glossary for MBA biotechnology.docx

7/27/2019 glossary for MBA biotechnology.docx

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Glossary

This glossary was developed to help you understand the terms used in the field of biotechnology.

It has definitions of terms used throughout the biotechnology topic Web pages.

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A

2D PAGE

Two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The most common technique for

protein separation. Proteins are separated in one dimension according to their size, and

in the second dimension, according to their charge (that is, their isolectric point). After

separation, the gel is stained so that protein spots can be seen.22q deletion syndrome

A syndrome associated with a small deletion (missing section of DNA) on chromosome

22.

Act

A law made by Parliament or a provincial legislature. The process of making an Act of

Parliament begins with the introduction of a proposed Act, or bill, in one of the two

houses of Parliament (the Senate or the House of Commons). A bill becomes an Act if it ispassed (approved) by both houses and receives royal assent.

Allele

A form of a gene. We inherit one allele of a gene from our mother and the other allele

from our father. These two alleles can be the same (homozygous) or they can be

different (heterozygous).

Allele-specific oligonucleotide hybridization

The use of an oligonucleotide probe to determine which of the two alternative nucleotide

sequences is contained in a DNA molecule.
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Amino acid

The building block of proteins. The messenger RNA tells the cell what amino acids are

needed and what order they must be arranged in to build a particular protein. There are

20 different amino acids used in the human body.

Amniocentesis

A procedure used in prenatal diagnosis to look at the chromosomes of the developing

fetus. A flexible needle is inserted into the mother's uterus through the abdomen to

remove a sample of the fluid surrounding the fetus (amniotic fluid). This sample can then

be analysed by karyotype to look for changes in the chromosomes. The procedure can be

done after 15 weeks of pregnancy. There is a 0.5% risk of miscarriage associated with

this procedure, which means one in 200 women will miscarry following this procedure.

Aneuploid

A cell where the total number of chromosomes is not an exact multiple of 23. The haploid

number of chromosomes is 23, which is found in the egg and sperm cells. The diploid

number is 46, which results from the joining of the egg and sperm. The triploid state of

69 chromosomes rarely occurs and is not compatible with life. The most common

aneuploid numbers are 45 (one chromosome is missing) and 47 (one chromosome is

added).Antibiotic

A natural or synthetic chemical that is used to kill bacteria in order to treat diseases in

humans and animals.Antibiotic resistance

The ability of bacteria to tolerate an antibiotic and survive being exposed to it. Bacteria

may develop this resistance naturally after being exposed to it over many years.

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Antibody

A protein made by the immune system that is specific to an antigen. When an antibody

detects this antigen in the body, it will start an immune response to rid the body of the

antigen.

Antigen

A foreign substance that binds to an antibody and starts an immune response in the

body.

Assay

A method for determining the presence or quantity of a component.Assisted human reproduction (AHR)

Any activity undertaken for the purpose of facilitating human reproduction. Examples

include in vitro fertilization, donor insemination and intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection

(ICSI).

Autosomal dominant

Describes a type of inheritance where an individual with a mutation in only one copy of a

gene will develop the associated trait or disorder.

Autosomal recessiveDescribes a type of inheritance where an individual must inherit a mutation in both copies

of a gene in order to develop the associated trait or disorder.

Autosome

A chromosome that is not a sex chromosome (X or Y); chromosomes 1 through 22.

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B

Bacillus thuringensis (bt)

A naturally occurring soil bacterium that makes an endotoxin that is toxic to larvae of the

European corn borer (Lepidoptera). The gene for this endotoxin has been incorporated

into corn to produce a genetically modified corn plant that can defend itself against the
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European corn borer. The endotoxin is very specific in that it only affects the corn borer

larvae. It is not toxic to people, domestic animals, fish or wildlife.

Bioassay

A method of determining the effect of a compound by quantifying its effect on living

organisms or their component parts.

Bioenergy

Energy choices using a wide range of biomass sources (for example, agriculture, forestry,

industry and municipal waste) and conversion technologies such as fermentation (alcohol

production) and co-firing (co-combustion of biomass and coal). Also identifies linkages to

wider sustainable development outcomes, critical economic, environmental and security

benefits (such as adding value to farm, forestry and other industries) and reducing fossil

fuel use (product displacement), waste streams, emission of greenhouse gases and other

pollutants.

Bioengineering

Engineering applied to biological and medical systems, such as biomechanics,

biomaterials and biosensors. Bioengineering also includes biomedical engineering, as in

the development of aids or replacements for defective or missing body organs.

Bioethics (and biomedical ethics)A discipline that studies the ethical implications of biological applications.

Biohazard

A biological agent, such as an infectious microorganism, or a condition that constitutes athreat to humans, especially in biological research or experimentation. The potential

danger, risk, or harm from exposure to such an agent or condition.

Bioinformatics

The generation/creation, collection, storage (in databases), and efficient use of

data/information from genomics from biological research to accomplish an objective (for

example, to discover a new pharmaceutical or a new herbicide).

Biological products / Biologicals / Biologics

Any virus, therapeutic serum, toxin, antitoxin, or analogous product used in the

prevention, treatment or cure of diseases or injuries in humans.

Biomass

Any organic matter, particularly available on a renewable or recurring basis such as trees

and plants (residues and fibers containing cellulose or lingo-cellulose), but also poultry

litter and animal residues and waste, and industrial and municipal solid waste (forexample, sawdust, wood chips, paper, grass and leaf compost).

Biomedical ethics

See Bioethics.

Biosensing

Technology for the detection of a wide range of chemical and biological agents, including

bacteria, viruses and toxins, in the environment and humans.

Biopesticides

A product made from natural sources such as bacteria, animals or plants that is used forpest control. They tend to have less of an impact on the environment and human health

because they are less toxic than conventional pesticides and usually affect only one

specific pest instead of being broad-range. They can also work in low amounts, they

break down quickly and when used properly, they can reduce the use of conventional

pesticides while maintaining crop yields.Biopharmaceuticals

This term is sometimes used for biologic drugs produced through rDNA technology, but

essentially they also fall under the regulatory definition of a biologic.

BioremediationThe use of organisms, usually microorganisms, to break down pollutants in soil, air or

groundwater.

Biosensor

An electronic device that uses biological molecules to detect low levels of substances like

proteins in the body or pollutants in water.


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Biotechnology

A general term used to describe the use of biological processes to make products, in

contrast to purely chemical processes. Biotechnology has been in practice for centuries

and includes such traditional applications as the use of yeast in making beer, as well as

modern applications like recombinant DNA techniques to improve crops.

Biotherapeutic strategy

A plan or program to contribute to the cure of disease or to general, especially mental,

well-being.

Bioterrorism

The use of bacteria, viruses or toxins with the intent of causing harm to people, animals

or food to achieve certain political, religious or ideological goals through intimidation.

Blastocyst stage

Four to five days after the union of the sperm and the egg, before the embryo implants in

the uterus.

Blood

The fluid that circulates in the heart, arteries, capillaries and veins of a vertebrate animal

carrying nourishment and oxygen to and taking away waste products from all parts of the

body.Blood components

At its subcomponent level, blood is comprised of such components as: blood cells,

platelets, plasmaBlood products

Products derived from blood. These products are made from plasma like coagulation

factors, plasma proteins and albumin.

BRCA1/BRCA2

Two genes that are associated with an increased risk of breast cancer when they have

mutations. Every human being has these two genes, which make proteins that are

responsible for preventing cancer from forming. When mutations happen in these genes,

the protective proteins do not work as well and the individual is then at increased risk of

developing cancer. A mutation in the BRCA1/2 genes can be inherited or it can be

acquired during our lifetime.

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C

Cancer

A disease where cells grow out of control, often developing a tumour. Cancer cells can

spread to other areas of the body and interrupt normal processes.

CarrierAn individual who has a gene mutation for a recessive disease on one allele while the

other allele is normally functioning. This individual most often does not develop

symptoms of the disease, but is at risk of having a child with the disease if their partner

is also a carrier.

Cell

The smallest structural unit of living organisms that is able to grow and reproduce

independently. The cell consists of a membrane that encloses the DNA-containing nucleus

and the mitochondria, the cell's energy source.

CellomicsA study that combines information from genomics and proteomics with the complex

chemical and molecular relationships of cell components. Research about what goes on

within a cell can give us valuable information about drug targets and drug development.

Microarray technology is an important part of cellomics research.

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

A procedure used in prenatal diagnosis to look at the chromosomes of the developing

fetus. A sample is removed from the chorion, which is part of the placenta and contains


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cells from the fetus. This sample can then be analyzed by karyotype to look for changes

in the chromosomes. The procedure can be done at 10 to 12 weeks into the pregnancy.

There is a 1% risk of miscarriage associated with this procedure, which means one in 100

women will miscarry following this procedure.

Chromosome

A structure found in the cell nucleus that carries the genetic information in humans and

animals. It is composed of a long strand of DNA that is greatly condensed for storage.

Humans have 46 chromosomes in every cell of their body except the sperm and egg

cells. We inherit 23 chromosomes from our mother and 23 from our father.

Clinical trial

Medical research undertaken with informed and consenting human subjects in a

controlled environment. The intent of a clinical trial is for the sponsoring company or

research institution to gather information on the safety and effectiveness of new drugs or

therapies before seeking approval of a procedure or product for use by the Canadian

public.

Clone

A genetically identical copy of an organism or of a specific piece of DNA for use in

research. See also Human clone.Cloning

The process of creating a genetically identical copy (clone) of an animal or plant. Cloning

is the process of making copies of a specific piece of DNA, usually a gene. There are tworecognized forms of cloning related to humans -- reproductive cloning and therapeutic

cloning. When geneticists speak of cloning, they do not usually mean the process of

making genetically identical copies of an entire organism.

Complementary DNA (cDNA)

DNA synthesized from a messenger RNA rather than from a DNA template. This type of

DNA is used for cloning or as a DNA probe for finding specific genes.

Cystic fibrosis

A hereditary disease whose symptoms usually appear shortly after birth. They include

faulty digestion, breathing difficulties and respiratory infections due to mucus

accumulation, and excessive loss of salt in sweat. In the past, cystic fibrosis was almost

always fatal in childhood, but treatment is now so improved that patients commonly live

into their 20s and beyond.

CytogeneticsThe study of the structure, function and abnormalities of human chromosomes.

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D

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

The molecule that carries the genetic information in most living organisms. It is a double-

stranded helix held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of nucleotides. The

nucleotides in DNA (adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine) are arranged in different

combinations to represent each gene. The genes act like recipes in that they contain the

information necessary for the cell to make the corresponding proteins.

Diagnostics / Diagnostic products

A test, drug, medical device or kit used to diagnose a disease or medical condition.

DiploidA cell with two full sets of chromosomes. In humans, the total number of chromosomes in

a diploid cell is 46.

Dominant inheritance

See Autosomal dominant.

Drug Identification Number (DIN)

A number issued to a drug indicating that it is authorized for sale in Canada.

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E

E. coli (Escherichia coli)

A bacterium found in the intestinal tracts of most vertebrates. It is used extensively in

recombinant DNA research because it has been genetically well characterized.

Electrophoresis

A technique used to separate molecules such as DNA or proteins using an electriccurrent. The mixture of molecules is added to one end of a gel-like medium. When acurrent is applied to it, the molecules will travel through the medium to the other end at

different speeds depending on the charge and size of the molecule. Once the molecules

are separated, the gel can be used in a blot (Southern, Northern and Western).

Embryo

Defined in theAssisted Human Reproduction Actas a human organism during the first 56

days of its development following fertilization or creation, excluding any time during

which its development has been suspended. It includes any cell derived from such an

organism that is used for the purpose of creating a human being.

Embryonic stem cellsCells that are removed from the early embryo and are able to become any of the 210 cell

types found in the human body. Researchers are looking at the great potential stem cells

have in developing new treatments for disease and injury.Enzymatic

Activity of an enzyme which is a substance produced by a living organism and acting as a

catalyst to promote a specific biochemical reaction.

EnzymeA protein that facilitates a biochemical reaction. Many essential reactions in the body

require the help of enzymes and would not proceed on their own.

Enzyme-Linked Immuno Assays (EIA)

Enzyme-Linked Immuno Assays (EIA) are use to measure the amount of a particular

substance by virtue of its binding to a specific antibody. Examples of EIA include ELISA

and Western blotting.

Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay

The ELISA is a fundamental tool of clinical immunology, and is used as an initial screen

for HIV detection. Based on the principle of antibody-antibody interaction, this test allows

for easy visualization of results and can be completed without the additional concern of

radioactive materials use.

Ex vivo (testing)

The testing of a substance by exposing it to (excised) living cells (but not to the whole,

multicelled organism) in order to ascertain the effect of the substance (for example,

pharmaceutical) on the biochemistry of the cell.

Expression

The process of converting genetic information into RNA and protein for use in the cell.Every gene is not expressed at the same level and at the same time. Expression patterns,

easily analyzed using microarray technology, can give a lot of information about the roles

genes play in different situations, such as disease and health.

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F

Fermentation

A process of growing microorganisms to produce various chemical or pharmaceutical

compounds. Microbes are usually incubated under specific conditions in large tanks called

fermenters. Fermentation is a specific type of bioprocessing.

Fetal tissue

The tissue from the unborn offspring of a human in the post-embryonic period (fromeight weeks after fertilization to birth), after major structures have been outlined. Fetal


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tissue research is conducted using fetal tissue from cadavers to study birth anomalies,

carcinogenesis, infectious disease, genetic anomalies, etc. Human fetal tissue in culture is

used by pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies to develop vaccines, to test the

efficacy and developmental malformations caused by new pharmaceutical products, and

to conduct research into viruses. Emerging medical practices use fetal tissue to treat

neurological conditions such as Parkinson's disease. There are also other potential

medical uses for fetal tissue.

Fetus

Defined in theAssisted Human Reproduction Actas a human organism during the period

of its development beginning on the 57th day following fertilization or creation, excluding

any time during which its development has been suspended, and ending at birth.

Food

Any substance, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for human

consumption. It includes drinks, chewing gum and any substance which has been used to

manufacture, prepare or treat "food". It excludes cosmetics, tobacco and substances

used only as drugs.

Food biotechnology

The application of biotechnology to the production of food.Functional food

Ordinary food that has components or ingredients added to give it a specific medical or

physiological benefit, other than a purely nutritional effect. Also known as nutraceutical.Top of Page

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Gamete

A mature reproductive cell (sperm or egg cell) that contributes to fertilization.

Gene

The basic unit of heredity, located on a chromosome. It is made up of DNA that acts as a

blueprint to make a particular protein. The Human Genome Project estimates that

humans have over 30,000 genes in their genome. Each one is responsible for a different

part of our biology. Every human being (except identical twins) has a unique set of

genes, half of which came from their mother and the other half from their father.Gene expression

See Expression.

Gene therapy

An evolving technique used to treat genetic diseases. The medical procedure involves

replacing, manipulating or supplementing non-functional genes with healthy genes so

that they can function normally.Genetic disease

A disease or condition caused by a change or mutation in a gene, or a change in the

chromosomes.

Genetic engineering

The technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to a DNA molecule to change the

information it contains. By changing this information, genetic engineering changes the

type or amount of proteins an organism is capable of producing. Genetic engineering

allows scientists to isolate a specific gene for a particular trait - such as resistance to

insect attack - in a plant or animal, and transfer it into another plant.Genetic mapping

A research method that collects genetic information to determine the relative position of

a gene or a phenotype in the genome.

Genetic marker

A DNA sequence at a unique physical location in the genome, which varies sufficiently

between individuals that its pattern of inheritance can be tracked through families and/or

it can be used to distinguish among cell types. A marker may or may not be part of a


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gene. Markers are essential for use in linkage studies and genetic maps to help scientists

to narrow down the possible location of new genes, and to discover the associations

between genetic mutations and disease.

Genetic modification

A general term which refers to any intentional change to the heritable traits of an

organism. This includes both traditional breeding and recombinant DNA techniques.

Genetic privacy

The freedom from unauthorized intrusion. Often referred to as the right to be let alone, it

protects territorial, bodily, psychological and informational integrity and decision making.

Many of these interests are directly implicated by genetic testing. Informational privacy

protects the access, control and spread of personal information. Privacy is essential to

maintaining relations of trust. The Supreme Court of Canada has indicated that

confidential therapeutic relations enjoy some Charter protection but they are not

absolute. Recognized exceptions include those authorized in law, an individual's consent

or waiver of privacy, and overriding duties to third parties.

Genetic testing

A laboratory test, done most often on a blood sample, but also on cheek cells, skin cells,

bone marrow, amniotic fluid or a placenta sample. It looks at a particular gene forchanges, or mutations, that might confirm the diagnosis of a genetic disease or that show

a predisposition to a genetic disease.

Genetic toxicologyA research field in which genetic samples from a living organism (including humans) are

placed on a DNA microarray (gene chip) and tested in a computerized device for the

presence of toxic substances from the environment. It is done to determine if the

organism providing the sample has been exposed to specific chemicals which have

caused problems such as mutations, cancer and birth defects. The study of the pattern of

occurrence of such biomarkers in a sample of individuals or a community is called genetic

epidemiology.

Genetically modified organism (GMO)

An organism produced from genetic engineering techniques that allow the transfer of

functional genes from one organism to another, including from one species to another.

Bacteria, fungi, viruses, plants, insects, fish and mammals are some examples of

organisms whose genetic material has been artificially modified to change some physical

property or capability. Living modified organisms (LMOs) and transgenic organisms areother terms often used instead of GMOs.

Genetics

The study of how traits are passed on in families and how genes are involved in health

and disease.

Genome

All of an organism's genetic information, including all of the DNA that makes up the

genes that are carried on the chromosomes.

GenomicsThe study of the entire genome (chromosomes, genes and DNA) and how different genes

interact with each other.

Genomics and molecular biology form the basis for modern biotechnology and, more

specifically, pharmacogenomics, or the application of genetic analysis to identify potential

targets for therapeutic products (drugs, vaccines).Genotype

The genetic make-up of an individual, usually referring to a particular pair of alleles for a

gene that can be related to a particular phenotype of interest.

Germ cellA reproductive cell (sperm or egg cell), which has 23 chromosomes in humans (haploid).

See also Gamete.

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H

Half-life

The time required for the decay of half of a sample of particles of a radionucleotide or

elementary particle.

Haploid

A cell with one set of chromosomes. In humans, the egg and sperm cells are haploid cellsand have only 23 chromosomes. Once they join during fertilization, the resulting cell willbe diploid with 46 chromosomes.

Haplotype characterization

The characterization of SNPs by coherent packages (SNPs that are usually transmitted

together).

Health care

Canada's health care system provides access to universal, comprehensive coverage for

medically necessary hospital, inpatient and outpatient physician services. Provincial and

territorial governments are responsible for the delivery of Canada's health care and

hospital services; the federal government shares in the cost of these services.Health product

Encompasses products subject to the Food and Drugs Act, and are managed along the

following broad categories:1. Biologics (both regular and biotechnology-based products)

2. Pharmaceuticals (both regular and biotechnology-based products)

3. Medical devices

4. Natural Health ProductsHealth surveillance

The ongoing, systematic use of routinely collected health data to guide public health

action in a timely fashion. Health surveillance tracks and forecasts the occurrence of

health events or determinants through ongoing data collection. It also involves the

collation, analysis and interpretation of those data into a product that is disseminated to

those who need to know.

Hepatocyte

Any of the polygonal epithelial parenchymatous cells of the liver that secrete bile called

also hepatic cell, liver cell

Heredity

The transfer of genetic information from parents to children.

Heterozygote

An individual with two different alleles at a particular locus on a pair of chromosomes.

Homozygote

An individual with two identical alleles at a particular locus on a pair of chromosomes.

Hormones

A chemical that is made by one type of cell in the body and acts on another. Hormones

act as messengers to tell the target cell to stop or start certain cellular processes.

Host genomics

The genetic makeup of a person (host or patient).

Human clone

Defined in theAssisted Human Reproduction Actas "an embryo that, as a result of themanipulation of human reproductive material or an in vitro embryo, contains a diploid set

of chromosomes obtained from a single -- living or deceased - human being, foetus or

embryo". The Act, which received royal assent on March 29, 2004, states that "no person

shall knowingly create a human clone by using any technique, or transplant a human

clone into a human being or into any non-human life form or artificial device".

Human genetics

The study of how traits are passed on in families and how genes are involved in health

and disease.


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Human Genome Project

An international research effort that aims to identify, map and sequence all human

genes.

Human health

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of complete physical,

mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Hybridization

The creation of RNA-DNA hybrids by a heating process, so that the RNA becomes

associated with the complementary DNA.

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I

Immune system

A network of molecules, cells and organs that work together to protect the body against

infection and disease.

Immuno

Therapies and/or treatments that stimulate the immune system.

Immunodeficiency

An innate, acquired, or induced inability to develop a normal immune response.Immunosuppression

The prevention or lessening of the immune response, for example, by irradiation or byadministrating certain substances.

Immunotoxicity

The toxicity of a therapeutic agent because it could cause immune reactions or allergy.

Immunotyping

The process of screening patients specimens to identify the specific viral antigen on

antigen presenting cells or detecting specific viral antibodies.

Insulin

A hormone made by the pancreas that controls the level of sugar in the blood.

Intellectual property

A form of creative endeavour that can be protected through a trademark, patent,

copyright, industrial design or integrated topography. The patent system offers the onlyprotection available for the intellectual products of research. There is increasing pressure

on the patent system to patent life forms.

Interferon

A protein first recognized in animals for its action in inhibiting viral replication and

inducing resistance in host cells. The interferons (IFNs) are a highly conserved family of

multi-functional, species-specific, secreted proteins originally classified on the basis ofcellular origin including: leucocyte IFN (alpha), fibroblastic IFN (beta) and immune IFN

(gamma). Examples from each of these classes have been cloned and commercialized.

The IFNs have been reclassified based on their recognition of cell-surface receptors. In

humans there are three major classes: Type I consists mainly of the original types alpha

(including various isoforms) and beta; Type II consists of IFN gamma; Type III consists

of IFN lambda.

The IFNs have multiple biological activities demonstrated to greater or lesser degree bythe various types. These include: the induction of intracellular mechanisms having anti-

viral effects (affecting viral protein synthesis) and anti-proliferative effects (affecting cell

replication); the stimulation of cellular immune responses against viruses, bacteria and

tumours; and, the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses.

In vitro

Describes a biological process that takes place in a laboratory instead of in a living cell or

organism.


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In vitro fertilization

A procedure to help infertile couples conceive. Eggs are removed from the woman and

fertilized with the man's sperm in the laboratory. Fertilized eggs can then be transferred

to the woman's uterus to try to establish a pregnancy or they can be frozen for future

use.

In vivo

Describes a biological process that takes place in a living cell or organism.

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K

Karyotype

A picture of an individual's chromosomes as seen under a microscope. The chromosomes

can be identified by their unique banding patterns and arranged in order of size (1 is the

largest and 22 is the smallest). The 23rd pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes

-- a female has two X chromosomes and a male has one X and one Y chromosome. The

karyotype is a test sometimes requested by a physician to look for major changes in the

chromosomes, such as a change in the number (for example, trisomy or monosomy) or

the structure.

Karyotyping (traditional)A laboratory technique that allows scientists to view all of the human chromosomes at

one time in black and white. It is useful for observing the number, size and shape of thechromosomes. Interpreting these karyotypes requires an expert, who might need hours

to examine a single chromosome.

Spectral karyotyping, on the other hand, "paints" each pair of chromosomes in a different

fluorescent colour. Even non-experts can see instances where a chromosome, painted in

one colour, has a small piece of a different chromosome, painted in another colour,

attached to it.

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L

Legislation

A collection of written and approved laws that "guide" behaviours in society.

Legislative process

See Legislation.

Lipids

Water-insoluble (fat) biomolecules that are highly soluble in organic solvents such as

chloroform. Lipids serve as "fuel" molecules in organisms, highly concentrated energy

stores, "signalling" molecules, and are basic components of cell membranes.

Living modified organism (LMO)Any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained

through modern biotechnology. A living organism is a biological entity that can transfer or

replicate genetic material.

LocusThe position of a gene or a marker on a chromosome.

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M

Marker gene

Genes that identify which plants have been successfully transformed.

Meiosis
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The process of cell division in human sperm and egg cells during their development. One

cell gives rise to four new daughter cells, which each has 23 chromosomes (it is haploid).

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

RNA that is complementary to the DNA of a gene and acts as a template to make the

protein.

Metabolome

The quantitative complement of all the low molecular weight molecules present in cells in

a particular physiological or developmental state.

Metabonomics and metabolomics

These very similar terms have arisen at about the same time in different areas of

bioscience research, mainly animal biochemistry and microbial/plant biochemistry,

respectively. Although both involve the multiparametric measurement of metabolites,

they are not identical. Metabonomics deals with integrated, multicellular and biological

systems, including communicating extracellular environments. Metabolomics deals with

simple cell systems and, at least in terms of published data, mainly intracellular

metabolite concentrations.

Microarray

A glass or plastic slide with many DNA spots attached to it, which allows researchers tostudy how many genes act and interact in different conditions.

Microbial genetics

The study of genetics in microorganisms.Microbiology

The study of microorganisms and how they interact with the environment and other

organisms.

Microorganism

An organism that is visible only under a microscope, such as protozoa, bacteria, fungi and

viruses.

Mitochondria

The cell organelles responsible for energy production.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

The genetic material found in the mitochondria, which is different from the cell's DNA in

the nucleus. Mitochondria are passed on from one generation to the next in the

cytoplasm of the egg, so they are inherited from the mother.

MitosisThe process of cell division in most cells in the human body. Mitosis results in twodaughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the original cell.

Molecular Pharming

The application of biotechnology to produce selected pharmaceutical compounds or other

health or industrial compounds within a living organism (for example, microbe,

agricultural crop, livestock).

Pharming: The manufacture of medical products from genetically modified plants oranimals.

Molecular genetics

The study of the molecular structure and function of genes.

Monitoring

Activities conducted to measure levels, concentrations or quantities of material and theuse of these measurement results to evaluate potential exposures and doses, and to

determine existing environmental conditions, pollutant levels (rates) and effects on

species in the environment.

Monoclonal antibodiesAntibodies derived from a single source (a group of cloned cells) and recognize only one

kind of antigen. They are made in the laboratory from hybridoma cells, hybrids of

antibody-producing cells and immortal cancer cells.

Monosomy


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One chromosome of a pair is missing. In humans, this would result in a total of 45

chromosomes. An example of monosomy is 45, X, also known as Turner syndrome.

Moratorium

A temporary prohibition or suspension of an activity.

Mosaicism

The presence of two or more cell populations that have a different genetic or

chromosomal makeup in a single individual or tissue.

Multifactorial

Describes a trait that is determined by the interaction of multiple genetic and

environmental factors.

Mutagenisis

The formation or development of a mutation.

Mutation

A change in the DNA sequence that can interfere with protein production. A mutation can

arise in a germ cell and be passed on to an individual's children, who will then carry it in

every cell of their body. A mutation can also arise in one cell in the body, such as a skin

or heart cell. Mutations like these can lead to cancer if they interrupt the cell cycle.

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N

NanotechnologyA precise molecule-by-molecule control of products and byproducts in the development of

functional structures.

From the Latin nanus = "dwarf", so it literally means "dwarf technology". The word was

originally coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, to refer to high precision machining.

However, Richard Feynman and K. Eric Drexler later popularized the concept of

nanotechnology as a new and developing technology in which humans manipulate objects

whose dimensions are approximately 1 to 100 nanometers. Theoretically, it is possible

that in the future a variety of human-made "nano-assemblers" (that is, tiny [molecular]

machines smaller than a grain of sand) could manufacture those things that are produced

in factories today. For example, enzyme molecules function essentially as jigs andmachine tools to shape large molecules as they are formed in biochemical reactions. The

technology also encompasses biochips, biosensors and manipulating atoms and molecules

in order to form (build) bigger, but still microscopic functional structures and machines.

Notice of Compliance

Once a product submission has been reviewed, assessed and deemed by Health Canada

to meet the Food and Drug Regulations it is given a Notice of Compliance. Health Canadaconcludes that the benefits of the health product outweigh the risks and that the risks

can be mitigated and/or managed, Health Canada provides the manufacturer with a

market authorization to sell the product in Canada.

Novel food

a) a substance, including a microorganism, that does not have a history of safe use as a

food;

b) a food that has been manufactured, prepared, preserved or packaged by a process

that has not been applied before to that food, and causes the food to undergo a major

change; orc) a food that is derived from a plant, animal or microorganism that has been genetically

modified.

Novel trait in a plant

A plant with characteristics not normally found in that species in which the new

characteristic has been created through specific genetic manipulation, transformation,

mutation, etc.

Nucleotides


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The substances that make up the chromosomes and the genes.

Nucleus

The structure in eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus) that contains the cellular DNA.

Nutraceutical

A product isolated or purified from food that is generally sold in medicinal forms not

usually associated with food. A nutraceutical has been demonstrated to have a

physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease.

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O

Oncogene

A gene that has the potential to make a normal cell become cancerous.

Oncology

The study of tumours.

Organism

A living thing that can function independently.

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P

Patent

A government grant giving exclusive rights to the inventor to make, use or sell an

invention for a period of 20 years from the date when a patent application is filed.

Patents are granted for products and processes that are considered new, workable and

ingenious - that is, novel, useful and inventive - or for useful improvements to some

existing invention.

Patenting life

See also Patent.

One still unresolved court case involves a claim that a life form that has been genetically

modified (the so-called "oncomouse," which has been modified to make it more

genetically susceptible to cancer) should be able to hold a patent.

The Canadian Patent Office has a policy of not granting patents on "higher life forms",

plants or animals beyond the level of a microorganism. The issue the courts are

considering is whether or not a particular, modified life form may be considered

intellectual property -- the access to and use of which would be protected through

trademark, patent or copyright. A related area is bioprospecting, a type of research in

which investigators look for biological and genetic information about plants, animals or

humans that may have the potential to be sold as scientific, medical, industrial or

consumer products.Pathogen

An agent that causes disease, especially a living microorganism such as a bacterium or

fungus.

PesticideA broad term that defines all chemical substances used to control insects, diseases,

weeds, fungi and other "pests" on plants, fruits, vegetables and animals, and in buildings.

Fungicides, herbicides, sanitizers, growth regulators, rodenticides, soil fumigants and

insecticides are all pesticides.

Pharmaceutical

A medical drug.Pharmacodynamics

The study of how drugs achieve their therapeutic effect.


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Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics

These two terms, which relate to the role of genetics in pharmaceutical research, are

often used interchangeably. Pharmacogenetics is the study of genetic differences among

individuals that relate to drug response. Pharmacogenomics is the study of variability in

the expression of individual genes that relate to disease susceptibility and drug response

at the cellular, tissue, individual and population level.

A major objective of pharmacogenomics is the development of innovative classes of

targeted drugs and vaccines designed to affect highly specific processes in the body while

minimizing side effects. A related area is biopharmaceuticals, whereby transgenic

techniques are used to insert therapeutic properties, including vaccines, into foods,

potentially replacing pills and syringe injections.

Pharmacokinetics

The study of how drugs are absorbed, distributed and cleared from the body.

Phenotype

A set of observable physical characteristics of an organism.

Plant genetics

The study of genetics in plants.Plant Molecular Farming (PMF)

This technique involves using genetically modified plants to produce substances that the

plants typically do not produce naturally, such as industrial compounds or therapeuticsPlasmid

A DNA structure that is separate from the cell's genome and can replicate independently

of the host cell. Plasmids are used in the laboratory to deliver specific DNA sequences

into a cell.

Plasticity

The ability of adult-derived stem cells to be capable of developing into cells types outside

of the tissue of origin (for example, human blood stem cells have been shown to

differentiate into liver cells.

Platform technology

Technology that has a common starting point but diverges once it is put into actual

practice.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A laboratory method used to make many copies of a DNA fragment in minutes using anenzyme called polymerase.

Precautionary principle

A principle associated with risk management. It states that where there are threats of

serious or irreversible damage, lack of scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason

for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

Prenatal

Existing or occurring before birth: prenatal medical care

PrionA protein particle found in brain cell membranes. Changes in its structure appear to be

related to infectious diseases of the nervous system, such as Creutzfeld-Jakob disease in

humans, bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cows, and sheep scrapie.

Prokaryotes

Organisms whose genetic material is not enclosed by a nucleus. The most commonexamples are bacteria.

Proteomics

The study of the protein products of genes, protein-protein interactions and protein sub-

cellular localization. Examples could include engineering of new systems to sequenceproteins or study protein interactions with other proteins or DNA, developing faster and

cheaper detectors, such as high-density capillaries or high throughput mass

spectrometers, and developing centres with expertise and accountability for protein

analysis, such as 2D protein databases.

Protein


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Required for the structure, function and regulation of body cells, tissues and organs. A

large molecule is made up of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order. The

order is determined by the base sequence of nucleotides in the gene coding for the

protein. Each protein has unique functions. Examples are hormones, enzymes and

antibodies.

Proto-oncogene

A normal gene that has the potential to become an oncogene.

Public health

The public health system in Canada is responsible for helping to protect Canadians from

injury and disease and for helping them to stay healthy. A good public system means

fewer people become sick or injured, and more people can live longer, healthier lives.

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R

Radiopharmaceuticals

A radioactive compound used in radiotherapy or diagnosis

Recessive inheritance

See Autosomal recessive.

Recombinant DNAThe DNA formed when DNA fragments from more than one organism are spliced together

in vitro.Regulation

A law made by a person or body that has been granted (delegated) law-making

authority. A regulation is used both to indicate a specific type of delegated legislation as

well as to refer generically to all forms of delegated legislation. The Department of Justice

issues a special number to indicate that it is a regulation. More broadly, regulation may

refer to all government intervention in the lives of citizens.

Reproductive cloning

The cloning of an embryo for transplantation into a uterus with the intention of producing

offspring genetically identical to the donor.

Reproductive materials

Human male or female reproductive cells (sperm or egg), and human embryos and theirderivatives.

Reproductive technology

See Assisted human reproduction.

Restriction enzyme

An enzyme used to cut DNA at specific sites. The resulting fragments can then be spliced

together to form recombinant DNA, which can be separated out on a gel or inserted intoa plasmid.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

A change in the DNA of an organism that changes how a restriction enzyme cuts the DNA

into pieces. Two or more organisms can be compared based on the pattern of their DNA

fragments when they are run on a gel (by electrophoresis). If the organisms have

different spaces between their restriction enzyme sites, they produce different lengths of

fragments when the restriction enzyme is used to cut up the DNA. When their fragments

are run on a gel, they produce different patterns because the shorter fragments will move

further than the longer ones.Retrovirus

A virus with RNA as its genetic material. When the retrovirus infects a cell, its own

enzyme reverse transcriptase makes viral DNA from the RNA template. This viral DNA

can then be integrated into the host cell's genome to produce more viral particles.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Like DNA, a type of nucleic acid. There are three major types: messenger RNA, transfer

RNA, and ribosomal RNA. All are involved in the synthesis of proteins from the


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information contained in the DNA molecule. Synonyms: gene splicing, genetic

engineering.

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S

Sequencing of DNA MoleculesThe process of finding the order of nucleotides (guanine, adenine, cytosine and thymine)

that make up a DNA or RNA fragment.

Sex chromosome

The 23rd pair of chromosomes in humans are the sex chromosomes. Females have two X

chromosomes and males have an X and a Y chromosome.

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

Individual differences at a single nucleotide of DNA. This genotypic difference can cause a

phenotypic difference in hair colour, height or response to a drug, depending on the

gene.

Somatic cell

Any cell in the body except the germ cells (egg and sperm).

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

A cloning technique where the nucleus from an unfertilized egg is removed and replacedwith the nucleus from a somatic cell. The resulting egg will carry the full complement of

genetic material of the host organism. This is how Dolly the cloned sheep was produced;she was genetically identical to her "mother". This technique can be used both for

reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning.

Stem cell

A fundamental cell that has the potential to develop into any of the 210 different cell

types found in the human body. Human life begins with stem cells, which divide again

and again and branch off into special roles, like becoming liver or heart cells. They are an

important resource for disease research and for the development of new ways to treat

disease.

Stem cell differentiation

The process by which a stem cell can become a specific cell type. Stem cell differentiation

begins when they are exposed to certain biochemical cues - whether physiological orexperimental. Biochemical cues in different parts of the body stimulate stem cells to grow

into the specific cells needed in that location.

All stem cells have the capacity to differentiate, but to different degrees.

Totipotent stem cells can become any cell in the human body.

Pluripotent stem cells can become almost any cell in the human body, but they

cannot become placental tissue needed for development in the human uterus.

Multipotent stem cells can become only a certain type of cell, such as blood cells.

Stewardship

The preservation of public good by ensuring that the social and the ethical issues related

to biotechnology are addressed, and that the federal government has an effectiveregulatory regime and the science capacity to protect human and animal health and the

environment.

SurveillanceSystematic collection, analysis, interpretation and dissemination of data (generated by

the laboratory and private and public domain literature) related to the biotechnology field

to assist in the planning and implementation of research, evaluation and management of

risks and public health interventions and programs (if needed).

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T

Template

A strand of DNA or RNA (mRNA) that specifies the base sequence of a newly synthesized

strand of DNA or RNA, the two strands being complementary.

Therapeutic cloning

The cloning of an embryo for the purpose of deriving stem cells for use in research andtreatment of disease.

Totipotent Stem Cells

Bone marrow cells that (when signalled) mature into both red blood cells and white blood

cells. Receptors on the surface of totipotent stem cells "grasp" passing blood cell growth

factors (for example, Interleukin- 7, Stem Cell Growth Factor), bringing them inside

these stem cells and thus causing the maturation and differentiation into red and white

blood cells. These receptors are called FLK-Z receptors.

Toxicogenomics

A fusion of genomics and toxicology disciplines intended to identify, classify and manage

the latent (inherent susceptibility), incipient and overt adverse (toxic) effects on genomestructure and expression levels (RNA, protein, cell/tissue/organ type) as a consequence

of an organism's exposure to environmental substances (contaminants such as

chemicals, drugs and micro/multicellular organisms and/or components) and stressors(for example, quality of air, climate, soil, solar radiation and water).

Trait

A characteristic of an organism.

TranscriptionA process in the cell where the DNA is used as a template to make the messenger RNA.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

RNA molecules that bind to amino acids and carry them to the ribosomes where proteins

are made.

Transformation

A process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed by the addition of

foreign DNA.

Transgenics

The insertion or splicing of specific genetic sequences from one species into the

functioning genome of an unrelated species to transfer desired properties for human

purposes. This may be viewed as a more precise form of hybridization or plant/animal

breeding, with the added consideration that genetic material from species significantly

different from one another is involved (for example, the insertion of genetic material from

an animal into a plant or vice versa). Another possibility is the transfer of genetically

controlled properties between different animal species, such as the breeding of goats

whose milk yields spider silk for possible development of new structural materials.

See Genetically modified organisms and Living modified organisms.

Transplantation

The implanting of cells, tissues, or organs which have been retrieved from a living or

deceased donor into a recipient.

Trisomy

The presence of an extra chromosome, in addition to the normal pair. In humans, thiswould result in a total of 47 chromosomes. An example of trisomy is trisomy 21, which is

also known as Down syndrome.

Tumour

An abnormal benign or malignant mass of tissue that is not inflammatory, arises without

obvious cause from cells of pre-existent tissue, and possesses no physiological function.

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V

Vaccine

A preparation that contains an agent or its components, administered to stimulate an

immune response that will protect a person from illness due to that agent. A therapeutic

(treatment) vaccine is given after disease has started and is intended to reduce or arrest

the progress of the disease. A preventive (prophylactic) vaccine is intended to preventdisease from starting. Agents used in vaccines may be whole-killed (inactive), live-attenuated (weakened) or artificially manufactured. It can be created using the

recombinant DNA process.

Vector

A vehicle that carries foreign genes into an organism and inserts them into the

organism's genome. Modified viruses are used as vectors for gene therapy.

Virus

A submicroscopic particle that can infect other organisms. It cannot reproduce on its own

but infects an organism's cell in order to use that cell's reproductive machinery to create

more viruses. It usually consists of a DNA or RNA genome enclosed in a protectiveprotein coat.

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X

Xenogeneic organs

Xenogeneic literally means "strange genes". Refers to genetically engineered (for

example, "humanized") organs that have been grown within an animal of another

species.

Xenografts

A type of tissue graft in which the donor and recipient are of different species. Also calledheterographs.

XenotransplantationThe transplantation of living cells, tissues and organs from one species to another. The

term is usually used to describe animal-to-human transplants. An example is the

transplant of a kidney from a pig to a human. The principal reason for medical andscientific inquiry in this area is to find alternatives to human organs and tissue

transplants.

Xenosis (xenozoonoses)

A term coined from the word "xenozoonoses". It describes the transfer of infections by

transplantation of xenogeneic tissues or organs. It potentially poses unique

epidemiological hazards due to the efficiency of transmission of pathogens, particularly

viruses, with viable, cellular grafts.

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