Sibetan, Karangasem, more than other varieties of snake
fruits in Asia. The government of Karangasem District has declared that Salak (snake fruit) is
“the original fruit of Karangasem District”. There are 12 varieties of snake fruits in Karangasem
(Fig. 10), namely: 1. Salak Gula Pasir, 2. Salak Nangka, 3. Salak Nenas, 4. Salak Cengkeh, 5.
Salak Gondoh, 6. Salak Muani, 7. Salah Merah/Salak Getih, 8. Salak Boni, 9. Salak Penyalin,
10. Salak kelapa, 11. Salak Bingin, and 12. Salak Embadan (Fig. 11). Karangasem is the
central district for snake fruit production in Bali. Salak Bali and Salak Gula Pasir are cultivated
intensively in Bebandem, Sidemen, Selat, and Rendang Sub-District.
Fig 12. Local Bali goat “Kambing Gembrong”
Fig. 11. Salak Bali (left), Salak Merah (mid) and Salak Gula Pasir (right) (Source: Rai et al, 2015)
The leading type of Bali snake fruits is Salak Gula Pasir, which has light colored flesh,
and sweet taste. These characteristics are ideal to fulfill the demand of snake fruit market
commodity, both for domestic market and export. Salak i has been released as the prime
national variety as stated in the Decision Letter of the Minister of Agriculture No.
584/Kpts/TP.240/7/94, dated 23 July, 1994.
Germ Plasm Development of Local Cattle
Germ plasm development is one aspect related to the philosophy of THK and TM, especially the
concept of Palemahan and Mandala nista, in which agriculture must sustain the harmony with
local bio-resources.
Kambing gembrong
Kambing gembrong is one type of endemic goat originating from Bali with the native habitat
of Karangasem. The specific features include a short body size, and the male has long hair
(gembrong) on the face, neck, and front and hind legs (Fig. 12). The data of 2014 recorded that
Kambing gembrong could only be found in two regencies, namely Abang (17 heads) and Kubu
Sub-Districts (18 heads). This type of goat is special, living in critical region, at the seashore of
Abang and Kubu Sub-District. Fishermen have local wisdom; they often cut the long nails of the
goat and the cut parts of the nails are attached to fishing hook to catch fish.
Sapi Bali
“Sapi Bali” is a descendant of wild cow called „banteng‟ but has undergone a domestication
process for hundreds of years. As a result of a long process of domestication, the body of Bali
cow has got much smaller than banteng.
Local Bali cows (Fig. 13) are raised inside Pekarangan (home garden) and kebun campuran
(mixed garden), called “Teba” by utilizing feed from agricultural wastes. “Teba” is a back yard, a
part of Palemahan in THK concept or classified into Mandala nista in TM. “Dung”, cows manure,
is used for biofuels. Sapi Bali has the characteristics of white color butts and the bottom part of
their legs are white. The advantages of Sapi Bali are: 1) high adaptability to changing
environment condition; 2) high reproduction rate (fertility and conception rate is around 83 - 86
%); 3) high tolerance to heat; 4) high percentage of carcass (up to 57.7%); and 5) high quality of
meats and low fat contents.
Fig.13. Local germ plasm of Sapi Bali in Abian system
3. Knowledge systems and adapted technologies
a. Subak – Water management organization
Knowledge systems and technology adaptation are applied in all Subak water
management system. It is related to Hinduism philosophy called Tri Hita Karana In its
application, the farmers who have a source of water form associations with the same water
temple (Pura Sawah) and then jointly plan water distribution system. This is the role of
organization to make harmonization on equal position amongs the Subak members. In every
own plot fields there is Pura Palemahan, which expresses how farmers managed the field for
good production with sustainable nature (Fig.14). In its implementation, THK-TM concepts are
applied in the Subak. The application of this concept aims to maintain the balance of life in
accordance with the teachings of Hinduism. Examples of THK-TM elements that can be found in
the Subak system (Purwita, 1993 in Pitana (ed), 1993) are:
1. Parahyangan: Each Subak has its own temple called Pura Subak/Ulun Carik, Pura
Bedugul/Ulun Empelan or other designation, as an element of God (Fig 15).
2. Pawongan: Each Subak has a members called "Krama Subak" or in some places it is called
"Krama Carik" as an element of society
3. Palemahan: Subak has an area/agriculture area with natural boundaries such as river, roads,
large ambankment, village, etc.
Fig. 14. Primary and secondary irrigation system of Subak in Bugbug Traditional Village
Fig. 15. Ulun Suwi Temple (left) and Bedugul Temple (right) in Subak
(b) Stone Terraces of Dry Land
A number of regions in Karangasem District, especially Seraya village, have a hilly
landscapes near the beaches. Dry climate with a minimum source of water has made this area
the driest place. In TM, the area devoted to agriculture is Nista Mandala, while Madya Mandala
is allocated for residential area, and Utama Mandala is for praying places and protection.
In Seraya village, the only food crops that can be grown are “jagung Seraya”, which is a
local variety of corn and pineapple. While the tree crops found here include lontar, which is
endemic to Bali. There are also other plants that can strive in dry areas and water stress, i.e.
kayu intaran, kayu santen, kayu bekul, bunutan, mango, lontar, coconut, waru, pule, petai cina,
and glirecidia.
The knowledge and technology development that have been applied since hundreds of
years ago are terracing on steep slope against stone walls. This is done to get flat planting
areas, although it is only a few meters in width. Secondly, it is also useful to prevent erosions
and landslide during the rainy season. Furthermore, it can be beneficial to overcome the
draught; each house has a hole to tap water from the roof when the rain falls. The hole is built
not only near the house but also in corn fields. Thus, these technologies help to overcome the
climate and landscape adversities and enabled agriculture to be practiced (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16. Terraces on stone walls (left), terraced dry land hill (mid) and water pond (right)
4. Cultures, value systems and social organizations (Agri-Culture)
Religious ceremonies are practiced by adopting value systems of Subak or Abian
philosophies. In THK philosophy, this belongs to Parahyangan aspect. The activity is conducted
in sacret areas, which are located in Utama Mandala in the TM philosophy. The ceremonies are
performed to honor water as the source of life, “krama" (members) of Subak/ Abian build water
pond to accumulate water in the form of well or pond/a small dam in the area that has been
considered sacred by all members of the group.
Rituals in Subak Irrigation System
Subak is not merely an irrigation system. Subak system has very heavy and intensive
ritual activities, which distinguish them from regular irrigation systems. Subak ritual ceremonies
are parts of the important implementation of THK, namely Parhyangan aspect which highly
Fig. 17. Tumpek Uduh in rice field (left) and Tumpek Wariga in mix garden (right)
values the harmony between farmers and God, Pawongan which is the harmony among farmers
as members of Subak, and Palemahan which emphasizes on the harmony between farmers
and their surroundings areas of paddy fields.
Ritual activities in Subak system consist of 16 types of ritual activities performed
individually by farmers as members of Subak in their respective paddy fields, starting from
taking water for irrigation to post-harvest activities. Pura Sawah ceremony in TM context is
conducted in a sacred zone, i.e. Mandala Utama. In addition, there is also a communal
ceremony conducted by all farmers in Subak level (at Ulun Suwi temple, Bedugul and other
Subak temples). There are also other communal ritual ceremonies conducted by members of
other Subak groups (at temples near the ponds/water dams, lakes, and other water sources).
The purpose of performing ritual activities is mainly to ask God for the success of their farming
activities. As it has been stated earlier, there are 16 types of ritual activities performed by
farmers (members of Subak) individually, in their own paddy fields (Annex 3). The ceremony
starts with “Mapag Toya/Mendak Toya”, which is welcoming water or fetching from its sources,
until the activity of keeping the harvest in the storage called “Mantenin”.
Tumpek Wariga in agriculture context
Tumpek Wariga, a celebration day which comes once in 210 days, and falls on
Saturday Kliwon Wuku Wariga, is a prossession ritual conducted to express thanksgiving and
gratefulness to Ida Sang Hyang Widhi, who manifests itself as Dewa Sangkara, by blessing His
people with plants as sources of their food. Tumpek Wariga reminds people to nurture the
nature, which is connected to Palemahan aspect in THK philosophy. Once in six months Hindu
people are reminded of how important it is to conserve nature (plants) through the ceremony of
Tumpek Wariga or Tumpek Uduh or Tumpek Pengatag, which is also frequently call Tumpek
Wariga (Fig. 17).
Tumpek Bubuh.
In its philosophy, this Tumpek Bubuh ritual is an expression of gratefulness for all the
blessings provided by Hyang Widhi Wasa in the forms of various foods from plants. This ritual is
also accompanied by hopes and expectations for the plants to yield good harvest, or Galungan.
Fruits coming from plants will be used by Bali people to fulfill the need for the ceremony to
celebrate Galungan. This ritual is essentially a reminder that all humans must take care of their
nature and that humans cannot live well without being supported by healthy environment. Good
environment is a source of life for human beings.
Talking about plants is certainly closely related to agriculture. Nowadays, when younger
generation shows low interest in agriculture, it seems important to revitalize the knowledge
system of the past. Balinese people have been known to have sound knowledge on agriculture.
Through the ceremony of Uduh, Bali community need to have intellectual reflection to reactivate
agriculture sector. By reactivating the agriculture sector, the nature of Bali is expected to be
sustained; Tumpek Uduh or Tumpek Wariga is a strategic moment to have intellectual reflection
on the future of agriculture in Bali. The ancestors of Balinese people have already possessed a
high level of knowledge on agriculture, which peaks the culture of Bali and Indonesia.
5. Remarkable landscapes, land and water resources management features
Land and water resources management features in Karangasem District could be
represented by its paddy field terraces. The most common form of rice field will be on flat areas.
However, it is still possible to have paddy terraces even when the natural countours are hilly.
Karangasem offers both types of paddy fields. The rice terraces have been in Karanagasem for
at least 2,000 years, and they were originally carved into the hills using hand tools.
This method for irrigating the land was inspired by an ancient Hindu philosophy, and it
has been used since as early as the 11th century. In order for this management of irrigation to
work successfully, members of each community are required to cooperate with each other and
work in partnership. Each member of the community takes the responsibility for maintaining the
systems integrity, and this is why the terraces tend to look so well maintained. The Subak
members work as a unit to create appropriate canals and dams. Another important element of
the Subak system is the religious festivals that mark the cycle of the year.
In Karangasem is possible to find Subak rice fields and upland crops, and also Abian and
Sayan throughout the regencies, but the most beautiful ones can be found at:
Fig. 18. Subak Tirta Gangga’s paddy field terraces, which tourists usually visit when they go
to Candidasa beach resort. Terraced paddy fields are located at the north of Candidasa. There
is also Water Palace, called “Tirta Gangga”.
Fig. 19. Subak Lumpadang Bugbug landscape mosaic of uplands “palawija”, i.e. peanuts,
corn, soybeans, vegetables, flowers, sweet potato, and casava has interesting scenery when
“ngegadon” is ongoing. This is a shifting process to get water during the dry season.
Fig. 20. “Sayan” Samu Hill in Bugbug Traditional Village is hilly terraces belonging to a
traditional village which practices agro-silvo-pastural areas for coconut and cows, as well as
palawija in dry land hilly terraces
Fig. 21. Abian Seraya stoned uplands in Seraya Village has a hilly landscape with dry
season all the year round and is only planted with “Seraya corn”. It has a beautiful scenery
due to its blue sea background of Lombok Strait.
II. Other social and cultural characteristics pertinent to the management of the agricultural system
The philosophy of THK-TM governs the daily life of Bali people including their
administration system. According to this philosophy as their belief, the prosperity and goodness
can only be obtained and achieved through a harmonious relationship between humans and the
gods (Parahyangan), their fellow man (Pawongan), and nature itself (Palemahan) (Fig. 22).
Humans should maintain and manage the harmonization of nature and the divine through
mindful worship and prayer. Hence, ceremonies and religious activity become an important part
of the agriculture production. In agricultural field, various temples are found to be associated
with Subak and Abian systems, from a simple shrine in paddy field area to a large temple of
water/lake (Parahyangan).
III. Historic relevance
Subak is a traditional organization emphasizing on wet land agriculture, while Abian
puts more emphasis on dry land agriculture. Both are known as religious agricultural
organizations to have existed in Bali since the 9th century. The existence of both Subak and
Abian has been maintained until today and has served as a national cultural heritage. The term
“Subak” has been known worldwide.
Fig. 22. Pura Palemahan is located at garden plot expresses the relationship between human
and environtment (left) and Subak organitation is pawongan aspect in THK philoshophy
(right).
From the historical viewpoint, Abian has been known to exist at the same time as the
existence of Traditional Village. The values in Abian philosophy have been taught since the
governance of Sri Udayana Wamadewa in the 11th century. This is supported by the finding of
writing “Prasasti Sukawana” in the year of 882, which states the term “perlak”, which means
“tegalan” or dry land.
Based on the Regional Regulation of Bali Province No. 02/PD/DPRD/1972 Article 4
regarding irrigation, it is stated that Subak is a traditional legal community in Bali with socio-
agrarian-religious values and they have been known to exist historically since a very long time
ago and have continued to develop as an organization of land owners in water management
and others for paddy fields from water sources in a region. Meanwhile, from the historical
mechamism, Abian can be defined as “a group of traditional legal community who have areas
and wealth and have the rights to manage their own households (autonomy), with socio-
religious, agrarian and economic characteristics in dry land agriculture and rain-fed agriculture.”
Subak is also responsible to manage their own household either in making water
available or in managing water well and effectively for paddy fields of the Subak members within
the region. Subak conserves and maintains irrigation facilities as well as possible by ensuring
the irrigation in the region. Both Subak and Abian follow the existing rules called “Awig-awig”
and “Sima-Subak”. Subak and Abian solve their rising disputes well and when there are actions
against the rules or criminal actions, the guilty will be sentenced according to the existing law.
As traditional institutions having deep spiritual roots and having existed for hundreds of years,
Subak and Abian perform their activities based on the philosophies of TM (in landuse) and THK.
IV. Contemporary Relevance
Agriculture practices in Subak and Abian systems can provide ecosystem services which
can respond to global warming issues and global climate changes. Such ecosystem service can
be in the form of water resource management, agriculture diversity conservation, low carbon
society, zero waste agriculture system and renewable energy practices.
a. Water resources management
Water management in Subak system is very significant to support one of the
environment services, namely sustainable water resource management. Water is utilized and
managed efficiently and effectively especially in terraced paddy fields. The efficiency of water
usage is very significant in the dry season, when there are shifts in distributing water, called
“ngegadon”. This Subak system is well been known worldwide and has become globally
important because the local wisdom in Subak system has become an example of the best
irrigation systems in the world.
b. Agricultural diversity conservation
The practice of agriculture using Subak and Abian systems puts the priority in
maintaining the agriculture diversity. The mosaic landscape of wet land and dry land has
determined different land uses. This means that there are different choices of agriculture
commodities. Subak, which manages the agriculture system for paddy fields, contributes in
conserving various types of rice, including conserving the local varieties of rice, namely Bali rice.
Subak has also maintained the agriculture produces, ranging from palawija (secondary crops),
vegetables, and various flowers which are produced for the need of performing religious
ceremonies/rituals for Hindu people. Meanwhile, Abian manages dry land and conserves the
agriculture diversity of hard crops, such as coconut, coffee, cacao, clove, cashew nut, and also
fruits such as Wani mango, snake fruit, jack fruit, and various types of bananas. The Abian
system also conserves cattle diversity, such as Bali cow, Bali pig, and local chicken, which are
generally raised in a unit of agro-silvo-pastural. This is considered to be globally important since
it can overcome the problem of food and energy crisis.
c. Low Carbon society
Agro-forestry practices using Abian or “Sayan” system using plant stratifications, such as
home gardens, mixed gardens and forest gardens ( Fig. 23) on slope areas, are considered to
be very effective in absorbing Carbon (Carbon sequestration). This system enables harvesting
seasonal crops such as palawija, peanuts, vegetables, and tubers as cash crops, while Carbon
can still be in stock on perennials. The practices of low carbon and renewable energy are
applied in the system of agrosilvo-pastural in Abian under the program of SIMANTRI (Integrated
farming system). The plant waste is used for cow feed, while the cow dung is returned to nature
as manure or used as bio-fuel. Another low carbon practice is also performed in snake fruit
estate by introducing modern management in which all snake fruit products can be processed
economically so that the practice is significantly claimed as “zero waste agriculture system”.
Apart from serving as fresh fruit, snake fruit can alse be processed by converting its flesh into
crackers, sweet snack, syrup, juice, and wine. The other fruit cover can also be utilized as
handicrafts, the leaves can be used for weaving of offering box called “banten”, and the seed is
still being researched for the possibility to be converted into coffee. This activity becomes
globally important since it can reduce the amount of emission so it contributes in reducing global
warming impacts.
V. Threats and challenges
Threats
In the last few decades, agriculture has been threatened Karangasem District. The main
threats are:
1. The speedy development on tourism in Bali has affected Karangasem District and
threatened the landuse shifts (Fig. 24). The development of tourism resorts in a big scale
is generally initiated by the development of infra structures for accessibility. After the
road access is available, the shifting of land use on both sides of the road can quickly
happen.
2. The weakening spirit among the young generation coming from farmers‟ family and
having no intention to be farmers as their profession. Young people prefer to work in
government sector, private companies, trading, industry, and tourism. Thus, the
sustainability of agriculture activities is under the threat.
The problems above are mainly related to transactions of landuse shifts, and do not
involve the committee members of Subak or Abian, because the administration regulation still
Fig. 23. Multi-storey in “salak” mix garden is very effective in absorbing Carbon (Carbon
sequestration).
Conflict of Interest between
Agriculture and Non-Agriculture
Paddy Field in Subak System
Land Use and Land Cover Changes Reducing Subak Existence
Social Security of “Pura Subak” Existence
Economic Security of Individual Farmer and
Subak Institution
Ecological Security of Biotic and Abiotic
Balance
refers to those outlined by the Central Government. As a result, there is frequently a conflict of
interest among the management board of Subak/Abian, Head of Village, and Investor. On the
other hand, the members (“krama”) of Subak and Abian are getting more heterogeneous; thus,
there are often disagreements leading to heated arguments.
In short, the pressure of conflicting interests in non-agriculture frequently threatens the
existence of agriculture land, either paddy fields or home gardens. The shifts of land use will
threathen the existence of Subak and Abian. If there is no action to prevent this, there will be
some disturbance on social, economic, and ecological stabilities (Fig. 25). The
acknowledgement of GIAHS on agriculture heritage of Karangasem District is expected to
enable the rising pride and merit among farmer community, especially among the youth in
sustaining the existence of integrated agriculture system in Subak and Abian for Karangasem
District.
Fig. 24. Landuse and landcover changes for infrastructure (left) due to the speedy
development on tourism (right).
Fig. 25. Land use impact to social, economical and ecological security in Karangasem
Challenges
A number of challenges are faced to protect the existence of agriculture by using the
systems of Subak and Abian by keeping Pura Subak or Pura Abian as a form of social stability.
1. Pura Subak/or Pura Abian as the form of Social Stability of Subak/Abian, since they are
parts of the concept of Tri Hita Karana, which is believed to be sustainable; with its spiritual
reflection consolidates individuals, families, associations/groups.
2. Any internal or external attempt on sustainability will: a) alleviate the burden of the members
in ritual ceremonies, b) appreciate tax exemption in green areas, c). monitor implementation
of Green Zone Regulation, irrigation network and investor‟s behaviour, d). provide funding
through Provincial and Regional Budget and Expenditure Plan outlined in Regional
Regulation, e). Intensify various forms of training activities for Subak/Abian, such as
extension activities, competitions of Subak, and so on.
VI. Practical considerations
a) Ongoing efforts to promote GIAHS
A number of programs initiated by the government and stakeholders must be connected
to the introduction/support/endorsement of related factors above when Karangasem District has
been designated as GIAHS, and can be elaborated as follows:
- Capacity building empowerment
The institutionalization of Farmers‟ Groups, Subak farmers and Fishermen through
capacity building by increasing the number of trainings on management as well as comparative
studies to various other districts or other provinces. An increase of Farmers Resources can be
done through extension activities, dissemination of new programs and Focus Group Discussion.
Through such activities, Subak farmers, and fishermen groups can be more understanding and
more responsible for their region that has been acknowledged as GIAHS.
The government of Karangasem District provides agriculture funding through grants or
credit based on proposals from the bottom so there will be some accuracies in planning, which
is suited to the need. The government must also help in processing the post-harvest and
marketing through cooperatives and customs, and expand the network to market the processed
products of agriculture, such as snake fruits and cashew nuts, so that the agriculture leading
products of Karangasem can be certified.
- Promotion of agriculture programs
The Government of Bali Province provides bigger support on the development of
SIMANTRI system (Integrated Agriculture System). Farmers of Abian can practice zero waste
agriculture system and get organic certification. This will help in introducing GIAHS to the
community of Bali, National and even International.
The Central Government has initiated a special program on three main commodities
(Rice-Corn-Soybean) since 2015 and this special program is known as UPSUS PAJALE. This
attempt is expected to stimulate the reactivation of Subak agriculture for rice-corn-soybean, and
Abian agriculture for corn and soybean.
- Promotion of Karangasem agriculture main products
Salak (snake fruit) is a fruit of identity and a
leading product of Karangasem District (Fig. 26). To
respond to the Global Warming issue, salak is sold not
only in the form of fresh fruit but also in processed forms
with the principle of zero waste, which has been initiated
since the 2000s. The flesh of the salak is processed into
chips, candied fruit, sweet-tofee, and wine (Fig. 27). The
outer covering is used as handicraft. The seed is now
being researched to see its possibility to be turned into
coffee. The permit from BPOM and Custom designation
has been obtained since 2010. By endorsing zero waste
product, the farmers of salak can have a pride to
recognize themselves as the farmers of GIAHS. In
addition, this can also improve the added value of the
salak farmers‟ economy.
Fig. 26. Salak statue as
Karangasem identity in Amlapura
City.
Fig. 27. Subsidiary products of salak processed into wine (top), chips “keripik”, candied fruit “manisan”, and sweet-tofee “dodol” (bottom) which can improve the income of salak farmers
The Productive Green Program for jambu mete (cashew nut) is very suitable for dry land
areas. The cashew nut plant is very adaptable to minimum water supply, but it can still produce
a very good harvest. This can be seen by the increasing number of community members
becoming dry land Abian farmers, especially in Kubu District. “Subak Abian Bhuana Amerta”
with the brand name of Cap Gunung Agung, with the registration No. 230/51.07/1997, Depkes
RI. Sp. No: 0011/22.08/97 is an example of successful Abian Farmers‟ Group. Cashew nut is a
typical icon of Kubu Sub-District, which has received a designation of Geographical Indication of
Kubu Cashew Nut, Bali and has been registered as a Geographical Indication (IG) with the
registration number of IDG000000028, dated November 26, 2014 (Fig. 28). In free trade era, IG
is very important as a legal protection for the product in marketing strategy so that the product
can have an increased added value, can have a better reputation, and can be promoted
overseas while avoiding unhealthy competition. Increased productivity, better post-harvest
processing, better packaging (Fig. 29), potential marketing and cashew nut business are in line
with the principles of environment sustainability for the green program of dry land areas. This
rises a pride for the community living in the region recognized as GIAHS.
Fig. 28. Cashew nut tree as a productive green plant in Kubu (left); Designation of Geographical
Indication for Kubu Cashew Nut, Bali, registered as a Geographical Indication with the number
of IDG000000028, dated November 26, 2014
Fig. 29. The process of cashew nut pulping by using a simple pulping tool (left), dry cashew nut
ready for processing (mid), and cashew nut product ready to be marketed and consumed (right)
(b) Potential and opportunities for sustainability and management of GIAHS
The support from the government for the existence of Subak/Abian organization through
such programs as extension activities, credit provision, lower tax for land and building having
positive impacts on farmers and agriculture in Karangasem. This has made farmers enthusiastic
and have pride and merit as farmers. By receiving the GIAHS designation, farmers are more
motivated to sustain their profession as farmers who protect their agriculture land well. This
ensures the sustainability of Subak and Abian management to be acknowledged by GIAHS.
Tourism in Karangasem has the potential to open opportunities for marketing organic
agriculture products. Currently the tourist ships can harbor at Tanah Ampo Karangasem Port.
Most tourists love organic agriculture products. This really supports the development of
SIMANTRI program implementation. On receiving the GIAHS designation, farmers will be more
enthusiactic in maintaining the sustainable agricultural activities.
(c) Expected impact of GIAHS on society and ecology
Receiving GIAHS designation can create pride for Subak and Abian farmers community
in Karangasem. The positive impact is the existence of Hindu philosophy of THK and TM, which
underline the management of land use and water management in paddy fields as well as in
house gardens so that they can be sustainably maintained. Farmers of Subak and Abian will be
proud to introduce GIAHS, and that the agriculture products will improve either in their
productivity, post-harvest processing, marketing, as well as the added value. It is expected that
farmers of Subak and Abian will maintain the sustainability of their agriculture systems so that
there will be improved appreciation between gods and humans (Parahyangan aspect), improved
harmony among “krama” or members of Subak/Abian (Pawongan aspect), and increased
balance between humans and their environment (Palemahan aspect). Eventually this will have a
positive impact on better and more sustainable agriculture ecosystem management.
(d) Motivation of the local community, the local/national authorities and others
The GIAHS designation can motivate Subak/Abian farmers to maintain their agriculture
profession and their land. They want to be more advanced with better quality of life and can
maintain the existence of THK and TM. For that reason, the community expect to have the
following:
i. The community members receive technology transfer to improve their agriculture
products through extension programs they are involved in, through trainings they
participate in, or through working internship that they do in other districts, other
provinces or even other countries.
ii. Reduction or lower taxes as the incentives from the agriculture activities they have
been performing in line with the target that the government has set.
iii. The increase of tourists‟ visit to the location is expected to generate income for
farmers who also manage community-based tourism business.
iv. Dry land keeps getting smaller but more productive so that it can generate products
and can sustainably provide a living for the community welfare.
v. The community members become more proud of the agriculturalheritage that they
have and will inspire young generation to keep preserving the agriculture.
What the local government of Karangasem will do after the designation as GIAHS by
FAO are as follows:
i. Attempting to reduce taxes through the provision of incentives to farmers who
maintain their agriculture activities and sustain the practices of Subak or Abian
systems. This is done by encouraging the establishment of agropolitant centers in
Karangasem District. After the acknowledgement of GIAHS, it is expected that there
will be Rice Agropolitan (production center of rice), Snake Fruit Agropolitan Salak
(production center of snake fruits), Cashew Nut Agropolitan (production center of
cashew nut), and Corn Agropolitan (production center of corn).
ii. Planning agriculture tourism centers with the concept of community-based agro-
tourism village. The community members with good hospitality skills can prepare
agriculture activities that can be tourism objects, and prepare accommodation
facilities such as homestay, lodging, hostels, and eatery places with local culinary.
VII. Dynamic conservation plan for GIAHS selected site
There are five action plans to conserve for GIAHS selected site. Those action plans are
related to stakeholders‟ commitment to execute and realize them and provide guarantee
statement.
1. Agricultural land protection
Karangansem District Local Government in 2016 will start: 1). controlling the shifts of
land use by issuing Local Government Regulation regarding the Regulations for Land Blocking
Functions; 2). controlling the shifts of land use by issuing Local Government Regulation
regarding the Establishment of Land as Permanent Paddy Fields (“Lahan Sawah Abadi”) or
Sustainable Crop Land.
2. Research and Development Center for Agribusines and Agrotourism
Faculty of Agriculture – Bogor Agricultural University (IPB) and Faculty of Agriculture –
University of Udayana (UNUD) will arrange collaboration with Agriculture/Forestry/Fishery
Agencies, local government of Karangasem for research and community services related to
agriculture, agribusiness, agrotourism and extension services. That collaboration will be
endeavored as Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) or Memorandum of Agreement (MoA). In
addition, some proposals will be provided to increase the THK-TM concept for GIAHS activity in
the perspective of academics.
3. Community Development
The action plan for community development will be managed by Coordinating Ministry of
People Development and Culture together with Indonesian Heritage Agency (NGO) to conduct
National Program for Community Development (Program Nasional Pembangunan Masyarakat -
PNPM Mandiri), extension and training activity. Those programs are proposed to increase
community capacity for understanding GIAHS activity. The guarantee statement can be
presented as government decree (Surat Keputusan – SK) and also some bottom-up proposals
at village level. The government decree can be established as soon as possible, to assign
Bugbug Village as one of PNPM Mandiri program. The bottom-up proposals should be arranged
by village people (Desa Adat or Pekon) for fulfillment of their aspiration related to GIAHS ideas.
4. Conservation and Promotion of Ecosystem Services
The Ministry of Environ-
ment and Forestry (MEF) is
responsible to conduct Conservat-
ion and Promotion of Ecosystem
Services. The MEF will work
together with local and village
government to arrange water
management for Subak System.
In addition to promote agrotourism
activity and green area for
conservation towards ecosystem
services for the community (Fig.
30).
5. Agricultural diversity conservation and food security
This action plan will be conducted by Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and Ministry of
Fishery (MoF) to proceed with the such existing programs as Integrated Farming System
(Sistem Pertanian Terintegrasi - SIMANTRI), Food Diversity Program (Program Percepatan
Keanekaragaman Pangan - P2KP), and Food Security Community (Kawasan Rumah Pangan
Lestari – KRPL). The bottom-up proposals should be arranged by village people (Desa Adat or
Pekon) for fulfillment of their aspiration related to GIAHS ideas.
Fig. 30. Agroforestry salak in Abian system can be
promoted as agrotourism object in Karangasem.
References
Arifin,HS, Arifin NHS, and Suryadarma IGP. 2002. Integrating the Value of Local Tradition and Culture in Ecological Landscape Planning in Indonesia. Journal of Japanese Institute of Landscape Architecture (JILA). Vol. 65(3): 196-200
[Desa Adat Bugbug]. 1996. Eka Ilikita (Monografi Desa Adat Bugbug – Monograf of Bugbug Illage). Karangasem District. (in Balinese)
[Dinas Kebudayaan Provinsi Bali]. 2002. Tuntunan Pembinaan dan Penilaian Subak (Guideline for Developing and Evaluating Subak). Denpasar: Dinas Kebudayaan Provinsi Bali. (in Indonesian)
[Dinas Peternakan Kelautan dan Perikanan Kabupaten Karangasem]. 2015. Statistik Perikanan Kabupaten Karangasem Tahun 2014 ( Statistic of Fishery in Karangasem District 2014). Karangasem: Dinas Peternakan Kelautan dan Perikanan Kabupaten Karangasem. (in Indonesian)
[Dinas Peternakan Kelautan dan Perikanan Kabupaten Karangasem]. 2015. Data Populasi Ternak Kabupaten Karangasem ( Data of Animal Husbandry in Karangasem District 2014). Karangasem: Dinas Peternakan Kelautan dan Perikanan Kabupaten Karangasem. (in Indonesian)
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[Karang Asem District]. 2012. Statistic Data of Karangasem District.
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Bali). Upada Sastra. Denpasar, Bali.
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Udayana. Denpasar
Sutawan N, Swara M, Sutjipta N, Suteja W., and Windia W. 1983. Studi Perbandingan Subak dengan Sistem Pengairan Non PU dan Subak dengan Sistem Pengairan PU. Kasus Subak Timbul Baru dan Subak Celuk Kabupaten Gianyar. Denpasar: Universitas Udayana. (in Indonesian)
Tanaya INM. 2007. Implementasi Tri Hita Karana dalam Revitalisasi Pertanian Pada Subak Abian “Pertiwi Palasari” di Desa Ban, Kecamatan Kubu (Implementation of Tri Hita Karana in Agriculture Revitalitation for Subak Abian “Pertiwi Palasari” in Ban Village, Kubu Sub-District). Program Pascasarjana, Magister Ilmu Agama dan Kebudayaan, Universitas
Hindu Indonesia, Denpasar.
Annex 1: Location Map of the Site
Annex 2 Agriculture Diversity in Karangasem District
Local name/
scientific name
Description
picture
Traditional utilization Native location
F l o r a
LONTAR/ SIWALAN
The Lontar/ Palmyra
Borassus flabellifer
Fruit, handycraft, Balinesse tradisional palm-leaf manuscript
Bali (Endemic), Indonesia
PANDAN WANGI
Pandan leaves
(Pandanus amaryllfolium)
Food stock, spice, “canang”, aromatic therapy
Bangka, Indonesia
PISANG
Banana
(Musa spp.)
Food stock, table fruit, cooking, “banten”, banana leaf for some praying kits
South East Asia
JAGUNG
Seraya Corn
(local variety)
(Zea mays)
Food stock, steaple as carbohydrate source
Bali (local), Indonesia
KELAPA DALAM
Forma Bali Coconut
(Cocos nucifera)
Food stock “copra”, spice, coconut milk,
Medicine, coconut juice, nata de coco, coconut leaves for praying kits, “penjor”
Bali (local), Indonesia
KELAPA GADING
Yellow Coconut
(Cocos nucifera)
Medicine, coconut leaves and fruits for ceremony kits,
Asia
JERUK BALI
Bali Grapefruit
(Maximus citrus)
Food stock, fruit, “sukade” snack, nutrition source
Indo-China, Thailand, Malaya
PADI BALI
Balinese local rice
(Oryza sativa)
Carbohydrate stock Bali
BERAS HITAM (KETAN HITAM)
Black sticky rise
(Oryza sativa)
Carbohydrate stock Bali (local), Indonesia
KWENI
Wani mango
(Mangifera odorata)
Vitamin and medicine, table fruit, offering use
Indonesia
KENIKIR
Marigold
(Tagetes erecta)
Offering use Mexico
PACAR AIR
Rose Balsam
(Impatiens balsamina)
Offering use South Asia (India & Burma)
POHON TURI
Hummingbird Tree
(Sesbania grandiflora)
Microclimate ameliorate, Nitrogen fixation, vegetables, nutrition source, feeds
South America
KANGKUNG
Water spinach
(Ipomoea aquatica)
Food Stock, vegetable, nutrition source
East Indian
SAWI
Chinese green cabbage
(Brassica campestris)
Food stock, vegetables, nutrition source
China
KACANG PANJANG
Long beans
(Vigna sinensis)
Food Stock, vegetables,
nutrition source
South America
MENTIMUM
Cucumber
(Cucumis sativus)
Food Stock
Nutrition
Medicine
India
SEMANGKA
Watermelon
(Citrullus latunus)
Food stock, table fruit,
Nutrition source
Africa
CABE RAWIT
Chilli
(Capsicum annum)
Food stock, spice, vegetable, medicine
South America
PURING
Variegated Corton
(Codiaeum variegatum)
Offering use, ornamental plant
India, Srilanka, Indonesia, Malayasia
BUNGA SOKA
West Indian Jasmine
(Ixora coccinea)
Offering use, ornamental plant
Tropical Asia
KAMBOJA
Frangipani
(Plumeria sp)
Sacred Plant Central to South America
AIR MATA PENGANTIN
Rose of Montana
(Antigonon leptopus)
Offering use, ornamental plant
Central Mexico to South America
DURIAN
Durian
(Durio zibenthino)
Food stock, fruit Indonesia
SAWO SAPOTA
(Manilkara kauki)
Food Stock, table fruit,
nutrition source
Indonesia
JOHAR CASSIA
Cassia
(Cassia fistula)
Offering use, legume, Nitrogen fixation
Asia
BELIMBING
Star Fruit
(Averhoa blimbii)
Food stock, fruit,
Nutrition source
KATUK
Gooseberry
(Sauropus androgynus)
Vegetables, medicine,
nutrition source
KELOR
Moringa
(Moringa oleifera)
Medicine, feeds
SUKUN (TEEP)
Breadfruit
(Artocarpus altilis)
Carbohydrate stock, medicine, “obat pengusir nyamuk” mosquito repellant
KOL BANDA
Pisonia
(Pisonia alba)
Medicine, ornamental plant
DELIMA HITAM
Pomegranate
(Punica granatum)
Fruit, offering use, medicine
MAJA
Bael
(Aegle marmelos)
Ornamental plant, shading tree, medicine
INDIA
PANDAN BALI
Pandan Laut
(Pandanus sp,)
Bali
PEPAYA
Papaya
(Carica papaya)
Food stock, table fruit South America
JAMBU METE
Chasew nut
(Anacardium occidentale)
Food stock, snack, cashew nut shell liquid
Brazil
JAMBU AIR
Water apple
(Syzigium aquaeum)
Food stock, fruit, nutrition source
South America
POHON BERINGIN
Banyan
(Ficus benjamina)
Sacred plant, shading tree, wildlife habitat
Asia
F a u n a
SAPI BALI
Balinese cattle
(Bibos sondaicus)
Protein and fat source Bali, Indonesia
LEBAH BALI
Balinese Honey Bee
Vitamin and nutrition source
BABI BALI
Celeng
Balinese pig
Meat and fat source
AYAM BALI
Balinese local chicken
Protein source, fighting cocks
KAMBING BALI
Balinese goat
Meat protein and fat source
BURUNG KOKOKAN
Kokokan Birds
Endemic species
KERA EKOR PANJANG
Monkey
(Macaca fascicularis)
Sacred animal in Bali: Pura/ temples and forest in Bugbug Village
KUPU-KUPU
Buterfly
Wildlife
CAPUNG
Dragon fly
(Anisoptera sp.)
Air pollution indicator, wildlife
ULAR SAWAH/ ULAR TIKUS
Ricefield snake
(Ptyas korros)
Wet land of rice field. Rat predator
Java, Bali, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Vietnam, India, Thailand, Taiwan, China
KADAL
Lizard
(Lacerta agilis)
Wet-Dry land/yard
Local name/
scientific name
Description
picture
Traditional utilization Native location
F l o r a
LONTAR/ SIWALAN
The Lontar/ Palmyra
Borassus flabellifer
Fruit, handycraft, Balinesse tradisional palm-leaf manuscript
Bali (Endemic), Indonesia
PANDAN WANGI
Pandan leaves
(Pandanus amaryllfolium)
Food stock, spice, “canang”, aromatic therapy
Bangka, Indonesia
PISANG
Banana
(Musa spp.)
Food stock, table fruit, cooking, “banten”, banana leaf for some praying kits
South East Asia
JAGUNG
Seraya Corn
(local variety)
(Zea mays)
Food stock, steaple as carbohydrate source
Bali (local), Indonesia
KELAPA DALAM
Forma Bali Coconut
(Cocos nucifera)
Food stock “copra”, spice, coconut milk,
Medicine, coconut juice, nata de coco, coconut leaves for praying kits, “penjor”
Bali (local), Indonesia
KELAPA GADING
Yellow Coconut
(Cocos nucifera)
Medicine, coconut leaves and fruits for ceremony kits,
Asia
JERUK BALI
Bali Grapefruit
(Maximus citrus)
Food stock, fruit, “sukade” snack, nutrition source
Indo-China, Thailand, Malaya
PADI BALI
Balinese local rice
(Oryza sativa)
Carbohydrate stock Bali
BERAS HITAM (KETAN HITAM)
Black sticky rise
(Oryza sativa)
Carbohydrate stock Bali (local), Indonesia
KWENI
Wani mango
(Mangifera odorata)
Vitamin and medicine, table fruit, offering use
Indonesia
KENIKIR
Marigold
(Tagetes erecta)
Offering use Mexico
PACAR AIR
Rose Balsam
(Impatiens balsamina)
Offering use South Asia (India & Burma)
POHON TURI
Hummingbird Tree
(Sesbania grandiflora)
Microclimate ameliorate, Nitrogen fixation, vegetables, nutrition source, feeds
South America
KANGKUNG
Water spinach
(Ipomoea aquatica)
Food Stock, vegetable, nutrition source
East Indian
SAWI
Chinese green cabbage
(Brassica campestris)
Food stock, vegetables, nutrition source
China
KACANG PANJANG
Long beans
(Vigna sinensis)
Food Stock, vegetables,
nutrition source
South America
MENTIMUM
Cucumber
(Cucumis sativus)
Food Stock
Nutrition
Medicine
India
SEMANGKA
Watermelon
(Citrullus latunus)
Food stock, table fruit,
Nutrition source
Africa
CABE RAWIT
Chilli
(Capsicum annum)
Food stock, spice, vegetable, medicine
South America
PURING
Variegated Corton
(Codiaeum variegatum)
Offering use, ornamental plant
India, Srilanka, Indonesia, Malayasia
BUNGA SOKA
West Indian Jasmine
(Ixora coccinea)
Offering use, ornamental plant
Tropical Asia
KAMBOJA
Frangipani
(Plumeria sp)
Sacred Plant Central to South America
AIR MATA PENGANTIN
Rose of Montana
(Antigonon leptopus)
Offering use, ornamental plant
Central Mexico to South America
DURIAN
Durian
(Durio zibenthino)
Food stock, fruit Indonesia
SAWO SAPOTA
(Manilkara kauki)
Food Stock, table fruit,
nutrition source
Indonesia
JOHAR CASSIA
Cassia
(Cassia fistula)
Offering use, legume, Nitrogen fixation
Asia
BELIMBING
Star Fruit
(Averhoa blimbii)
Food stock, fruit,
Nutrition source
KATUK
Gooseberry
(Sauropus androgynus)
Vegetables, medicine,
nutrition source
KELOR
Moringa
(Moringa oleifera)
Medicine, feeds
SUKUN (TEEP)
Breadfruit
(Artocarpus altilis)
Carbohydrate stock, medicine, “obat pengusir nyamuk” mosquito repellant
KOL BANDA
Pisonia
(Pisonia alba)
Medicine, ornamental plant
DELIMA HITAM
Pomegranate
(Punica granatum)
Fruit, offering use, medicine
MAJA
Bael
(Aegle marmelos)
Ornamental plant, shading tree, medicine
INDIA
PANDAN BALI
Pandan Laut
(Pandanus sp,)
Bali
PEPAYA
Papaya
(Carica papaya)
Food stock, table fruit South America
JAMBU METE
Chasew nut
(Anacardium occidentale)
Food stock, snack, cashew nut shell liquid
Brazil
JAMBU AIR
Water apple
(Syzigium aquaeum)
Food stock, fruit, nutrition source
South America
POHON BERINGIN
Banyan
(Ficus benjamina)
Sacred plant, shading tree, wildlife habitat
Asia
F a u n a
SAPI BALI
Balinese cattle
(Bibos sondaicus)
Protein and fat source Bali, Indonesia
LEBAH BALI
Balinese Honey Bee
Vitamin and nutrition source
BABI BALI
Celeng
Balinese pig
Meat and fat source
AYAM BALI
Balinese local chicken
Protein source, fighting cocks
KAMBING BALI
Balinese goat
Meat protein and fat source
BURUNG KOKOKAN
Kokokan Birds
Endemic species
KERA EKOR PANJANG
Monkey
(Macaca fascicularis)
Sacred animal in Bali: Pura/ temples and forest in Bugbug Village
KUPU-KUPU
Buterfly
Wildlife
CAPUNG
Dragon fly
(Anisoptera sp.)
Air pollution indicator, wildlife
ULAR SAWAH/ ULAR TIKUS
Ricefield snake
(Ptyas korros)
Wet land of rice field. Rat predator
Java, Bali, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Vietnam, India, Thailand, Taiwan, China
KADAL
Lizard
(Lacerta agilis)
Wet-Dry land/yard
Annex 3 Types of Ritual Activities, Implementation Time, and Purpose
No. Name of Rituals Implementation Time Purpose
1 Mapag Toya / Mendak Toya Ceremony
At the starting time to fetch water from its sources
Asking God for adequate irrigation water to fulfill the water need of the paddy fields
2 Ngendagin / mamungkah / nuasen tedun Ceremony
Before performing agriculture activities at paddy fields
Asking permission from gods and goddess living at paddy fields, as the manifestation of God, before farmers start planting as a part of agriculture activities at paddy fields
3 Pangwiwit / ngurit Ceremony
Soon after the seeds are planted
Praying to God so that the planted seeds will grow well.
4 Nuasen Nandur Ceremony
Just before plantin seeds at the paddy fields
Praying to God so that the process of planting seeds can go well and smoothly
5 Ngulapin Ceremony Soon after planting rice at the rice fields
Praying to God so that the planted seeds can grow well and cause no damage
6 Ngerestiti / Nangluk Merana Ceremony
After planting rice at paddy fields
Praying to God so that insects/pests do not attack the rice plants
7 Ngerorasin Ceremony
After rice has been planted for 12 days
Praying to God so that the planted rice can grow well
8 Mubuhin Ceremony After rice has been planted for 15 days.
Praying to God so that the planted rice can grow well
9 Neduh / Ngebulanin Ceremony
After rice has been planted for 35 days (1 month).
Praying to God so that the planted rice can grow well
10 Nyungsung / ngiseh / ngelanus / dedinan Ceremony
After rice has been planted for 42 days
Praying to God so that the planted rice can grow well
11 Biukukung / miseh Ceremony
After rice has been planted for 70 days (2 months)
Praying to God so that the planted rice can grow well
12 Nyiwa Sraya Ceremony
After the paddy flowers thoroughly in the rice fields
Praying to God so that the paddy plants can keep growing well and can produce good harvest
13 Ngusaba / Ngusaba Nini / Mantenin Dewi Sri Ceremony
When the rice seeds start yellowing before being harvested
Praying to God so that the harvest will be a success
14 Mebanten Manyi Ceremony
At the harvest time Praying to God so that the harvest can run smoothly
15 Ngerasakin Ceremony
After the paddy has been harvested
Expressing gratefulness and thanksgiving to God for the success of harvesting the rice and for getting ready for the coming planting time in the next season
16 Mantenin Ceremony After paddy is kept at the storage area
Expressing thankfulness to God since the rice has been kept well
