59 Let’s discuss Let’s discuss Let’s discuss Let’s discuss Let’s discuss 8. How important was the income from land revenue to the stability of the Mughal Empire? 9. Why was it important for the Mughals to recruit mansabdars from diverse backgrounds and not just Turanis and Iranis? 10. Like the Mughal Empire, India today is also made up of many social and cultural units. Does this pose a challenge to national integration? 11. Peasants were vital for the economy of the Mughal Empire. Do you think that they are as important today? Has the gap in the income between the rich and the poor in India changed a great deal from the period of the Mughals? Let’s do Let’s do Let’s do Let’s do Let’s do 12. The Mughal Empire left its impact on the different regions of the subcontinent in a variety of ways. Find out if it had any impact in the city/village/region in which you live. THE MUGHAL DYNASTY
8. How important was the income from land revenue tothe stability of the Mughal Empire?
9. Why was it important for the Mughals to recruitmansabdars from diverse backgrounds and not justTuranis and Iranis?
10. Like the Mughal Empire, India today is also made upof many social and cultural units. Does this pose achallenge to national integration?
11. Peasants were vital for the economy of the MughalEmpire. Do you think that they are as important today?Has the gap in the income between the rich and thepoor in India changed a great deal from the period ofthe Mughals?
Let’s doLet’s doLet’s doLet’s doLet’s do
12. The Mughal Empire left its impact on the differentregions of the subcontinent in a variety of ways. Findout if it had any impact in the city/village/region inwhich you live.
THE MUGHAL DYNASTY
60
Figure 1 shows the first balcony of the Qutb Minar.Qutbuddin Aybak had this constructed around
1199. Notice the pattern created under the balconyby the small arches and geometrical designs. Can youfind two bands of inscriptions under the balcony?These are in Arabic. Notice that the surface of the minaris curved and angular. Placing an inscription on sucha surface required great precision. Only the mostskilled craftsperson could perform this task.Remember that very few buildings were made of stoneor brick 800 years ago. What would have been theimpact of a building like the Qutb Minar on observersin the thirteenth century?
Between the eighth and the eighteenth centurieskings and their officers built two kinds of structures:
5 RULERS AND BUILDINGS
inar is five. The bandns youer itsy.or wasbyAybak andtutmish9. Over thedamagedand
s andAlauddinammaduz Shah
di.
61
the first were forts, palaces and tombs – safe, protectedand grandiose places of rest in this world and the next;the second were structures meant for public activityincluding temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravanserais and bazaars. Kings were expected to care for theirsubjects, and by making structures for their use andcomfort, rulers hoped to win their praise. Constructionactivity was also carried out by others, includingmerchants. They built temples, mosques and wells.However, domestic architecture – large mansions(havelis) of merchants – has survived only from theeighteenth century.
Engineering Skills and ConstructionMonuments provide an insight into the technologiesused for construction. Take something like a roof forexample. We can make this by placing wooden beamsor a slab of stone across four walls. But the taskbecomes difficult if we want to make a large room withan elaborate superstructuresuperstructuresuperstructuresuperstructuresuperstructure. This requires moresophisticated skills.
Between the seventh and tenth centuries architectsstarted adding more rooms, doors and windows tobuildings. Roofs, doors and windows were still madeby placing a horizontal beam across two verticalcolumns, a style of architecture called “trabeate” or“corbelled”. Between the eighth and thirteenth centuriesthe trabeate style was used in the construction oftemples, mosques, tombs and in buildings attached tolarge stepped-wells (baolis).
Labour for theAgra FortBuilt by Akbar, theAgra Fort required2,000 stone-cutters,2,000 cement andlime-makers and8,000 labourers.
Fig. 2aScreen in the Quwwatal-Islam mosque, Delhi(late twelfth century).
Fig. 2bCorbelled techniqueused in theconstruction of an arch.
SuperstructureSuperstructureSuperstructureSuperstructureSuperstructureThe part of abuilding above theground floor.
RULERS AND BUILDINGS
Fig. 2a Fig. 2b
62
rencesticeheof thees? Canout thatra of thevaratwice asat of the
?
Fig. 4The Rajarajeshvara temple at Thanjavur had the tallest shikharaamongst temples of its time. Constructing it was not easybecause there were no cranes in those days andthe 90 tonne stone for the top of the shikharawas too heavy to lift manually. So the architectsbuilt an inclined path to the top of the temple,placed the boulder on rollers and rolled it allthe way to the top. The path started morethan four kilometres away so that itwould not be too steep. This wasdismantled after the temple wasconstructed. But the residentsof the area remembered theexperience of theconstruction of thetemple for a long time.Even now a village nearthe temple is calledCharupallam, the“Village of the Incline”.
Temple Construction in the Early Eleventh CenturyTemple Construction in the Early Eleventh CenturyTemple Construction in the Early Eleventh CenturyTemple Construction in the Early Eleventh CenturyTemple Construction in the Early Eleventh Century
Fig. 3a
The Kandariya Mahadeva templededicated to Shiva was
constructed in 999 by KingDhangadevaof the Chandela dynasty.Fig. 3b is the plan of thetemple. An ornamentedgateway led to anentrance, and the mainhall (mahamandapa)where dances wereperformed. The imageof the chief deitywas kept in themain shrine
(garbhagriha). This wasthe place for ritualworship where only theking, his immediatefamily and priestsgathered. TheKhajuraho complexcontained royal temples where commoners were not allowed entry.The temples were decorated with elaborately carved sculptures.
63
?
Two technological andstylistic developments arenoticeable from the twelfthcentury. (1) The weight ofthe superstructure abovethe doors and windowswas sometimes carried byarches. This architecturalform was called “arcuate”.
Compare Figures 2a and2b with 5a and 5b.
(2) Limestone cementwas increasingly used inconstruction. This was veryhigh quality cement,which, when mixed withstone chips hardenedinto concrete. This madeconstruction of largestructures easier andfaster. Take a look at theconstruction site in Figure 6.
Describe what thelabourers are doing, thetools shown, and themeans of carrying stones.
Building Temples, Mosques andTanksTemples and mosques were beautifully constructedbecause they were places of worship. They were alsomeant to demonstrate the power, wealth anddevotion of the patron. Take the example of theRajarajeshvara temple. An inscription mentions thatit was built by King Rajarajadeva for the worship of
Fig. 6A painting from theAkbar Nama (dated1590-1595), showingthe constructionof the water-gateat the Agra Fort.
RULERS AND BUILDINGS
KEYSTONE
Fig. 5aA “true” arch. The “keystone” atthe centre of the arch transferredthe weight of the superstructureto the base of the arch.
64
his god, Rajarajeshvaram. Notice how the name ofthe ruler and the god are very similar. The king tookthe god’s name because it was auspicious and hewanted to appear like a god. Through the rituals ofworship in the temple one god (Rajarajadeva)honoured another (Rajarajeshvaram).
The largest temples were all constructed by kings.The other, lesser deities in the temple were gods andgoddesses of the allies and subordinates of the ruler.The temple was a miniature model of the world ruledby the king and his allies. As they worshipped theirdeities together in the royal temples, it seemed as ifthey brought the just rule of the gods on earth.
Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to beincarnations of god but Persian court chroniclesdescribed the Sultan as the “Shadow of God”. Aninscription in the Delhi mosque explained that Godchose Alauddin as a king because he had the qualitiesof Moses and Solomon, the great law-givers of thepast. The greatest law-giver and architect was GodHimself. He created the world out of chaos and
ctl emperorn’s chro-ared thatwas thet of theof empireon”.
mi masjidh Jahan intal atbad,
Qibla(Direction towards Mecca)
W
65
introduced order and symmetry.
As each new dynasty came to power, kings wantedto emphasise their moral right to be rulers. Constructingplaces of worship provided rulers with the chance toproclaim their close relationship with God, especiallyimportant in an age of rapid political change. Rulersalso offered patronage to the learned and pious, andtried to transform their capitals and cities into greatcultural centres that brought fame to their rule andtheir realm.
It was widely believed thatthe rule of a just king would bean age of plenty when theheavens would not withholdrain. At the same time, makingprecious water available byconstructing tanks andreservoirs was highly praised.Sultan Iltutmish won universalrespect for constructing alarge reservoir just outsideDehli-i kuhna. It was called thehauz-i Sultani or the “King’sReservoir”. Can you find it onMap 1 in Chapter 3? Rulersoften constructed tanks andreservoirs – big and small – for use by ordinary people.Sometimes these tanks and reservoirs were part of atemple, mosque (note the small tank in the jami masjidin Fig. 7) or a gurudwara (a place of worship andcongregation for Sikhs, Fig. 8).
Why were Temples Destroyed?Because kings built temples to demonstrate theirdevotion to God and their power and wealth, it is notsurprising that when they attacked one another’skingdoms, they often targeted these buildings. In theearly ninth century when the Pandyan king ShrimaraShrivallabha invaded Sri Lanka and defeated the
Importance ofwaterThe Persian termsabad, populated,prosperous, andabadi, flourishing,are both derivedfrom the word ab,meaning water.
king, Sena I (831-851), the Buddhist monk andchronicler Dhammakitti noted: “he removed all thevaluables ... The statue of the Buddha made entirelyof gold in the Jewel Palace ... and the golden images inthe various monasteries – all these he seized.” The blowto the pride of the Sinhalese ruler had to be avengedand the next Sinhalese ruler, Sena II, ordered hisgeneral to invade Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas.The Buddhist chronicler noted that the expeditionmade a special effort to find and restore the gold statueof the Buddha.
Similarly in the early eleventh century, when theChola king Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his capitalhe filled it with prized statues seized from defeatedrulers. An incomplete list included: a Sun-pedestal fromthe Chalukyas, a Ganesha statue and several statuesof Durga; a Nandi statue from the eastern Chalukyas;an image of Bhairava (a form of Shiva) and Bhairavifrom the Kalingas of Orissa; and a Kali statue from thePalas of Bengal.
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni was a contemporary ofRajendra I. During his campaigns in the subcontinenthe also attacked the temples of defeated kings andlooted their wealth and idols. Sultan Mahmud was nota very important ruler at that time. But by destroyingtemples – especially the one at Somnath – he tried towin credit as a great hero of Islam. In the politicalculture of the Middle Ages most rulers displayed theirpolitical might and military success by attacking andlooting the places of worship of defeated rulers.
In what ways do you think the policies of Rajendra I andMahmud of Ghazni were a product of their times? Howwere the actions of the two rulers different?
Gardens, Tombs and FortsUnder the Mughals, architecture became more complex.Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, and especially
ar baghaarden atari, 1637.
har baghn’s tomb,1571.
chaharlimarhmir,
634.
har baghs
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Shah Jahan were personallyinterested in literature, art andarchitecture. In hisautobiography, Babur describedhis interest in planning and layingout formal gardens, placed withinrectangular walled enclosuresand divided into four quartersby artificial channels.
These gardens were calledchahar bagh, four gardens,because of their symmetricaldivision into quarters. Beginningwith Akbar, some of the mostbeautiful chahar baghs wereconstructed by Jahangir andShah Jahan in Kashmir, Agraand Delhi (see Fig. 9).
There were several importantarchitectural innovations duringAkbar’s reign. For inspiration,Akbar’s architects turned to thetombs of his Central Asianancestor, Timur. The central towering dome and thetall gateway (pishtaq) became important aspects ofMughal architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb.It was placed in the centre of a huge formal chahar
Fig. 10A 1590 painting ofBabur laying out achahar bagh inKabul. Note how theintersecting channelson the path create thecharacteristic chaharbagh design.
Fig.11Tomb of Humayun,constructed between1562 and 1571.Can you see the waterchannels?
RULERS AND BUILDINGS
68
bagh and built in the tradition known as “eightparadises” or hasht bihisht – a central hall surroundedby eight rooms. The building was constructed with redsandstone, edged with white marble.
It was during Shah Jahan’s reign that the differentelements of Mughal architecture were fused together ina grand harmonious synthesis. His reign witnessed ahuge amount of construction activity especially in Agraand Delhi. The ceremonial halls of public and privateaudience (diwan-i khas or am) were carefully planned.These courts were also described as chihil sutun orforty-pillared halls, placed within a large courtyard.
Shah Jahan’s audience halls were speciallyconstructed to resemble a mosque. The pedestal onwhich his throne was placed was frequently describedas the qibla, the direction faced by Muslims at prayer,since everybody faced that direction when court was insession. The idea of the king as a representative of Godon earth was suggested by these architectural features.
The connection between royal justice and theimperial court was emphasised by Shah Jahan in hisnewly constructed court in the Red Fort at Delhi. Behind
balcony-i am ineted
uraraurararahard
aced innso marbleoneeautiful,tterns.
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the emperor’s throne were a series of pietra durapietra durapietra durapietra durapietra dura inlaysthat depicted the legendary Greek god Orpheus playingthe lute. It was believed that Orpheus’s music couldcalm ferocious beasts until they resided togetherpeaceably. The construction of Shah Jahan’s audiencehall aimed to communicate that the king’s justice wouldtreat the high and the low as equals where all couldlive together in harmony.
In the early years of his reign, Shah Jahan’s capitalwas at Agra, a city where the nobility had constructedtheir homes on the banks of the river Yamuna. Thesewere set in the midst of formal gardens constructed inthe chahar bagh format. The chahar bagh garden alsohad a variation that historians describe as the “river-front garden”. In this the dwelling was not located inthe middle of the chahar bagh but at its edge, close tothe bank of the river.
Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden in thelayout of the Taj Mahal, the grandest architecturalaccomplishment of his reign. Here the white marblemausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge ofthe river and the garden was to its south. Shah Jahan
Fig. 13The Taj Mahal at Agra,completed in 1643.
RULERS AND BUILDINGS
70
ction from a map of the river-front garden city of Agra. Note how the garden palaces ofre placed on both banks of the Yamuna. The Taj Mahal is on the left.e layout of Agra with Shahjahanabad in Delhi in Figure15.
f Shahjahanabad. Where is the emperor’s residence?ears to be very crowded, but did you notice the many large gardens as well?
d the main street and the jami masjid?
Yamuna River
Yamuna River
eahal
71
developed this architectural form as a means tocontrol the access that nobles had to the river. In thenew city of Shahjahanabad that he constructed inDelhi, the imperial palace commanded the river-front.Only specially favoured nobles – like his eldest sonDara Shukoh – were given access to the river. Allothers had to construct their homes in the city awayfrom the River Yamuna.
Region and EmpireAs construction activity increased between the eighthand eighteenth centuries there was also a considerablesharing of ideas across regions: the traditions of oneregion were adopted by another. In Vijayanagara, forexample, the elephant stables of the rulers were
strongly influenced by the style of architecture foundin the adjoining Sultanates of Bijapur and Golcunda(see Chapter 6). In Vrindavan, near Mathura, templeswere constructed in architectural styles that were verysimilar to the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri.
The creation of large empires that brought differentregions under their rule helped in this cross-fertilisation of artistic forms and architectural styles.
Fig. 16Interior of temple ofGovind Deva inVrindavan, 1590.The temple wasconstructed out of redsandstone. Notice thetwo (out of four)intersecting archesthat made the high-ceiling roof. This styleof architecture is fromnorth-west Iran(Khurasan) and wasused in FatehpurSikri.
RULERS AND BUILDINGS
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Mughal rulers were particularly skilled inadapting regional architectural styles in theconstruction of their own buildings. In Bengal,for example, the local rulers had developed aroof that was designed to resemble a thatchedhut. The Mughals liked this “Bangla dome” (seeFig. ... in Chapter 9) so much that they used itin their architecture. The impact of otherregions was also evident. In Akbar’s capital atFatehpur Sikri many of the buildings bear theimpact of the architectural styles of Gujarat andMalwa.
Even though the authority of the Mughalrulers waned in the eighteenth century, thearchitectural styles developed under theirpatronage were constantly used and adaptedby other rulers whenever they tried to establishtheir own kingdoms.Fig. 17Decorated pillars and struts holding the extension ofthe roof in Jodh Bai palace in Fatehpur Sikri.These follow architectural traditions of the Gujarat region.
Churches that touched the skies
From the twelfth century onwards, attemptsbegan in France to build churches that weretaller and lighter than earlier buildings. Thisarchitectural style, known as Gothic, wasdistinguished by high pointed arches, theuse of stained glass, often painted withscenes drawn from the Bible, and flyingbuttresses. Tall spires and bell towers whichwere visible from a distance were added tothe church.
One of the best-known examples of thisarchitectural style is the church of NotreDame in Paris, which was constructedthrough several decades in the twelfth andthirteenth centuries.
Look at the illustration and try and identifythe bell towers.
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KEYWORDS
Go through the
chapter and make
your own list of
six keywords.
For each of these,
write a sentence
indicating
why you chose
the word.
ImagineImagineImagineImagineImagine
You are an artisan standing on a tinywooden platform held together bybamboo and rope fifty metres abovethe ground. You have to place an
inscription under the first balcony of theQutb Minar. How would you do this?
5. How did a temple communicate the importanceof a king?
6. An inscription in Shah Jahan’s diwan-i khas in Delhistated: “If there is Paradise on Earth, it is here, it ishere, it is here.” How was this image created?
7. How did the Mughal court suggest that everyone – therich and the poor, the powerful and the weak – receivedjustice equally from the emperor?
8. What role did the Yamuna play in the layout of thenew Mughal city at Shahjahanabad?
