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1 Higher Geography Physical Environments Lithosphere
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Higher Geography
Physical Environments
Lithosphere
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Glaciated Landscapes
Glacial History
About every 200 million years the Earth experiences a major period of ice activity - an ice age.
The most recent of these started about 2 million years ago and finished about 10,000 years ago.
An ice age consists of glacials (cold periods ) separated by interglacials (warmer periods).
About 30% of the world was covered by glacial ice when the last ice age was at its maximum.
The UK was covered by ice between 1-3km thick as far south as a line from London to Bristol.
Causes of Glaciation
There are many theories as to the cause of glaciations:
1. Milankovitch cycle – changes in incoming solar radiation
due to changes in orbit, tilt and position in space.
2. Variations in sunspot activity
3. Changes in the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
4. Changes in the movement of the ocean currents
5. Periods of extreme volcanic activity which put huge
amounts of ash into the atmosphere
Formation of Glaciers
During the onset of a glaciation, more and more precipitation falls as snow
In addition, less and less snow melts each summer so that successive layers of snow gradually
build up until there is a year-round snow cover in more and more places.
As snow becomes more compacted, the air is driven out and density increases.
Eventually, this process forms neve or firn (compacted snow).
After 20-40 years the firn will turn into glacial ice which contains little air
Glacial ice can begin to flow downhill under the influence of gravity as a glacier
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Cross Profile of a Glacier
Glaciers, like rivers, behave as a system with inputs, outputs, stores and transfers.
The main input for glaciers is falling snow but avalanches can add considerable volumes of ice and
snow.
The glacier itself is the store in the form of frozen water.
The outputs include evaporation, calving (where ice breaks off into water) and melting.
The upper part of a glacier where inputs exceed outputs is called the zone of accumulation.
The lower part of a glacier where outputs exceed inputs is called the zone of ablation.
In between the two is the line of equilibrium which is the same as the snow line.
Processes
Ice is capable of transporting huge quantities of rock. Some rocks fall on to the surface of the ice from the
valley sides and are transported as supraglacial debris.
Some material finds its way into the ice via crevasses to be transported as englacial debris.
Where there is basal sliding, debris may also be picked up below the ice and be transported as subglacial
debris.
Glaciers that move relatively quickly and that transport large amounts of debris at the base, are capable of
powerful physical erosion which can drastically alter the pre-glacial landscape.
Types of Glacial Erosion
Exam tip: these should be described and explained in detail when asked about the formation of erosional
features.
1. Abrasion
If debris is incorporated into the sides and base of the ice, abrasion becomes active, sandpapering the rock
surfaces to produce smooth, gently sloping landforms.
Striations, scratches or grooves are found on bare rock surfaces and are useful to indicate direction of
glacier movement.
2. Plucking
Plucking occurs when rocks and stones become frozen to the base or sides of the glacier and are plucked
from the ground or rock face as the glacier moves.
Plucking produces jagged slopes to landforms.
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Due to cold temperatures, weathering also has an impact on glaciated landscapes. The main type of
weathering found in these locations is freeze-thaw action.
Freeze-thaw Action
Water (e.g. from rainfall or melting snow and ice) becomes trapped in a crack or joint in the rock
If the air temperature drops below freezing, the water will freeze and expand by 9-10% putting
pressure on the rock.
The ice will melt when the temperature rises above freezing.
If this process happens repeatedly, the rock will weaken and eventually shatter into angular
fragments.
The fragments may then be deposited as scree at the foot of a slope.
Rates of Erosion
Rates of erosion will vary considerably but are greatest where:
temperatures fluctuate around freezing point
where rocks are more jointed and faulted providing weaknesses
where slopes are slightly steeper leading to more rapid glacier movement (very steep slopes can
lead to extended flow, a thinning of the ice and reduced erosive power
two or more glaciers meet and combine to give an increased depth of ice
ice moves by rotational flow in corrie glaciers leading to over-deepening of the hollow
Features of Glacial Erosion
Corries, Cirques or Cwms
Cirques (France), corries (Scotland) or cwms (Wales)
are glacial hollows with a very steep backwall and a
basin that may contain a lochan or tarn when the
glacier retreats and melts.
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Formation of a Corrie
Snow accumulates in mountain hollows when more snow falls in winter than melts in the summer.
North/north-east facing slopes are more shaded so snow lies longer and builds up. The accumulated snow
compresses into neve/firn and eventually glacial ice. Plucking (when ice freezes on to bedrock, pulling
loose rocks away) makes the backwall steeper. Abrasion (when the angular rock embedded in the ice
grinds the hollow) makes the hollow deeper.
Freeze thaw action continues to steepen the sides of the hollow when water in cracks in the rock turns to
ice when temperatures drop below freezing; expansion and contraction weakens the rock until fragments
break off. Rotational sliding further deepens the central part of the hollow floor as gravity causes the ice to
move. Friction causes the ice to slow down at the front edge of the corrie, allowing a rock lip to form, which
traps water as ice melts, leaving a lochan or tarn. During spring/summer, thawing takes place, allowing
water to penetrate cracks in the rocks at the base of the hollow. The broken fragments build up over time
and are removed by meltwater, further enlarging the hollow. Frost shattering on the backwall supplies
further abrasion material as loose scree falls down the bergschrund. This is a large crevasse separating
moving ice from the ice still attached to the backwall.
Landforms caused by Corries
Where a series of corries form around a mountain peak, they create other unique landforms.
Two corries eroding into the mountain eventually leave a narrow, knife-edged ridge or arête between them.
Striding Edge in the Lake District (UK) provides a classic example.
Where three or more corries erode backwards around a mountain, they create a characteristic triangular
pyramidal peak or horn.
One of the most spectacular examples is the Matterhorn.
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Identifying Corries & Associated Landforms on an OS Map
Glacial Troughs & Associated Landforms
In mountain environments, valley glaciers severely modify former river valleys to produce very deep, steep-
sided, flat-floored U-shaped valleys or glacial troughs.
Contour lines form
a horseshoe
shape. Contours
close together on
steep back wall
and sides.
Water in rock
basin = lochan /
tarn
Bare rock in-
between 2 corries
= arete
Peak found
between 3 or
more corries =
pyramidal peak
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Glacial Trough
During glaciation, glaciers follow the paths of existing V-shaped valleys. Plucking (when ice freezes on to
bedrock, pulling loose rocks away) wears away the valley sides making them steeper and abrasion (when
the angular rock embedded in the ice grinds the rock beneath) deepens and widens the valley. As glaciers
‘flow’ downhill, they erode the ends off the interlocking spurs found previous to glaciation forming truncated
spurs.
Tributary valleys flowing into the main valley will also be glaciated, but as the glaciers in these valleys are
much smaller, the erosive power is less. This results in the formation of hanging valleys - valleys that are
not eroded as deeply and so are post-glaciation are left ‘hanging’ above the main glacial trough.
Sections of the valley floor can be over-deepened due to differential erosion, rotational sliding or a
confluence of glaciers increasing erosive power. These sections can be filled with meltwater to form a
ribbon lake.
After glaciation, a steep sided glacial trough is left, rivers may return to the valley forming misfit streams.
Freeze thaw action (water in cracks in the rock turns to ice when temperatures drop below freezing;
expansion and contraction weakens the rock until fragments break off) continues on the valley sides
loosening rock and forming scree slopes.
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Identifying Glacial Troughs & Associated Landforms on an OS Map
Depositional Landforms
Material eroded and subsequently transported by glacial ice may be deposited as unsorted till as the ice
melts or it may be further transported by glacial meltwater and then deposited as sorted fluvioglacial
material.
Till deposits, sometimes referred to as boulder clay, are a mixture of unsorted sand, clay and rock
particles. The rock fragments are sub-angular in shape.
The majority of this material has been transported as supraglacial debris and is dropped in situ at the
glacier snout or more generally at the ends of ice ages when glaciers disappear.
Some of the till deposits form distinctive landforms but much of it is simply deposited as a layer which
masks the former pre-glacial landscape.
Sometimes glaciers pick up and transport rocks
with distinctive geological characteristics. Once
deposited, these erratics can be used to trace
back the route followed by the glacier.
The photo shows a sandstone Norber Erratic in
Yorkshire (UK) lying on top of limestone which has
been chemically eroded by acidic rainwater in the
13,000 years since the boulder was deposited.
River running
through
valley= misfit
stream
Small valley
flowing into
main trough =
hanging valley
Lake in base
of valley =
ribbon lake
Bare rock on
steep valley
side =
truncated
spur
Flat valley
floor and
steep sides =
U shaped
valley
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Terminal Moraine Model Answer
Moraine is material transported by a glacier. As a glacier moves downstream it bulldozes moraine in front of
it. As the glacier continues to move forward, material is constantly being added to the terminal moraine.
When the glacier reaches lower altitudes (or the temperature rises) the ice melts and deposits the moraine
at its snout. Terminal moraine marks the furthest point reached by the glacier. It forms a jumbled mass of
unsorted material that stretches across the valley floor. Once the ice has retreated, the terminal moraine
can often form a natural dam creating a ribbon lake.
Other Depositional Features
Drumlins are elongated hills of glacial deposits. They can be 1 km long and 500 metres wide, often
occurring in groups. A group of drumlins is called a drumlin swarm, eg the West End of Glasgow. These
would have been part of the debris that was carried along and then accumulated under the glacier. The
long axis of the drumlin indicates the direction in which the glacier was moving. The drumlin would have
been deposited when the glacier became overloaded with sediment. However glaciologists still disagree as
to exactly how they were formed.
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Eskers are long, winding ridges of layered sand
and gravel similar to railway embankments. They
are formed inside the ice, in tunnels in which
meltwater streams flowed.
Outwash plains are areas of sorted sand and gravel
deposited at the mouth of meltwater rivers which were
often braided. Kettle holes may be found if a block of
'dead ice' is partially buried by fluvio-glacial deposits.
When the ice melts a 'hole' is left which may fill with
water to form a kettle-hole lake.
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Coastal Landscapes
The coastline is the most varied and rapidly changing of all landforms. No part of the coast is stable - it is a
series of dynamic landscapes which is retreating, due to erosion, or advancing as a result of deposition.
Waves
Waves are created by the transfer of energy from the wind blowing across the surface of the sea.
The size and strength of individual waves depends on:
the velocity or speed of the wind
the period of time that the wind has been blowing
the maximum distance over the sea that the wind can blow (the fetch)
Local or sea waves travel only short distances and are created by local winds. Swell waves travel huge
distances and are created by large storms in the middle of the oceans.
Constructive and Destructive Waves
The movement of waves toward the shore is known as the swash and the movement of waves back to the
sea is called the backwash.
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Constructive waves
Are created in calm weather and are less powerful than destructive waves
Break on the shore and deposit material, building up beaches
Have a swash that is stronger than the backwash
Have a long wavelength, and are low in height
Destructive Waves
Destructive waves are created in storm conditions
Are created from big, strong waves when the wind is powerful and has been blowing for a long time
Occur when wave energy is high and the wave has travelled over a long fetch
Tend to erode the coast
Have a stronger backwash than swash
Have a short wave length and are high and steep
Types of Coastal Erosion
Hydraulic action: Air may become trapped in joints and cracks on a cliff face. When a wave
breaks, the trapped air is compressed which weakens the cliff and causes erosion
Abrasion: Bits of rock and sand in waves grind down cliff surfaces like sandpaper
Attrition: Waves smash rocks and pebbles on the shore into each other, and they break and
become smoother
Solution: Acids contained in sea water will dissolve some types of rock such as chalk or limestone
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Features of Coastal Erosion
1. Headlands and Bays
Headlands are formed when the sea attacks a section of coast with alternating bands of hard and soft rock.
The bands of soft rock, such as sand and clay, erode more quickly than those of more resistant rock, such
as chalk. This leaves a section of land jutting out into the sea called a headland. The areas where the soft
rock has eroded away, next to the headland, are called bays.
Geology is the study of the types of rocks that make up the Earth's crust. Coastlines where the geology
alternates between strata (or bands) of hard rock and soft rock are called discordant coastlines. A
concordant coastline has the same type of rock along its length. Concordant coastlines tend to have fewer
bays and headlands.
2. Cliffs
One of the most common features of a coastline is a cliff. Cliffs are shaped through a combination of
erosion and weathering - the breakdown of rocks caused by weather conditions.
Soft rock, eg sand and clay, erodes easily to create gently sloping cliffs. Hard rock, eg chalk, is more
resistant and erodes slowly to create steep cliffs.
The process of cliff erosion
1. Weather weakens the top of the cliff through processes such as freeze thaw action
2. The sea attacks the base of the cliff forming a wave-cut notch through the processes of hydraulic
action and abrasion
3. The notch increases in size causing the cliff above to collapse
4. The backwash carries the rubble towards the sea forming a wave-cut platform
5. The process repeats and the cliff continues to retreat
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3. Caves, Arches, Stacks and Stumps
Caves are most likely to occur where the coastline consists of hard rock and is attacked by prolonged wave
attack along a line of weakness such as a joint or fault. The waves attack the weakness by abrasion (bits of
rock and sand in waves grind down cliff surfaces like sandpaper), hydraulic action (air may become trapped
in joints and cracks on a cliff face, when a wave breaks, the trapped air is compressed which weakens the
cliff and causes erosion) or solution (acids contained in sea water will dissolve some types of rock) forming
a sea cave. Erosion on the roof of the cave can cause a vertical shaft to form connecting the cave to the
top of the cliff via a blowhole. Over time, horizontal erosion of the cave may cut through the headland to
form a natural arch. Continued erosion of the foot of the arch will form wave cut notches and this may
eventually cause the roof to collapse leaving a stack, isolated from the cliff. Waves continue to erode the
base of a stack, over time the stack will collapse leaving a stump.
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Coastal Deposition
Beaches
Deposition along a coast occurs in areas of low-energy waves where the swash is stronger than the
backwash. Beaches tend to be composed of either sand or shingle but sometimes both occur at different
places along the beach profile. Shingle beaches tend to be steeper than sandy beaches. At the upper end
of the beach, storm ridges occur. As these are often beyond the reach of waves except in the highest tides,
they may become colonised by salt-tolerant plants. Lower down the beach, there are ridges or berms which
correspond to successively lower tides. The profile of a beach is constantly changing but will show the
greatest contrast between spring and neap tides and between summer and winter seasons.
Longshore Drift
The transport of sand and pebbles along the coast is called longshore drift.
The prevailing wind (the direction the wind usually blows from) causes waves to approach the coast at an
angle. The swash carries the sand and pebbles up the beach at the same angle (usually 45º). The
backwash, however carries the material
back down the beach at right angles (90°) as
this is the steepest gradient.
if a pebble was placed in the water it would
be carried along the coastline in a zig-zag
motion and would eventually be deposited
when the waves lose energy.
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Features of Deposition
Spits
A spit is a long, narrow ridge of sand or shingle. One end of the spit is attached to the land and the other
end extends out into the sea.
The process of longshore drift carries material along the beach. When the coastline changes direction or
where there is a river estuary material is deposited. In this way, a ridge of deposited material gradually
builds up in the deeper water.
If the winds sometimes blow from a different direction, this can cause material to be moved in a different
direction and the spit develops a ‘hooked’ or curved end. Behind the spit, in the calm water, mud is
deposited and a salt marsh will develop. On the spit itself, sand can be piled up by the wind to form sand
dunes.
Sand Bars and Tombolos
Sand bars are formed when a spit extends across a bay and reaches the headland. The water trapped
behind a sand bar is called a lagoon. Spits can also extend across open water to join an island - this is
called a tombolo.
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Rural Land Use Conflicts
National Parks
A National Park is an area of beautiful and
relatively wild country in which, for the
nation’s benefit:
The landscape beauty is strictly
conserved
There is access and facilities for open
air activities
Wildlife and buildings are suitably
protected
Established farming is effectively
maintained
There are 13 in England and Wales, dating
from 1949 and, more recently, 2 in Scotland:
Loch Lomond and the Trossachs (2001) and
the Cairngorms (2003).
Key Facts
The Aims of National Parks
1. To conserve and enhance the natural
beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage
of the area
2. To provide facilities for recreation
National Parks are located:
1. In areas of great natural beauty
2. Where there is a great variety of scenery
3. Not too remote from conurbations (cities surrounded by clusters of towns)
4. In areas under great pressure from tourists or developments
Advantages
1. The National Parks Authority has power to refuse planning permission to any development not in
harmony with the area
2. The Authority can place conditions on new buildings (e.g. type of materials used, usually favouring
local stone)
3. They use wardens to look after the countryside
4. They pay farmers to maintain stiles, walls and footpaths (Environmentally Sensitive Area grants)
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Disadvantages
1. They do not own land and have no power over the Forestry Commission, Ministry of Defence or
local services
2. Once designated a National Park, the area becomes even more attractive to tourists and second
home owners, and so conflicts increase
3. They have no powers to close down already existing buildings and developments such as quarries
and HEP schemes which are not in harmony with the area
Differences in Ownership of Land in the National Parks
The individual National Park authorities, who manage the national parks, own only a small percentage of the land in
them.
Within each park there are many people involved in land ownership such as farmers, estate owners, water
authorities, the Forestry Commission, National Trust, Ministry of Defence and county councils.
The pattern of land ownership can make management difficult for the National Park Authorities who have, for
example, to make special arrangements with landowners to allow visitor access.
Land
Ownership
Brecon
Beacons Dartmoor Exmoor
Lake
District
Northum-
berland
North
York
Moors
Peak
District
Pembroke-
shire Coast Snowdonia
Yorkshire
Dales
Private 69.6% 57.3% 79.1% 58.9% 56.4% 79.9% 72.3% 85.7% 69.9% 96.2%
Forestry
Commission 8.0% 1.8% 1.8% 5.9% 18.9% 16.6% 0.5% 1.3% 15.8% 0.0%
Ministry
of Defence 0.1% 14.0% 0.0% 0.2% 22.6% 0.5% 0.3% 4.0% 0.0% 0.3%
Water
Companies 4.0% 3.8% 0.6% 6.9% 1.2% 0.1% 13.0% 0.0% 0.9% 0.3%
National
Trust 3.5% 3.7% 10.1% 24.2% 0.7% 1.2% 9.6% 4.2% 8.9% 2.5%
National
Park
Authority
13.0% 1.4% 4.4% 3.9% 0.2% 0.6% 4.2% 2.3% 1.2% 0.1%
Local farmers
Farmers wish to farm without the fear of gates being left open, crops trampled
and livestock worried by dogs. Farmers remove hedges and dry-stone walls,
drain marshes and bogs and overgraze on pasture in an attempt to increase
production. This presents the NPA with problems. (16.6% owned by farmers in
North York Moors).
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Forestry commission
Plant single species of conifers in regimented rows- ‘green blankets
thrown over the landscape’ and in doing so restrict access to previously
open fells and dales.
The Ministry of Defence
Is responsible for military training, and attempts to restrict this by
the NPA have failed. During this the public is excluded for long
periods. Live ammunition may be used, (22.6% Northumberland)
Water Authorities
Have dammed reservoirs flooding farmland and wildlife habitat. The NPA has had little effect in reducing this due to
huge demand for water for Sellafield Nuclear Power Station and urban areas such as Manchester, Lake District
(6.8%).
Quarries
These are privately owned and are a source of conflict due to noise,
dust and heavy road haulage, as well as scarring the landscape. NPA’s
measures reduce disturbances, limit the time scale and insist on
restoration of the quarry site before planning permission is granted,
and have made a difference without sacrificing jobs.
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The Lake District: An Upland Case Study
Land Uses Found in the Lake District
1. Farming
Mainly hill sheep farming due to the physical
difficulties e.g. relief, climate. Beef cattle graze in the
U-shaped valley floors, which are too marshy for
crop growing.
2. Forestry
11% of the Park is forested providing wood for
furniture, building materials and Christmas trees and the area is increasing because:
The land is marginal (hilly) land, and so there is less competition from
other land uses
Forestry reduces soil erosion on steep slopes and around lakes
Forestry slows rapid run-off and reduces flooding
3. Quarrying
Slate: only 2 remain open, but old slate quarries scar the landscape.
Granite: large quarry at Shap
4. Water Supply
The lakes and reservoirs provide water for Manchester, and Sellafield nuclear
power station. There are many reservoirs due to the following factors:
reliable, heavy rainfall
impermeable rocks reduce loss by infiltration
natural reservoirs in the lakes
near to large conurbations of Greater Manchester
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5. Tourism & Recreation
The Lake District is the second most popular National Park, with 14.8 million visitors per year. People visit
due to:
(a) Natural attractions
the highest mountains in England (Scafell Pike 978m, Helvellyn
950m)
some of the most beautiful scenery in the country
upland glacial features e.g.12 of the largest lakes in England,
waterfalls, U-shaped valleys
the contrast with city life; it is quiet and much less polluted
(b) Human attractions
(c) Recreational activities
hill walking and rock climbing e.g. Langdale and Hellvellyn
sailing on Windermere
mountain bike and orienteering courses
forest walks, nature and picnic sites
Benefits of Tourism in the Lake District
50% of local jobs are in tourism
Income to be made from selling to tourists (craft shops) or catering- tea rooms, farm teas, sale of
farm produce
Income from providing tourist accommodation (B&B, holiday cottages, camp or caravan sites)
Increased job prospects (permanent and part-time) in tourist industry which might reduce rural
depopulation
General improvement to local economy- more money in circulation - multiplier effect for local
shopkeepers/ tradesmen
Amenities / facilities developed to encourage tourism able to be used by local population
throughout the year (swimming pools, cinemas)
Sale of land / property to developers.
M6 allows easy access from Liverpool, Manchester,
Leeds and Scotland providing an influx of visitors -
90% using cars
A number of attractive villages such as Keswick and
Ambleside
Historical attractions:
o Beatrix Potter’s farmhouse
o Dove Cottage
o Muncaster Castle
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Land Use Conflicts and Management in the Lake District
Conflict 1: Tourism and Local People
Problem Solution Effectiveness
Traffic Congestion
occurs on narrow, rural
roads and in carparks
especially during holiday
periods
87% of visitors arrive by car
a particular problem in
honeypots such as Keswick
and Grasmere
increases air and noise
pollution
can spoil the attraction of
many local villages
elderly residents may have
difficulties crossing the
road
local people will struggle to
park and drive to work
“Go Lakes Travel” programme
£6.9M initiative
aims to encourage
more sustainable types
of travel
“Cross Lakes Experience”
Park and ride scheme
One ticket allows
transport on ferries and
busses around
Bowness, Hawkshead,
Coniston and Grizedale
“Fresh Air is Free”
Encourages car free
visits by providing free
itineraries using public
transport/bikes/walking
routes
Widen trunk roads e.g. A66
One way systems and traffic
lights in honeypots e.g. Keswick
It is anticipated the Programme
will save 11,000 tonnes CO2 in
2015
Generally speaking, despite the
introduction of these measures,
an overwhelming majority of
visitors will continue to arrive by
car and honeypots such as
Ambleside, Grasmere and
Windermere will continue to be
popular.
Even with the new measures it
will be difficult to encourage
people to use other forms of
transport over the convenience of
the car.
Second / Holiday Homes
House prices are
significantly higher than
the national average while
rural wages are
significantly lower
2006-2011 figures show
that there are 7,374
second homes in Cumbria
Local people may have to
move away from the area
(rural depopulation)
o Closure of local
services e.g.
Primary Schools
Build affordable housing
Increase the availability of ‘local
occupancy’ housing
o Properties sold to
people who work
locally or have lived
locally for 3 years or
more
As the Lake District is a
National Park it can be
very difficult to obtain
planning permission for
new housing
developments
Materials used and
building design have to ‘fit
in’ with the landscape
In 2012-2013 the LDNPA
granted permission for
172 new homes for local
people
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Conflict 2: Farmers and Tourists
Problem Solution Effectiveness
Footpath Erosion
10 million people use
footpaths in the Lake
District
This creates scars in the
landscape and a loss of
grazing land for farmers
“Fix the Fells” programme
Aims to resurface the worst
affected paths e.g. at
Gowbarrow Fell
Paths are resurfaced with
hard wearing materials such
as local stone which ‘fits in’
with the landscape
Steep, incised paths can be
fitted with steps
Resurfacing with stone is effective
but requires skilled craftsmen and is
expensive.
Using steps on hillsides may make
paths more popular.
Gates left open by walkers
Can allow livestock to
escape
Use signs on gates to
encourage people to close
gates
Install spring loaded gates /
kissing gates / stiles
Effective to a point – difficult to
police such a large area
Litter
Can ruin scenery
Can present a choking risk
to livestock
Signs to make tourists aware
of countryside code
Removal of bins e.g.
Yorkshire Dales
Employ wardens
Volunteer litter picks
Effective to a point – difficult to
police such a large area
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Conflict 3: Local residents and tourist developments
Problem Solution Effectiveness
Development of unsightly tourist
attractions and car parks
Locals feel that
developments such as
Hayes Garden World look
out of place in small villages
like Ambleside
These developments can
lead to an increase in visitor
numbers and traffic
congestion
Ensure new developments
are built with local stone
Screen car parks with trees
“Nurture Lakeland” work
with businesses to ensure
that tourism in the Lake
District is sustainable
Measures put in place are
somewhat effective but local
businesses are important for the
local economy and to provide jobs.
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Coastal Case Study: Pembrokeshire National Park
Land Use in Pembrokeshire 1. Tourism Tourist attractions in Pembrokeshire:
Features of coastal erosion o Pembrokeshire coastal path, walkers can take in views
including St Davids Head and the Green Bridge of Wales (a natural arch)
Features of coastal deposition o several beautiful beaches e.g. Tenby o a number of blue flag beaches e.g. Poppit Sands o bays provide good conditions for water sports e.g. surfing
Wildlife o Skomer Island: world famous for it’s colonies of sea birds – puffins, guillemots, razorbills and manx
shearwaters o Elegug Stacks and the Green Bridge of Wales: Elegug is the
Welsh for guillemot, and two colonies of these birds occupy two limestone stacks on the south coast of Pembrokeshire, the largest just 40 metres from the mainland cliff
o Cemaes Head and Traeth Godi’r Coch: At 167 metres, Cemaes Head, in the most northerly part of Pembrokeshire, is the highest sea cliff in Wales. The inaccessible pebbly beach below is the location for the largest Atlantic grey seal haul out (when the seals leave the water)
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2. Farming
Pembrokeshire's mild climate means that crops such as new potatoes (which have protected geographical status under European law) can grow well. As well as arable crops such as potatoes, the other main agricultural activities are dairy farming, sheep farming, beef production and some other arable crops, such as rapeseed
Falling farm incomes have led to diversification into other novel farming and tourism related activities
74% of Pembrokeshire is used for agriculture, the majority of this land (60%) is used for permanent grassland and 26% is arable
Farming provides 7,000 jobs
3. Military
the Ministry of Defence have a number of training areas in Pembrokeshire National Park including:
o Castlemartin Ranges
o Manorbier Air Defence Range
o Pembrey Sands Air Weapons Range
4. Industry
The coastal location, flat land and deep estuary of Milford Haven provides an excellent location for heavy industries.
o Milford Haven
Oil refineries: Chevron and Murco
two large liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminals
a new gas fired power station is under construction
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Land Use Conflicts and Management in Pembrokeshire
Tourism and local people
Problem Solution Effectiveness
Acute traffic congestion especially
on narrow roads and around car
parks. This is a particular problem
in popular areas such as Tenby.
Queues of cars, air and noise
pollution can spoil honey-pot
towns.
St Justinian’s is a very popular site
for boat trips but has very limited
parking. Cars are very destructive
both in terms of physical damage
and pollutants, but also because
of their intrusive and unsightly
appearance in the wild landscape.
Encourage the use of public transport
e.g. coastal buses to popular beached
including the Puffin Shuttle and the
Celtic Coaster.
Pembrokeshire NPA have produced a
car free guide to the park
Recently the NPA have agreed to
operate a 'park and ride' bus running
from St. Davids.
It is estimated that the coastal buses have reduced the number of cars in the National Park by over 30,000 in one year.
Some tourists may find this type
of travel restrictive, more
convenient to take a car.
Development of unsightly caravan
parks:
Spoil the natural beauty of
the area and make it less
attractive as a tourist
destination
People staying in caravan
sites often bring their food
with them and so do not
spend much in local shops
and restaurants
Many of the access roads
to the coast are narrow
country lanes
where touring caravans
can cause serious traffic
congestion
The local infrastructure
e.g. sewage facilities, has
not been built to cope
with the extra influx of
people in the summer
Within the Pembrokeshire Coast
National Park there are already a large
number of camp and caravan sites
which are not used to their full
capacity. Given this, and the
disadvantages listed above, the
National Park Authority's policy is not to
allow any new caravan sites.
This does not solve the problem of
the large number of existing
caravan parks.
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Large numbers of second homes push house prices beyond the reach of local people leading to depopulation and the closure of services.
The NPA have policies in place to provide affordable housing for local people e.g. 60% of housing in Tenby must be affordable. Only local people can have access to this housing. Local people are defines as:
People who have continuously lived within the Community Council area for the previous 3 years
People who have lived in the Community Council area for five out of the past ten years.
Well –off city dwellers will continue to buy up property which will provide an investment as well as a holiday home.
Different groups of tourists
Problem Solution Effectiveness
Large number of different tourists
in honey-pots such as Porthclais:
Walkers visiting the areas
for peace and quiet are
competing with lively
coasteering youngsters
The large volume of boats
in the water can cause
conflict e.g. kayaks and
fishing boats
Loss of habitat for wildlife:
Seals prefer quiet
secluded locations, but
these places are being
explored by walkers and
coaststeerers.
Litter, both that dropped
inadvertently or
deliberately, or that which
had fallen from full bins.
The National Park Authority works with
local recreational providers,
landowners and conservation groups.
Codes of conduct are in place, such as
the Marine Code and Agreement for
Climbers, which encourage users to
behave thoughtfully and responsibly,
and to avoid damage and disturbance.
This does not solve the key problem which is too many people in the one place. Some have campaigned for restricting access in Porthclais but this would only push the problem further up the coast.
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Tourism and Environmentalists
Problem Solution Effectiveness
Disruption of fragile bird breeding grounds by cliff climbers e.g. at St Govans Head.
Monitoring was introduced where
and when birds were nesting. In this
way it has been possible to adapt and
refine restrictions on the cliff.
A ranger was appointed. This ranger
not only monitors the ranges with the
MoD and National Park Authority, but
works closely with climbers. The
climbers are able to inform the
ranger about where species are
nesting, and about potential hazards
on the cliffs.
The introduction of a cliff top marker
scheme. This marks where climbing is
restricted.
This has been a very effective
solution due to the involvement
of several groups of people in
dealing with the problem.
Footpath erosion:
275,000 people use the Pembrokeshire coastal path each year
Where the soil is thin it can be worn away to expose the bedrock. This is uncomfortable to walk on. Walkers tend to walk on either side of an affected area, widening the path, and trampling the vegetation
Where bedrock is exposed it is possible to cut stone away and create a smooth surface, encouraging walkers to stay on the path. Reintroduction of turf and vegetation to deter people from using side paths. This occurred at Freshwater East where the sand dunes had been heavily eroded over many years. The area, in this instance, was fenced off to allow regeneration. Now re-opened, there is a designated trail through the dunes. The cutting of gullies and introduction of deflectors to divert and manage rainwater and run off Fencing off of areas of higher sensitivity such as archaeological sites or areas with rare flora and fauna. Where this occurs the National Park Authority display information to inform Path users.
Improving path has worked well but can lead to increased visitor numbers and it is difficult to keep up with the problem.
