Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memoryLearning activity suggested answersLearning Activity 6.1 (p. 237)1 Can you think of any activity you do that does not depend on memory? If so, give an example.
Consider reflexes and involuntary physiological responses under the control of the autonomic nervous system.
2 Do you believe that you could you learn if you couldn’t remember? Could you remember if you couldn’t learn? Briefly explain each of your answers.
Generally learning cannot occur without memory and vice versa, i.e. learning requires retention of prior experience and memory requires stored information. Note that sensory memory may not require learning, e.g. if viewed as a memory type rather than a memory process or sub-system.
Discuss student answers to clarify the interrelatedness and interdependence of learning and memory.
3 Suggest an explanation of why we don’t remember everything that happens in our lives.
Consider:
• the roles of attention and selective attention in filtering diverse array of incoming information
• the physiological or neurological limit that the storage capacity of long-term memory (LTM) may have
• case studies that provide evidence of difficulties in coping with everyday life or dysfunction, attributable to ‘remembering everything’
• theories of forgetting, e.g. motivated forgetting, decay.
Learning Activity 6.2 (p. 239)1 How is memory commonly defined in psychology?
Definition should refer to memory as an active information processing system, e.g. the storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning (rather than an inactive/passive process, e.g. an internal record or representation of learnt information or of some prior event or experience).
a Describe the processes of encoding, storage and retrieval.
• Encoding: converting information into a useable form or ‘code’ so that it can enter and be stored in memory.
• Storage: retention of information over time.
• Retrieval: locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it.
b Explain the interrelationship between these processes with reference to an example.
Explanation should refer to dependence of storage on encoding and retrieval on storage and encoding, i.e. the way information is encoded determines exactly what and how that information is stored, which in turn can limit what can subsequently be retrieved. If any one of these processes fails, memory will fail.
Student examples should demonstrate understanding of the interrelationships between these processes and may refer to effective memory and/or memory failure.
c Explain whether memory is possible without any one of these processes.
• No encoding: memory is impossible because information cannot be processed in the neurological form required for storage/retention (e.g. engram/memory trace); the way information is encoded determines exactly what and how that information is stored.
• No storage: memory is impossible because information cannot be retained (anywhere in the brain).
• No retrieval: memory is impossible because information cannot be recovered (from wherever it would be stored) and brought into conscious awareness.
3 Explain why comparing human memory to information-processing by a computer may misrepresent or oversimplify human memory.
Explanation may refer to:
• historical context of the analogy, e.g. following the increasing use and understanding of computers in the 1960s, psychologists who adopted the cognitive perspective to explaining mental processes and behaviour likened human memory to information-processing by a computer
• contemporary view of human memory, e.g. a much more sophisticated and an active, multi-faceted process comprising different memory systems for different types of information.
4 Extension activity – online question.
Learning Activity 6.3 (p. 241)1 Explain the meaning of the term model of memory.
model of memory: used to represent, describe and explain memory and its components and processes, typically as visual diagrams with boxes to represent components and arrows to represent the movement of information from one component to another.
2 Briefly describe the Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model of memory.
Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model: represents memory as consisting of three distinguishable components (i.e. stores) called the sensory register, the short-term store (or ‘temporary working memory’) and the long-term store, though which information is transferred and with each component representing a place where information is encoded, stored/retained and processed.
3
a Distinguish between structural features and control processes in memory, with reference to examples.
• Structural features: the permanent, built-in fixed features of memory that do not vary from one situation to another, e.g. the three different stores and their function, storage capacity and the duration of each component.
• Control processes: a memory process that is under the conscious ‘control’ of the individual (i.e. not a built-in fixed feature) and is selected and used by the individual depending on the situation/what the individual is doing or needs to do, e.g. attention, rehearsal and retrieval.
b Explain whether each of the following is a structural feature or control process:
i deciding whether retrieved information is correct: control process, i.e. involves conscious awareness/control
ii a memory trace: structural feature, i.e. a built-in physical feature representing a memory
iii encoding: may be either or a combination of both, e.g. structural feature— physiological processing of information into a form that can be used by memory; control process—a conscious process such as using elaborative rehearsal to enhance encoding and storage.
Learning Activity 6.4 (p. 245)Evaluation of research by Sperling (1960)
Evaluate Sperling’s (1960) experiment on iconic memory. You may present your evaluation as an annotated diagram (e.g., as a flowchart). You are required to:
1 Construct a research hypothesis that could have been tested by the procedures used in the experiment.
Example:
Participants who use a partial report system where high, medium and low tone is associated with reporting the top, medium and bottom row of letters respectively. will recall more letters from a briefly presented 3-by-4 visual array than participants who simply report as many letters as they can see after the array is removed without a tone used to cue response.
2 State the operationalised IV(s) and DV(s).
IV: partial report system where high, medium and low tone is used to cue reporting of the top, medium and bottom row of letters respectively.
Participants who used the partial report system repeated any row of letters with perfect accuracy.
(Note that, overall, participants using the partial report system were able to report about 75% of the letters, which was about double the number of letters recalled by participants who simply reported as many letters as they could see after the array was removed.)
5
a If the results were shown to be statistically significant with p ≤ 0.05, what would this mean?
Meaning of p ≤ 0.05: the difference in the results obtained for the two groups of participants is due to the IV and probably not due to chance factors; or, the difference in the results is a true difference that can be said to be due to the IV because the probability that the difference might be due to chance is at an acceptable level of 5 or fewer times in 100.
b Would the results be more meaningful with p ≤ 0.01? Explain your answer.
p ≤ 0.01: more meaningful because the probability that the difference might be due to chance is at a lower level of 1 or fewer times in 100.
6 Briefly state a conclusion based on the results obtained.
• The results support the hypothesis that participants who use a partial report system will recall more letters from a briefly presented 3-by-4 visual array than participants who simply report as many letters as they can see after the array was removed.
• It was found that participants who used a partial report system recalled significantly more letters from a briefly presented 3-by-4 visual array than did participants who simply reported as many letters as they could see after the array was removed. These results support the hypothesis.
• The results suggest that an image of all of the letters (that is, the whole pattern) had been momentarily stored in iconic memory after the pattern left the screen.
7 Comment on the extent to which the results can be generalised.
The study is commonly described as a classic or influential study that used valid procedures and was strictly controlled. Note that Sperling actually used five participants only, four of whom were university students and the other one of Sperling’s colleagues. All participants took part in 12 sessions (3 per week) involving hundreds of trials.
Students should consider providing information about potential imitations of the research sample and examine subsequent research studies that replicated Sperling’s experiments with other groups of participants and confirmed his findings.
Learning Activity 6.5 (p. 249)1 What is sensory memory?
Sensory memory is the entry point of memory, the memory system in which incoming sensory information is received and temporarily retained in its original sensory form for a very brief period of time.
2 Distinguish between the terms sensory memory and sensory register.
Distinction should refer to sensory memory as the construct used to generally refer to the store for all types of incoming sensory information and to sensory register as the construct used to refer to the store for each specific type of sensory information. In addition, each register has other distinguishable features, e.g. encoding process, storage duration.
3 Why can sensory memory be described as a memory system or sub-system rather than a perceptual system?
Explanation should refer to sensory memory having a storage/retention function for incoming sensory information and holding the information in its raw form, whereas a perceptual system receives and processes incoming sensory information to interpret the raw information in a meaningful way.
4
a Define iconic memory and echoic memory with reference to examples that help clarify the definitions.
• Iconic memory: visual sensory memory that stores visual images in their original sensory form for about 0.2–0.4 seconds.
• Echoic memory: auditory sensory memory that stores sounds in their original sensory form for about 3–4 seconds.
b Describe the main distinguishing characteristics of iconic and echoic memory, ensuring you refer to the type of sensory information received and duration of storage.
Sensory register Type of sensory information Duration of storage
Iconic memory visual 0.2–0.4 seconds
Echoic memory auditory 3–4 seconds
5 In what way might sensory memory have an adaptive function and assist us in adjusting to ongoing environmental change?
Example:
Sensory memory is adaptive in that it acts as a store where incoming sensory information can be filtered to keep out irrelevant and unimportant information, thereby preventing clutter or information overload. If we had to process all sensory information reaching us from the environment, this could result in inefficiencies in everyday functioning and we would find the world very confusing. By filtering out irrelevant information, we can attend to sensory information that may threaten our wellbeing. Thus sensory memory has an adaptive function enhancing our survival.
6 Is information in sensory memory subject to an encoding process? Explain your answer.
Information in sensory memory is believed to be held in its raw sensory form and not subject to an encoding process, unless attended to. Following attention, information must be converted into a transmissible and/or storable form.
7
a What is required for information to transfer from sensory memory to STM?
Explanation should refer to the crucial role of attention to specific sensory information resulting in transfer to the short-term memory (STM).
b What happens to information that is not transferred to STM?
Short-term memory is a memory system with limited storage capacity and duration, in which information is stored for a relatively short period of time, unless renewed in some way. (Now more commonly referred to as working memory or used interchangeably with working memory.)
2
a What is the storage capacity of STM?
seven items, plus or minus two (7 ± 2 items)
b Give an example of experimental research that could be conducted to test the capacity of STM.
Discuss classic experimental paradigms using digit span tests.
3
a What is the storage duration of STM?
about 18 seconds, if information is not rehearsed or used in some way (and rarely beyond 30 seconds)
b Give an example of experimental research that could be conducted to test the storage duration of STM.
An example is Margaret and Lloyd Peterson’s (1959) classic experiment using trigrams.
• Margaret and Lloyd Peterson (1959) gave trigrams to participants to memorise.
• Immediately after the trigrams' presentation, participants were given an interference task and were instructed to start counting backwards by threes from an arbitrary three-digit number, preventing rehearsal of the trigrams.
• Following a time interval that varied from three to 18 seconds, a light was used to signal that participants were required to recall the trigrams.
• Results showed that the longer the interval, the less likely a participant was to accurately recall the trigrams and that by 18 seconds after the trigrams' presentation, participants had forgotten almost all of them.
• When participants did not have to count backwards, their performance was much better, possibly because they were rehearsing the items to themselves.
4 In what ways is STM like sensory memory and unlike sensory memory?
Similarities include:
• limited storage duration
• lost if not attended to or used in some way.
Differences include:
• not consciously aware of any information in sensory memory but consciously aware of all information in STM
• no encoding in sensory memory but encoding in STM
• unlimited storage capacity of sensory memory but limited storage capacity of STM
• information is stored as an exact replica in sensory memory but as an encoding of it in STM (e.g. a word or number)
• information cannot be manipulated in sensory memory but can be manipulated in STM
• information cannot be retrieved from LTM and stored in sensory memory but can be retrieved from LTM and stored in STM.
5
a Distinguish between sensory memory and short-term memory with reference to conscious awareness.
sensory memory: not consciously awareness of information
short term memory: consciously awareness of information
b Explain why STM can be described as the ‘seat of consciousness’ but neither sensory memory nor LTM can be described in this way.
Explanation should refer to STM holding all the information of which we are consciously aware at any point in time and that this is the ‘place’ where all conscious perceiving, feeling, thinking, reasoning and so on take place. We are not consciously aware of any information in either sensory memory or LTM. STM also enables us to consciously combine and use information from sensory memory and LTM.
6
a Explain why STM is described as working memory.
Explanation should refer to STM being described as working memory because of its emphasis on the active part of memory where information we are consciously aware of is actively ‘worked on’ in a variety of ways.
b In your opinion, is short-term memory or working memory the more appropriate term to describe the memory system that receives information from both sensory memory and LTM? Explain your answer.
Discuss student answers and clarify conceptual understanding.
7 Describe two ways in which information is frequently lost from STM.
• displacement—when pushed out to make room for new information.
8 You walk from one room to another to pick something up, and you arrive forgetting why you went to the room. You realise that you were thinking about something else and this made you forget the reason for being in the room. Explain why this forgetting occurred in terms of STM capacity and duration.
Generally, while thinking about something else, new information has entered STM and displaced the information in STM about what needed to be picked up, or, while thinking about something else, the required information was lost or faded through disuse, lack of rehearsal etc.
STM capacity: given that STM has a limited capacity of 7 ±2 items of information, thinking must have comprised enough items (e.g. chunks of thoughts) to have exceeded the capacity or STM.
STM duration: given that STM has a storage duration of about 18 seconds, the reason for going to the room would not have been thought about or rehearsed for at least this long and was lost or faded from STM through disuse
Learning Activity 6.8 (p. 255)1 Describe two key roles of rehearsal in memory.
Roles include:
• maintenance of information in STM
• transfer of information from STM to LTM
• to aid LTM storage and retrieval
2
a Define the terms maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal.
• Maintenance rehearsal: continual repetition of information (vocally or sub-vocally) to retain for as long as required.
• Elaborative rehearsal: the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in memory or with other new information to aid in its storage and retrieval from LTM.
b Identify two important characteristics that distinguish these two forms of rehearsal.
Distinctions include:
• maintenance rehearsal involves simple repetition of information, whereas elaborative rehearsal is a more active and effortful process than maintenance rehearsal
• elaborative rehearsal involves focusing on the meaning of information, whereas maintenance rehearsal does not
• maintenance rehearsal does not assist encoding for LTM storage, whereas elaborative rehearsal does
• elaborative rehearsal is more effective for longer-lasting LTM storage a than maintenance rehearsal
• elaborative rehearsal is better assists LTM retrieval a than does maintenance rehearsal
3 Explain why elaborative rehearsal is more effective than maintenance rehearsal in enhancing retention of information in LTM.
Explanation should refer to
• Elaborative rehearsal helping to ensure that information is encoded well by linking new to-be-remembered information in a meaningful way with information that is already stored in LTM (to aid in its storage and retrieval from LTM).
• Maintenance rehearsal, on the other hand, does not create the same depth of meaning or excellence in encoding.
4 Describe three different ways to elaborate information.
Ways include:
• creating more associations: the more associations made between to-be-remembered information and the information already in LTM, the more likely the information will be retained, e.g. see Figure 6.21
• ‘flesh out’ to-be-remembered information, e.g. identify finer details and ensure that these are meaningful by associating one or more of the key details with information already in LTM
• self-referencing: personalise the information by relating new information to personal experiences or situations in some way, e.g. remembering the location of the frontal lobe by linking it to the personal experience of a forehead bump.
5 Apply your understanding of maintenance and elaborative rehearsal to respond to the following question a teacher was asked by a student: ‘Is it best to read my notes over and over again, or is there something else I could do to study for the exam?’ Give two reasons for your answer.
• Reading notes is a good starting point and can guide you in revision. During reading, you can recognise which concepts are remembered quickly, and which concepts you draw a blank on, or cannot explain to yourself satisfactorily.
• It is not enough to just read over concepts, you need to be able to apply the things that you have learned. Try creating links to your own experiences, to what you already know and keep adding details and relationships to concepts so that you may better explain concepts to yourself/a friend/ parent/teacher/revision partner.
Learning Activity 6.10 (p. 258)1
a Describe the serial position effect.
serial position effect: a research finding that free recall of items in a list tends to be best for items at the end, then the beginning, and worst for items around the middle.
b What are the primacy and recency effects? Why do they occur?
• primacy effect: the serial position effect of superior recall for items at the beginning of a list; due to first few items receiving more attention and rehearsal than other items and have been transferred to LTM.
• recency effect: the serial position effect of superior recall for items at the end of a list; due to last few items still in STM.
c Why are items in the middle of a serial list recalled least?
Explanation should refer to differences between STM and LTM, i.e. items around the middle of a list are presented too late to be adequately rehearsed and transferred into LTM and too early to be held in STM without rehearsal, so they are more likely to be forgotten (unless they are distinctive in some way).
2 What implications does the serial position effect have for:
a a prosecutor or barrister presenting their case to a jury?
The order of presentation of information to be recalled by the jury may be important. It may be better to present main points to the jury either at the beginning or at the end of their address rather than in the middle, due to superior recall associated with recency effect. The potential importance of a summation of key points on which to end the address (with no further information) should also be considered.
b three politicians before an election, each delivering a brief policy speech one after the other on television?
The order of presentation of policy speeches viewers are encouraged to remember may be important. It may be better to present last due to superior recall associated with recency effect. It is best to avoid being the second/middle speaker as serial position effect suggests that those policies will be recalled worst. The order of presentation of key points in individual speeches should also be considered, as should the importance of a summation of key points on which to end (with no further information).
c a potential employee deciding on their interview time when allowed to choose from an interview schedule?
In order to be remembered best, serial position effect suggests choosing last ahead of first, with around the middle the lowest priority. It may increase the likelihood of being remembered.
3 You have just begun casual work at the local supermarket. On your first day you are introduced to 15 other employees, one after the other. According to the serial position effect, which names are you most likely to remember and why?
Answers should demonstrate understanding of the serial position effect (e.g. latter names best, earlier names second best and names around the middle worst) and should explain with reference to relevant differences between STM and LTM (e.g. adequacy of rehearsal, STM storage duration, transfer to LTM).
Learning Activity 6.12 (p. 259)1 What is chunking?
Chunking is the grouping or ‘packing’ of separate bits of information into a larger single unit or ‘chunk’ of information.
Explanation should refer to organisation of 9 + discrete items into bigger, single chunks of information (so that capacity is increased despite actually remaining at the 7 ± 2 limit).
3 Suppose you must memorise the following long list of words: banana, rabbit, paper, mango, staple, apple, chicken, orange, pencil and elephant. You are allowed to recall the words in any order you wish. How could you use chunking to better ensure storage and recall?
Organise or cluster items into chunks based on conceptual relationship, e.g. fruit (banana, mango, apple, orange), stationery (staple, pencil, paper) and animals (rabbit, elephant, chicken). This results in three chunks to store and recall rather than 10 separate discrete items.
4 Suggest an example of how chunking can improve recall from LTM.
The text provides two examples: waiters chunking orders (no notepad) and interpreters chunking speaker’s words into translatable phrases or sentences
Learning Activity 6.14 (p. 264- 265)1 Define working memory without reference to Baddeley and Hitch’s model of working memory.
Discuss student definitions to clarify conceptual understanding based on the multi-store model and to link to Baddeley and Hitch’s model.
2 How does Baddeley and Hitch’s model describes (sic) the structure and function of working memory? Include reference to the episodic buffer.
Baddeley and Hitch's model: working memory is the working part of memory in everyday life that comprises three separate components or sub-systems called the phonological loop or verbal working memory (specialised for verbal information), the visuo-spatial sketchpad or visual working memory (specialised for visual and spatial information) and the episodic buffer (specialised for aiding different components of memory to interact with LTM). Thiese all ‘work’ for the central executive (manages the activities in the three sub-systems and controls the whole system). The components of working memory function relatively independently but also interact.
3 Construct a table in which you summarise the key features of the three components of working memory in Baddeley and Hitch’s model.
Component of working memory Key features
phonological loop
(or verbal working memory)
• encodes and stores auditory information
• active whenever we read, listen, speak or repeat words to ourself in order to remember them
• temporarily stores a limited amount of verbal speech-like information, such as the sounds of words (‘phonemes’), for a brief period of time
• the verbal information is held in a sound-based (‘phonological’) form
• storage duration is about 2 seconds worth of information unless maintenance rehearsal is used to retain
visuo-spatial sketchpad
(or visual working memory)
• temporarily stores a limited amount of visual information (e.g. anything seen or visualised) and spatial information (e.g. visual location of objects in space)
• mental workspace for storing and manipulating visual and spatial information
• limited storage capacity
• limited storage duration unless maintenance rehearsal is used to retain
episodic buffer • sub-system of working memory that enables the different components of working memory to interact with LTM.
• limited-capacity temporary storage system that holds about four chunks of information
• information can take any form but combines information in an almost filmic way from working memory and LTM, editing and reprocessing the information in new ways
• directly linked to LTM, but is separate and has its own storage space and processes for storing information
central executive • the working component of working memory, i.e. manages the activities of the other three and controls the activities of the whole working memory system
• controls attention, e.g. directs attention to current activities and filters essential from non-essential information
• involved in every activity during NWC
• integrates information from the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad, as well as information retrieved from LTM via the episodic buffer.
• coordinates the flow of information between the working memory system and LTM
4 Explain the relationship between the four components of Baddeley and Hitch’s model with reference to an example.
A student sits in class during a ‘chalk and talk’ teacher presentation about “Romeo and Juliet”. While they are listening to what their teacher is saying, the ‘speech’ information is temporarily stored in the phonological loop component of working memory. When they copy notes to their workbook, the visuo-spatial sketchpad component enables the student to temporarily store information about the location of the teacher notes (i.e. on the whiteboard) and of their workbook. The episodic buffer takes information from LTM and integrates it with the new material. Soperhaps an image of a couple you know who have had to shoulder family disproval of their relationship springs to mind as the teacher outlines the plot of the play to you. The central executive coordinates these activities and enables the student to ignore a classmate chatting behind them, while they are simultaneously accessing information stored in LTM to assign meaningfulness to the notes in order to understand what the teacher is saying and what is being written.
5 Suggest a reason to explain why the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and episodic buffer are often described as ‘slave systems’ to the central executive.
The central executive manages all three of these sub-systems—they ‘work’ for it and are directed by it, hence are ‘slaves’ to it.
6 Which of the four components of the working memory model is likely to directly transfer or retrieve each of the following types of information to or from LTM?
a words: phonological loop
b images: visuo-spatial sketchpad
c sounds: phonological loop
d auditory information other than sounds: episodic buffer.
7 Give an example that describes the interaction of the four working memory components different from that used in the text.
An example, involving making a banana cake for a parent (this has been used in LA 6.15 as well) may involve activities such as:
• phonological loop: identifying then sub-vocally rehearsing the ingredients, utensils and equipment required to make the cake
• visuo-spatial sketchpad: searching and locating ingredients etc. in cupboards, the fruit bowl and the fridge, remembering which shelves are used to store different equipment and visualising specific locations and a sequence for finding and relocating each item to a suitable place for cake-making
• episodic buffer: remembers that this is the parent’s favourite cake and always cheers them up on a blue day, remembers the recipe used previously; combines information from the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad to connect them with LTM and perform cake-making tasks
• central executive: controls and coordinates the activities of the other three components; controls attention required to undertake each specific task; organises an appropriate sequence for locating and using ingredients; reorganises activities of other components to locate the cake tin when it isn’t where it is supposed to be; facilitates estimation of the time required to bake and cool the cake.
8 Some psychologists include both STM and working memory as separate but interacting sub-systems in memory models, rather than using one term or the other or using both terms
interchangeably. They often refer to STM as a limited system involving basic functions such as storage and retrieval, and working memory as the active component of memory. Explain why the inclusion of STM and working memory as separate interacting systems may or may not be appropriate for describing the structure and function of human memory.
There is no single correct answer. The question is intended to promote reflection and discussion on conceptualisations/models of STM and working memory.
9 Various videos on YouTube show Baddeley explaining one or more features of his working memory model. View two or more of these videos, ensuring each covers a different feature of working memory.
a Summarise the key points made by Baddeley in two videos.
b Cite the video sources using the APA format (see chapter 1, pp. 81–83).
Answers will vary dependent on YouTube sources.
Learning Activity 6.15 (p. 265)Create a diagram that identifies Baddeley’s four components of working memory and shows the role(s) of each component and how the components interact. In your presentation, ensure that you
• include appropriate visual representations of all four components and LTM
• use arrows to connect the components and LTM
• label the arrows using key words to identify relationships and processes
• base the diagram on an example of a question or task in the central executive (but not the question used in the text).
WORKING MEMORY’S STRUCTURE: Making a banana cake for a parent.
Applies the sequence of combining the ingredients after everything is located, how long it will need to cook and cool for, locating the cake tin when it isn’t where it is supposed to be, hides the cake.
Phonological loop
Speech-like thoughts in our head
mentally listing all the ingredients required for the cake, the utensils and equipment
Episodicbuffer
Plays events like a film
remembering that this is your parent’s favourite cakeremembering the recipe
working out how to protect the cake from hungry siblings so that it lasts until your parent’s arrival
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Visual and spatial resource
searching cupboards, fruit bowl and the fridge for the ingredientsremembering which shelves are used to store different equipment
Long-term memory
Semantic LTM: recipes—cake, banana cake; ingredients—flour, sugar, butter, bananas, egg; utensils—masher, wooden spoon, bowls and scraper, knowledge of where things are kept.
Episodic LTM: knowledge that cake never lasts in the house, knowledge of successful hiding spots in house, remembering the smile on your parent’s face last time they ate this cake.
Procedural LTM: cooking skills related to baking, sifting, mixing, mashing, pouring.
Visual memorye.g. flour, sugar; third shelf in the cupboard
Verbal memory e.g. 1 egg or two?;where’s the tin?; preheat the oven.
Learning Activity 6.16 (p. 267)1 According to Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing framework, what determines how well
information is stored in LTM?
Level/depth of process determines LTM storage durability—deeper levels use greater meaning/elaborative encoding, thereby enhancing storage and retrieval
2 Explain the meaning of the levels of processing concept.
The level or ‘depth’ at which we process information during learning, determines how well it is stored in LTM. The more meaning is attached to information that is to be remembered, the deeper the processing and therefore the more effective its encoding and storage. Generally, processing of meaning equals deep processing and a failure to process meaning equals shallow processing.
3 What type of information is more likely to be processed at a shallow level? At a deep level?
• Shallow level: acoustic information (e.g. ‘Blue rhymes with shoe’) or visual information (e.g. ‘This ice-cream container is blue.’).
• Deep level: semantic information, e.g. using self-referencing such as ‘My brother used to pretend he was an astronaut and wore a blue ice-cream container on his head as a helmet.’
4 Is elaborative rehearsal different from elaborative encoding? Explain your answer.
Yes. Elaborative rehearsal involves conscious manipulation of information to assist elaborative encoding and thereby aid LTM storage and retrieval.
5 In what way can Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing framework provide support for memory as a multi-store rather than a unitary system?
Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing framework does not provide support for memory as a multi-store system. Their 1972 journal article proposing the levels of processing framework set out to directly challenge the multi-store model of human memory.
Note that contrary to the psychology study design’s representation of their work, Craik and Lockhart intentionally avoided calling their approach a model or theory. Instead, they described it as ‘a conceptual framework … within which memory research might proceed’.
6 What is a common criticism of Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing framework?
There are no generally accepted means of measuring different levels of processing in valid and reliable ways.
Learning Activity 6.17 (p. 267)Using elaborative rehearsal for deep processing
Choose two of the concepts below and draw a diagram to show how these concepts could be processed deeply using elaborative rehearsal so that they are more likely to be retained in LTM. Figure 6.19 may be used as a model.
Example:Variation of clouds – sky gazing I see different shapes and colours of clouds drifting & changing.
Example:
Independent Candidate – not relying or reporting to a political party
Merge both ideas…
A researcher introduces an independent
variable to see if and how its
presence will change what is being studied.
What does independent
variable mean?
Independent means by itself – so not relying on
anything?
It isn’t affected by anything. It won’t
change, but it might cause a change.
Variable means a changing factor –
so what factor are we changing? The
researcher will need something to
measure the change against.
Changing
factors in psychology are
shown by studying changing
behaviour.
Mix the two to define…
Independent Variable a treatment to which
participants are exposed participants to
see how it will effect variable(s) of interest.
So it is outside the study and then
introduced to the study? Introduced to
see if it causes a change in a thought, feeling or behaviour
that can be measured.
Chapter 6: Models for explaining human memory
• procedural memory is responsible for information relating to actions and skills we have learned (knowing how) and
• declarative memory, which is responsible for our knowledge relating to facts and events, information that can be explained, stated or declared (knowing that).
Declarative memory is, in turn, made up of two separate memories:
• episodic memory, which relates to personal or autobiographical events, thoughts and feeling and
• semantic memory which consists of our knowledge base relating to facts about the world.
3 Why are procedural memories described as non-declarative memories?
Because they cannot be explained easily without being demonstrated through action.
4 List three key differences between episodic memories and semantic memories.
Differences can include:
- How time is referenced:
o episodic memories are tagged in terms of personal time (When I was 7, I rode my bike without training wheels)
o whereas semantic memories are linked to impersonal time (in 1066, William the Conqueror defeated King Harold….)
- How place is referenced:
o episodic memories are tagged in terms of personal places (Remember when we climbed the Eifel Tower in the rain?)
o whereas semantic memories are linked to impersonal place (Paris is the capital of France)
- How knowledge is expressed
o episodic memories are tagged in terms of personal information (I am allergic to bee stings and carry an epi pen)
o whereas semantic memories are linked to factual information (Allergens, such a stings from bees, in severe cases may result in anaphylactic shock causing cessation of breath and heart beat)
5 Distinguish between the implicit and explicit memory processes with reference to an example.
implicit memory: memory without awareness/occurs when information is recalled without conscious or intentional retrieval but the memory can be expressed through performance (i.e. actions of behavior) e.g. procedural memories involving automatic processing such as knowing how to kick an Australian Rules football using a drop punt, knowing how to braid hair.
explicit memory: memory with awareness/occurs when information can be consciously or intentionally retrieved and stated, e.g. declarative memories such as the memory of an incident at the deb ball or that Thailand is a South East Asian country.
Note: implicit and explicit memory are processes, not memory types.
a Why is information in LTM often described as ‘inactive’ information?
Explanation should refer to the information in LTM being ‘inactive’ (or information that cannot be manipulated) because we are not consciously aware of LTM information unless it is retrieved to STM or working memory.
b Which other memory system could also be described as storing inactive information? Why?
The other memory system that can be described as storing inactive information is the sensory memory, because we are not consciously aware of any information in the sensory memory unless we direct attention to it so that it is transferred to STM or working memory (where we become aware of it).
8 Complete the table below to summarise the key features of the different LTM types and processes.
Long-term Memory Features Example
Procedural (implicit) memory • LTM of previously learned skills and actions
• information can often not be stated
• knowing ‘how’
Tying up shoe laces
Declarative (explicit) memory
semantic memory
episodic memory
• LTM of specific facts and events, most of which can be stated
• two sub-types
• facts and knowledge about the world
• knowing ‘that’
episodic – remembering buying rainbow shoes laces for your sister’s birthday.
semantic – knowing that some shoe types have laces
Learning Activity 6.20 (p. 273)For each of the following activites, name the most likely LTM type and whether explicit memory is involved.
a describing your first day in Year 7 episodic (personal experience); explicit
b registering your VTAC pin semantic (reading and following a series of instructions); explicit
c slam-dunking a basketball procedural (how to do it); implicit
d recalling the names of Santa’s reindeer semantic (factual information); explicit
e solving a crossword puzzle semantic (factual information); explicit
f texting a phone message procedural (how to do it, incl. knowing how to locate address in Contacts); implicit
g placing your lunch order in a fish and chip shop
procedural (knowing the ordering procedure through prior experience and performing the action) - explicit; semantic (recalling and stating order details) - implicit
h taking a lunch order in a fish and chip shop semantic (recalling how much is ordered, what is sold, prices etc); implicit
i describing the plot of a novel semantic (factual information); implicit
j playing hide and seek semantic (rules/factual information) - implicit; procedural, (how play can be demonstrated through performance without necessarily being able to state all the rules) - explicit
k calculating a mean score semantic (factual information); implicit
l giving directions to the principal’s office semantic (factual information); implicit
m writing up a prac report semantic (reporting conventions/factual information); implicit
n writing a computer program semantic (using specific programming language/factual information); implicit
o answering a Trivial Pursuit question semantic (factual information); implicit
p playing Mario Bros. video game procedural, i.e. involves how game is played how to operate controls; explicit
q feeling anxious at the sight of a mouse because of a traumatic previous encounter with a mouse.
episodic (personal experience); explicit (but a conditioned response can be argued as implicit)
Learning Activity 6.22 (p. 276)1 Why is organisation necessary in LTM?
Explanation should refer to the vast amount of information stored in LTM and the need for some form of organisation to assist storage and retrieval.
2 According to semantic network theory:
a What are two key features of how information is organised and stored in LTM?
Explanation should refer to systematic organisation (hierarchically structured) in the form of overlapping networks (grids) of concepts that are interconnected and interrelated by meaningful links.
b How does retrieval of information from LTM occur?
Searching a particular ‘region’ of memory, most likely to store the required information, and then tracing associations for links among memories (concepts) in that region rather than randomly searching the vast information stores in LTM.
c Is spreading activation possible in the STM (or working memory)? Explain your answer.
No. Spreading activation involves semantically organised information in storage. In STM or working memory, information is usually stored in terms of the physical qualities of the experience.
Note that in STM required information is actually present (is in conscious awareness) and is available for selection (retrieval) and use.
3 Use your answers to question 2 to write a definition of semantic network theory.
Definitions should incorporate the spreading activation concept. Discuss student definitions to clarify conceptual understanding.
4 Draw a small segment of a possible semantic network for the concept of flower or book.
Discuss student examples to clarify conceptual understanding.
like autobiographical information and usually including time, place and state details
relatively permanent
vast as above as above as above declarative LTM sub-type
explicit memory
2 Create a flow chart to show the flow of a specific example of incoming sensory information as it moves through a model of memory that integrates the Atkinson–Shiffrin model, the Baddeley (2000) model and the Craik and Lockhart framework. The flow chart should include a representation of maintenance and elaborative rehearsal and the information must be shown as being both stored and then retrieved from LTM for use.
The focus should be on accurately, clearly and succinctly summarising and representing key memory concepts and processes.
Learning Activity 6.24 (p. 277)Answers on page 755.
