Historical Foundations of Christianity

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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY

The following is a capsule summary of the top 25 events in the History of Christianity, events which shaped the Church itself, Western Christian civilization,

and the modern world. The Church transcends the contingent facts of this world, yet atthe same time is deeply connected to historical events, for its very foundation isrooted in the centrality of the Incarnation of Jesus Christ. The Christian view of

history is a vision and interpretation of time in terms of eternity and of human eventsin the light of divine revelation. Christianity is the dynamic element in the history of

our Western culture. The life of Jesus Christ, the birth of Christianity, and the


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Apostolic Age (the first 100 years) speak for themselves, for great historicalmovements do not spring from non-events. 1-10

This capsule summary is offered as a study guide of Church History.The links and references provide a more in-depth discussion of each topic.

THE LIFE AND TEACHINGS OF JESUS CHRIST

The point of origin and central figure of the Christian faith is our Lord and Savior,Jesus Christ , Son of God. Jesus was born of a virgin in Bethlehem (Matthew 1:18 -

2:23), in fulfillment of the prophecies of the Scriptures, such as Isaiah 7:14 and Micah5:2. To avoid Herod and the Slaughter of the Innocents, Joseph took flight to Egyptwith Mary and the infant Jesus. Upon their return, they settled in Nazareth, whereJesus grew and spent his childhood and early years as an adult. Hardly anything is

known of his life at that time except that at age 12 he was found teaching in theTemple in Jerusalem (Luke 2:41).

The life of Jesus is best described in the Four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, andJohn, while his teachings are presented by all the writers of the New Testament of the

Bible.

Jesus began his public ministry when he was about thirty years old. He spent much of his ministry in Galilee, preaching in Capernaum (John 6:59), Bethsaida (Mark 8:22),Magdala (Matthew 15:39), and other towns along the Sea of Galilee. He took many

journeys to surrounding areas, such as Caesarea Philippi (Matthew 16:13), Cana (John2:1-11), and Tyre (Mark 7:24-30). When his hour came near, he headed toward

Jerusalem (Luke 9:51).

Jesus often taught in parables , an ancient Eastern literary genre. A parable is anarrative that presents comparisons to teach an important moral lesson. The Parables

are recorded in the Synoptic Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Some parables arecommon to all three Synoptic Gospels, such as the Parable of the Sower (Matthew

13:3-23, Mark 4:2-20, and Luke 8:4-15). Matthew relates ten Parables on theKingdom of Heaven, seven of which occur in Chapter 13 and are central to his

Gospel. Examples of parables unique to each Gospel are the Weeds Among the Wheat(Matthew 13:24-30), the Laborers in the Vineyard (Matthew 20:1-16); the GrowingSeed (Mark 4:26-29); the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37); the Prodigal Son (Luke

15:11-32); Lazarus and the Rich Man (Luke 16:19-31); and the Pharisee and thePublican (Luke 18:9-14) .


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Jesus performs many miracles , demonstrating his power over nature and spirits, andthus confirming that the Kingdom of God is at hand (Mark 1:15). In a physical

miracle, such as making the blind see, or walking on water, or calming a storm, thelaws of the universe are suspended through divine intervention. In a moral miracle,such as forgiveness of sins or driving out demons, the blessing of Jesus purifies thespirit. In Mark 2:1-12, Jesus performed a physical miracle, healing the paralytic, to

demonstrate a moral miracle, the forgiveness of sins. Only two miracles appear in allfour Gospels - his own Resurrection, the greatest miracle of them all; and the feeding

of the 5000 through the multiplication of the loaves, found in Matthew 14:13-21,Mark 6:30-44, Luke 9:10-17, and John 6:1-14. The Gospel of John enumerates seven

miracles of Jesus, as well as records three visits of Christ to his disciples following hisResurrection. The Gospels record twelve miracles in Capernaum, more than anywhere

else in the Holy Land.

His public ministry lasted about three years, prior to his Passion, Crucifixion, andResurrection.

His mission was one of love, mercy, and peace (John 15:12-13).

Christ Jesus is the fulfillment of salvation history, and the mediator and fullness of allrevelation. Jesus Christ is the Son of God, the Word made flesh. He is the Authority

on Scripture (Luke 24:25-27, Galatians 1:11-12, 2 Timothy 3:15-17, 2 Peter 1:21). Werefer you to our home page, Jesus Christ our Savior for a more complete discussion.

1, 3, 5-7, 9-14
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THE APOSTOLIC AGE AND THE EARLY CHRISTIANCHURCH

Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, set apart for the gospel of God

which he promised beforehand through his prophets in the holy scriptures, the gospel concerning his Son, who was descended from David according to the

flesh and designated Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness

by his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord, through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience

of faith for the sake of his name among all the nations

St. Paul to the Romans 1:1-5


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Jesus named the Apostles, often called the Twelve (John 6:67), to be with him andcarry on his ministry: Simon Peter and his brother Andrew; James, the son of

Zebedee, and his brother John; Philip and Nathaniel Bartholomew, Thomas andMatthew, James the son of Alpheus, Jude Thaddeus, Simon the Zealot; and Judas

Iscariot, the one who betrayed him (Matthew 10:1-4, Mark 3:14-19, Luke 6:13-16,Acts 1:13). Following the Resurrection, Matthias was chosen to replace Judas Iscariot

(Acts 1:26).

To the question of Jesus, "Who do you say that I am?", it was Peter the fisherman thatanswered, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God" (Matthew 16:15-16).Whereupon Jesus responded, " You are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my

Church...I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind onearth shall be bound in heaven; and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in

heaven" (Matthew 16:18-19).

Prior to his Ascension, Jesus commissioned his disciples to be his witnesses to theends of the earth (Acts 1:8). The Holy Spirit descended at Pentecost on about 120

Apostles and disciples in the Upper Room (Acts 1:15, 2:1-4). This strengthened theApostles to spread the word of Christ Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles describes the

infancy period of the Church, a time following the Pentecost when Christianity spreadlike wildfire. The Apostles all gathered in Jerusalem (Acts 15) to discuss whetherGentiles who had been converted to Christianity had to observe all the ceremonialprecepts of the Mosaic Law. This gathering of the Apostles became known as theCouncil of Jerusalem , and set the pattern of future Councils to resolve issues that

arose within the Church.

The Conversion of Paul , occurred on the road to Damascus (Acts 9:1-9). Saulpersecuted the Church, and consented to the death of the first martyr Stephen, and hadmen and women who lived the Way thrown into prison (Acts 8:1-3). But while goingto Damascus, Saul was struck from his horse by a great light, and a voice asked "Why

do you persecute me?" Saul asked who spoke. Christ identified himself with hisChurch: "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting" (Acts 9:4-5). Saul experienced thegrace of conversion, and Paul, as Apostle to the Gentiles, became just as passionate

spreading the Christian faith as he was in persecuting the Church.

The Acts of the Apostles then primarily describes the missionary efforts of Peter andPaul. Peter and Paul first went to Antioch (Galatians 2:11). Peter then went to Rome,

while Paul made three missionary journeys from Antioch (see following map),visiting many places, as far round as Illyricum (Romans 15:19). The Acts of the

Apostles concludes with Paul's fourth missionary journey to Malta and Rome as aprisoner in chains. Saints Peter and Paul were both martyred in Rome during the
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persecution of Christians 64-68 AD by Nero, Emperor of the Roman Empire. St. Peterwas crucified head down and St. Paul was beheaded, both probably from 64-68 AD.In fact, all of the Apostles were martyred for having preached the Gospel, except for

St. John the Evangelist.

Heeding the message of Jesus to Go therefore and teach all nations (Matthew 28:19-20), the Apostles traveled to all parts of the known world to spread Christianity.

Andrew , Peter's brother, was the first to be called to follow Jesus, and is called by theByzantine Church the Protoclete , meaning the first called. Andrew evangelizedByzantium, and was crucified in Patras, Greece. James , the son of Zebedee and

brother of John, stayed in Jerusalem, but is also believed to have preached in Spain;he is the only Apostle to have his martyrdom recorded in the Bible (Acts 12:1-2).

John , the son of Zebedee and the brother of James, was the "one Jesus loved." He iscalled the Theologian for his mystical writings - the Gospel of John and three Letters.Christ on the Cross entrusted his mother Mary to John (19:26-27), who took her withhim to Ephesus; he was later exiled to the island of Patmos, where he wrote the Book

of Revelation in his elderly years. The other James , son of Alpheus, is sometimescalled James the Less, to distinguish him from James the Son of Zebedee. He played

an important role as head of the Church of Jerusalem, and writer of the Letter of James in the Bible. According to the historian Flavius Josephus, he was stoned to

death in 62 AD. Tradition has it that Matthew went to Antioch and wrote his Gospelthere in Hebrew or Aramaic. Philip preached the Gospel in Phrygia, Asia Minor and

was martyred in Hierapolis. Nathaniel, Son of Talmay, or in Aramaic NathanielBartholomew , and Jude Thaddeus, the author of the Letter of Jude, brought the faith

to Armenia. Thomas Didymus, or Thomas the Twin, is known as Doubting Thomas,for questioning the Lord's Resurrection. But when he put his hand in the Lord's side,he reacted with a beautiful profession of faith: "My Lord and My God: (John 20:28).Thomas traveled through Chaldea all the way to India! Little is known about Simon

the Zealot or Matthias .

Two early disciples were the Gospel writers Mark and Luke. Mark traveled with Pauland Barnabas, and then went to Rome to help Peter; but it was Peter who was

especially fond of him, calling Mark his son (1 Peter 5:13). Mark later foundedChristianity in Alexandria. Luke was a companion of Paul, who called Luke "the

beloved physician" in Colossians 4:14, advised Timothy that "only Luke is with me"in 2 Timothy 4:11, and that Luke was his "fellow worker" in Philemon 24. We alsoknow from the "we" passages in Acts that Luke accompanied Paul on his second and

third missionary journeys and his voyage to Rome. 1, 3, 5, 7, 12-14
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ST. IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH AND CHURCHLEADERSHIP

St. Ignatius of Antioch was Bishop of Syria about 75-110 AD, and is one of theApostolic Fathers of the Church. The Apostolic Fathers were a group of earlyChristian writers from about 75-150 AD, such as Ignatius, Clement of Rome,

Polycarp of Smyrna, and the author(s) of the Didache. Tradition has it St. Peter, on histrip to Antioch to meet St. Paul (Galatians 2:11), designated Ignatius to become

Bishop. St. Ignatius was the first to use the term Catholic Church in his Letter to theSmryneans (8:2):

"Wherever the bishop appears let the congregation be present; just as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."
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The word catholic means universal and refers to the universal Church of Jesus Christ.

Ignatius of Antioch would not worship the Emperor Trajan, and thus was placed inchains and ordered to Rome to be thrown to the lions in the Roman Coliseum. He

wrote 7 letters to the local Churches on the way to Rome. He wrote 4 letters from thetown of Smyrna, to the Churches in Ephesus, Tralles, Magnesia, and Rome. He wrote

to the Church of Philadelphia and Smyrna from the town of Troas, as well as toPolycarp, then the young Bishop of Smyrna.

The occasion of his trip to Rome proved to be a unifying event for all of the earlyChurches. He established the hierarchy of bishop , priest , and deacon for the early

Churches, the pattern which still exists today. His Letter to the Romans is perhaps oneof most moving letters written by a Christian martyr. It was his exceptional courage

and his love of Jesus that has made him an outstanding model and given him apermanent place in the history of early Christianity. 5, 14-16

ST. JUSTIN MARTYR DESCRIBES THE EUCHARISTICLITURGY

Justin Martyr (100-165) was born of pagan parents in Palestine. As a young mansearching for truth, he was walking along the sea and met an old man who advised

him to turn to the faith of Jesus Christ. He began writing extensively in defense of the

Christian faith, his three most famous works being the First and Second Apologiesand Dialogue with Trypho. In his early writings he describes the Tradition of theEucharistic Liturgy in the Sunday community gathering, a Memorial of the Last

Supper, an event which has remained the same essentially for 2000 years.

The Church assembly would first have a Scripture reading and oral instruction orsermon, followed by the celebration of the Eucharistic event of Jesus Christ, as

described by St. Justin Martyr as early as 155 AD in his First Apology: "And this food is called among us eucharistia...For not as common bread and common drink do we

receive these, but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh

by the Word of God...is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh" (66-67).

Considered the first Apologist or Defender of the Faith, Justin was martyred in 165AD for preaching Christianity to the Romans. 1, 7, 16, 17-19
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THE APOSTLES' CREED

The development of the Apostles' Creed began from Apostolic times, as a professionof faith during the rite of Baptism, recalling the instruction of Jesus to his disciples to

"teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit(Matthew 28:19-20)." This Baptismal formula was recorded in the Didache (7) as

early as the second century AD. In accordance with this, the person about to bebaptized was asked three questions: "Do you believe in God the Father Almighty...?

Do you believe in Jesus Christ, his Son our Lord...? Do you believe in the Holy Spirit,the holy catholic church...?" The person being baptized would answer, Credo or I

Believe.

This three-part profession of faith was gradually developed in the oral Tradition of theearly Christian Church as a way of passing on the Christian faith. A continuous text

resembling our present form of the Apostles' Creed has been cited by the ChurchFathers, such as Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Cyprian, and was evident by the thirdcentury AD. 1, 7, 9, 16, 19

CONSTANTINE AND THE EDICT OF MILAN (313 AD)

Christians were severely persecuted throughout three centuries of the Roman Empire,especially at the hands of Nero (64 AD), Trajan (98-117), right up to Diocletian (284-

305). But their powerful witness through martyrdom only served to spreadChristianity!

Early Christianity, in spite of persecution, fluorished primarily in five centers:Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, Alexandria, and Byzantium. The five centers becamePatriarchates with the formal recognition of Christianity. The Eastern CatholicChurches originate from the three Eastern centers of Antioch, Alexandria, and

Byzantium, while the Western Latin rite originates from Rome.

Constantine became Emperor of the West in 306. As he was in Gaul at the time, he

still had to capture Rome where Maxentius held sway. Prior to battle, he had a dreamor vision of Christ on the Cross, a cross of light, and was instructed to ornament theshields of his soldiers with the Savior's monogram - the Greek letters chi and rho. Hedefeated Maxentius at the Battle at Milvian Bridge over the River Tiber and became

the sole Roman Emperor in 312, attributing his victory to the Christian God.

Welcome relief from Christian martyrdom came with the Edict of Milan in 313,
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through which Constantine and Licinius, the Emperor of the East, granted Christianitycomplete religious tolerance. His defeat of Licinius in 324 made him sole Emperor of

the entire Roman Empire, and he moved the seat of the Empire to Byzantium, andrenamed it Constantinople.

Constantine considered himself Christian, and did much to protect and supportChristianity. Sunday as the Lord's Day was made a day of rest, and December 25 was

celebrated as the birthday of Jesus. He restored property that once belonged toChristians. Often at the request of his mother Helena, he built exquisitely beautiful

churches, particularly the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, and the Church of St. Peter in Rome.

A dispute concerning the relation of the Father and the Son arose in the East, knownas the Arian controversy. An Alexandrian priest named Arius claimed that Jesus theSon of God was created by the Father, referring primarily to the passage on Wisdom

in Proverbs 8:22-31. Constantine called the First Ecumenical Council of all fivePatriarchates in 325, known as the Council of Nicaea . The Council declared that theSon was of the same substance - homoousios - with the Father, and formed the initial

Nicene Creed.

However, the battle was not yet over. Athanasius, the champion of orthodoxy, wasexiled 5 times by Arian bishops. He argued his case from the theology of Christian

redemption, that Christ had to be divine for our own salvation and redemption. Thencontroversy arose over the Holy Spirit. Joined finally by the Cappodochian Fathers

(Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa) who supported homoousios for theHoly Spirit as well, the Nicene Creed was expanded to quote John 15:26, the HolySpirit proceeding from the Father , at the Council of Constantinople in 381. While

still called the Nicene Creed, the final version was actually the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, or We Believe . The Apostles' and Nicene Creeds are

important to the Tradition of the Catholic Church.

In keeping with the custom of the time, Constantine was baptized just prior to hisdeath in 337. Because he saw himself as both head of state and father of the Christian

Churches, he is considered the architect of the Middle Ages as founder of

Christendom .1, 4, 7, 8, 19

THE CANON OF THE NEW TESTAMENT (397 AD)


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There were eight named writers of the New Testament: Saints Matthew, Mark, Luke,John, Paul, Peter, James, and Jude. Since no original manuscript by the author of a

biblical book has yet been discovered, we cannot truly say when the books of the NewTestament were actually written. An important observation is that not one of the New

Testament writers mentions the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, which suggeststhat they were all written prior to that date.

The canon of the New Testament was formed within the early Christian community,the Church. The Fathers of the Church were saintly writers who were sources of Christian teaching on faith and morals in the first few centuries after Christ. The

Tradition of the Church Fathers was important to the early Church, for they were theones who had an important role in the process of the formation of the canon of theNew Testament, as well in the interpretation of Scripture. Irenaeus, the Bishop of

Lyons, first proposed a canon of the New Testament in 180 AD. Three Fathers of theChurch - Athanasius of Alexandria in his Letter of 367, Jerome in Bethlehem with the

publication of his Latin New Testament in 384, and Augustine at the Council of Hippo in 393 - agreed that 27 Books were the inspired Word of God. The Canon of the New Testament of the Bible was confirmed at the Third Council of Carthage in

397 AD. 1, 3, 7, 16, 19

ST. JEROME PUBLISHES THE LATIN VULGATE IN 405

St. Jerome (345-420) was born in Dalmatia and became a highly educated linguist inGreek and Latin. He experienced a dramatic conversion following a dream in whichhe was accused of following Cicero and not Christ, and began leading an ascetic life

in Antioch. It was during this time in the Syrian desert that he became an avid studentof Hebrew. On return to Rome, he was commissioned by Pope Damasus in 382 to

produce a new Latin translation of the Bible . Jerome settled in Bethlehem, andtranslated both Old and New Testaments from the original languages into Latin.

Jerome completed the translation of the Greek New Testament into Latin in 384, andthe Old Testament in 405. His translation has become known as the Latin Vulgate or

"the common translation."

St. Jerome translated from both Greek and Hebrew manuscripts of the Old Testamentand noted the difference between the larger canon of the Greek Septuagint and the

shorter Hebrew canon, and called those books comprising the difference the "hiddenor secret books," or the Apocrypha.

As the Greek Septuagint was the accepted version of the Old Testament for
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Christianity at that time, Jerome translated 46 books that were affirmed as OldTestament canon at the Councils of Hippo (393) and Carthage (397). In view of his

work, St. Jerome is the Father of Biblical scholars. The Latin Vulgate Bible publishedby St. Jerome served as the standard Bible for Western civilization for over 1000

years. 1, 3, 4, 7, 16

THE WRITINGS OF ST. AUGUSTINE

St. Augustine (354-430 AD) was the greatest of the Latin Fathers of the Church and afoundational figure to Western Christian civilization. He was born in Tagaste, near

Hippo, in north Africa. His mother St. Monica was a devout Christian and taught himthe faith. However, when he studied rhetoric in Carthage, he began living a worldly

life.

He obtained a post as master of rhetoric in Milan, accompanied by an unnamedwoman and child Adeodatus, born out of wedlock in 372. The woman soon left himand their son and returned to Africa, and Monica joined them in Milan. Under the

incessant prayers of his mother, and the influence of St. Ambrose of Milan, heeventually converted at age 32 in 386 AD. Perhaps the most eloquent examination of

conscience is found in The Confessions of St. Augustine , where he describes hismoment of conversion in the garden reading St. Paul to the Romans 13:14, But put on

the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provisions for the lusts of the flesh.

Both his mother and son died soon afterwards, and he returned in 388 to his home inTagaste. He was ordained a priest in 391, and became Bishop of Hippo in 395.

Augustine was people-oriented and preached every day. Many of his followers livedan ascetic life. He had a great love for Christ, and believed that our goal on earth wasGod through Christ himself, "to see his face evermore." Our goal in life should be to

please God, not man.

Augustine was one of the most prolific writers in history, and his writings show anevolution of thought, and at times a reversal of ideas, as seen in his Retractations . His

Scriptural essays on Genesis and Psalms remain starting points for modern Biblicalscholars. His commentary on the Sermon on the Mount is still read today. Perhapsmost debated are his views on predestination.

In his book Grace and Free Will , he explains simply why he believes in free will. If there was no free will, then why did God give us the ten commandments, and why did

he tell us to love our neighbor?


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St. Augustine is the doctor of grace . In his Tractates on the Gospel of John (81) , he

quotes Jesus the Gospel of John 15:5, I am the vine, you are the branches . Augustinepointed out that "Jesus did not say, 'without me, you can do a little. No, he said,

without me you can do nothing!'"

Augustine's arguments against the Pelagian heresy set the doctrine of grace for theCatholic Church to the present day. Pelagius thought that man could achieve virtueand salvation on his own without the gift of grace, that Jesus was simply a model of

virtue. This of course attacks the Redemption of man by Christ! If man could make iton his own, then the Cross of Christ becomes meaningless! But Augustine saw man'sutter sinfulness, and the wonderful blessing and efficacy of grace, disposing man to

accept his moment of grace, and hopefully ultimate salvation. Grace raises us to a lifeof virtue, and is the ground of human freedom. "When I choose rightly I am free." TheCouncil of Orange enshrined Augustine's teaching on grace and free will in 529 AD.

Perhaps one of his greatest works was The City of God, which took 13 years tocomplete, from 413 to 426. History can only be understood as a continued struggle

between two cities, the City of God, comprised of those men who pursue God, and theCity of Man, composed of those who pursue earthly goods and pleasures. He refers to

the two sons of Adam, Cain and Abel, as the earliest examples of the two types of man. The Roman empire was an example of the city of man (which had just been

sacked by Alaric in 410, and was the occasion of the book).

St. Augustine was a living example of God's grace that transformed nature. He diedAugust 28, 430, during the sack of Hippo by Geneseric and the Vandals, and August28 is celebrated as his Feast Day in the liturgical calendar. 4, 16, 20-22

POPE LEO THE GREAT (440-461) AND PAPALPRIMACY

And I say to you, thou art Peter,

and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.

Gospel of Matthew 16:18

Pope Leo entered the Papacy at a difficult time. Alaric had sacked Rome in 410, andthe Huns and the Visigoths were gaining strength. However the Pope proved to be a


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master statesman and history has deservedly accorded him the title of Pope Leo theGreat.

One of his first actions in 441 was to bless the missionary efforts of St. Patrick and toordain him as Bishop of Ireland.

A tension in Church leadership between Papal primacy and Collegiality of theBishops was developing over theological questions. Rome was the place of

martyrdom for Saints Peter and Paul, two great Apostles of the Church. The Bishop of Rome as successor to St. Peter was generally given a leadership role, as seen with

Clement of Rome in his First Letter to the Corinthians in 96 AD. Rome's position asthe capital of the Roman Empire was also supportive of a leadership role for the

Bishop of Rome.

The Council of Ephesus in 431 recognized Mary as Theotokos or Mother of God,which supported the human nature of Christ. However, controversy between the

Schools of Antioch and Alexandria raged on concerning the relation of Christ's humanand divine natures. Pope Leo made a study of the theological question and addressed aletter known as the Tome, a masterpiece of dogmatic theology and a synthesis of the

two opposing schools. The Council of Chalcedon , the fourth ecumenical council, wascalled in 451, which ultimately supported Leo's stance that Christ had two natures,

both Divine and human, without confusion, in one Person. Resolution of thecontroversy by Leo was important to the primacy of the Pope and Christian unity.

Just one year later (452), Attila and the Huns were threatening outside the walls of Rome. The legends surrounding this event are innumerable, but Pope Leo met Attila,who decided to call off the invasion! Later when Geneseric the Vandal invaded Rome

in 455, Leo influenced him to spare the destruction of Rome. 1, 4, 5, 7, 16

THE MONKS SAVE EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION

The Monastic Orders have been a premium influence on the formation of Christian

culture. For not only have they been islands of asceticism and holiness that haveserved as ideals to a secular world, but also they have provided many if not most of the religious leaders within each historic age, especially during times of renewal andreform. The word monos is the Greek word for alone . Monasticism began in the East

and spread throughout Europe and saved European civilization.

The practice of leaving the ambitions of daily life and retreating to the solitude of the


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desert was seen throughout Palestine, Syria, and Egypt, St. John the Baptist (Mark 1:4) an early example.

The father of Christian monasticism was St. Antony of the Desert (251-356), the firstof the Desert Fathers. Antony of Egypt took to heart the words of Christ to the rich

young man, " Go sell what you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasurein heaven" (Matthew 19:21). He headed across the Nile to a mountain near Pispir to

live a life of solitude, prayer, and poverty . Soon many gathered around him to imitatehis life, living as hermits in nearby caves in the mountain, and in 305 he emerged

from solitude to teach his followers the way of the ascetic. He then moved further intothe desert by Mount Kolzim near the Red Sea, where a second group of hermits

gathered and later formed a monastery. He lived there for 45 years until his death in356.

St. Pachomius (292-348) of Egypt was a convert to Christianity who settled in thedesert of Tabennisi along the banks of the Nile, and in 320 built a monastery to house

an entire community. He founded nine monasteries that housed 3000 monks beforehis death, and is considered the founder of communal monasticism.

St. Maron (350-410), a contemporary of St. John Chrysostom, was a monk in thefourth century who left Antioch for the Orontes River to lead a life of holiness andprayer. As he was given the gift of healing, his life of solitude was short-lived, and

soon he had many followers that adopted his monastic way. Following the death of St.Maron in 410, his disciples built a monastery in his memory, which would form the

nucleus of the Eastern Catholic Maronite Church of Lebanon.

The fall of the Roman Empire to the barbarian invasions left European civilization indisarray, for the social structure under one ruler in Rome was destroyed. The

preservation of culture and the conversion of the barbarians to Christianity was left toan unlikely group: the monastics of Europe. Their missionary efforts converted onetribe after another, so that eventually all of Europe was united in the worship of the

one Christian God.

St. Patrick as Apostle to Ireland pioneered the founding of monasteries throughout

Ireland. As the social unit in Ireland and much of Europe at the time was the tribe inthe countryside, the monastery was the center of Church life and learning. The Irishmonks that followed him converted much of northern Europe. St. Columba (521 -597)

and his followers converted Scotland and much of northern England. The strict andaustere St. Columban , also known as Columbanus (542-615), crossed over to Gauland founded a number of monasteries in France and converted many of the Franks.

His disciple the Irish monk St. Gall (550-645) became the disciple to Switzerland and


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founded the monastery of St. Gall in 612. St. Aidan served Northumbria in England bythe North Sea and became Bishop of Lindisfarne. The lasting legacy of the Irish

monks has been the present-day form of confession. In early times, penance was inpublic and severe, often lasting for years, such that Baptism was generally postponed

until one's deathbed. The Irish monks began private confession and allowed one torepeat confession as necessary.

The monk St. Benedict (480-547) was born in Nursia of nobility but chose a life of solitude in Subiaco outside of Rome. Soon he moved nearby to build a monastery at

Monte Cassino in 529 and there wrote the Rule of Benedict . Monte Cassino placed allof the monks in one monastery under an abbot. The guiding principle for the

monastery was ora et labora , or pray and work . The monastery provided adequatefood and a place to sleep and served as a center of conversion and learning. Known

for its moderation, Monte Cassino and Benedict's rule became the standard formonasteries throughout Europe and the pattern for Western civilization.

The first monk to become Pope was St. Gregory the Great (540-604). Born toRoman nobility, Gregory at first pursued a political career and became Prefect of

Rome. However he gave up position and wealth and retreated to his home to lead amonastic life. He was recalled to Rome and soon was elected Pope in 590 and served

until his death in 604. A man of great energy, he is known for four historicachievements. His theological and spiritual writings shaped the thought of the MiddleAges ; he made the Pope the de facto ruler of central Italy; his charisma strengthened

the Papacy in the West; and he was dedicated to the conversion of England to

Christianity. Gregory sent the monk Augustine to England. The conversion of KingAethelbert of Kent led St. Augustine to be named the first Bishop of Canterbury. SoonEnglish Benedictine monks were being sent to convert the rest of Europe, such as St.Wilfrid , a missionary to the Saxons and Friesland (part of Holland); St. Willibrord ,

named Bishop of the Netherlands in 695; and the English monk Winfrid, better knownas St. Boniface , who evangelized Germany from 723-739 AD and is known as the

Apostle to Germany. 1, 2-4, 7, 8, 16, 23

CHRISTIANITY THRIVES UNDER THE CAROLINGIANEMPIRE (732-814)

The Carolingian Empire effectively began with Charles Martel, the Mayor of thePalace under the Merovingian Franks. He stopped the Muslim invasion of Europe atthe Battle of Tours near Poitiers in 732, and supported St. Boniface in his conversion

of Germany.


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His son Pepin and the Papacy formed an historic alliance. Pepin needed the blessing

of the Pope in his seizure of leadership of Gaul from the Merovingians. Pope Stephenll, besieged by the Lombards in Italy, was the first Pope to leave Italy and cross the

Alps in 754. He named King Pepin Patrician of the Romans, and in turn Pepin sweptinto Italy and conquered the Lombards, securing the Papal states. Pepin died in 768

and divided his realm between his two sons, Carloman and Charles.

Charles took over all of Gaul upon the death of his brother in 771, and soonconquered most of mainland Europe. He was a vigorous leader and ruled until 814,and has been called Charles the Great or Charlemagne . Charlemagne was a strong

supporter of Christianity. He instituted a school of learning in his palace at Aachen. Inthe Middle Ages there was in theory a division between temporal power and spiritual

authority, but in practice one saw a strong Emperor take control of some spiritualaffairs and a strong Pope take control of some affairs of state. Charlemagne, as

Constantine, considered himself the leader of Christendom as political head of stateand protector of the Church. Pope Leo lll crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the

Romans on Christmas Day, 800 , and this marked the formal alliance of theCarolingian Empire and the Papacy. The historian Christopher Dawson has called this

the beginning of medieval Christendom . 4, 5, 7, 8, 23

THE SCHISM OF 1054

One of the most tragic events in Church history has been the Schism of 1054 betweenthe Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Byzantine Church in Constantinople

of the East.

The actual event that occurred on July 16, 1054 was a personal dispute betweenCardinal Humbert, an abrasive emissary of Pope Leo IX, and the Byzantine Patriarch

Michael Cerularius, who mutually excommunicated each other. While the eventobviously did not end the relationship between the Eastern and Western Churches, ithas become symbolic for the distrust and strain between the East and the West that

developed through the centuries. The break was sealed in 1204 with the sacking of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade.

On 11 May 330 Constantine renamed the Greek city of Byzantium in his honor, andConstantinople became the seat of the Holy Roman Emperor. While Church authorityrested in Rome, the Patriarch of Constantinople had the ear of the Byzantine Emperor.


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The five Patriarchates held seven ecumenical Councils that defined theological beliefson the Trinity and Jesus Christ, all of which were accepted by Rome and

Constantinople. The first two, the Councils of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381)developed the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (today known simply as the NiceneCreed). The Council of Ephesus in 431, which defined Mary as the mother of God,

was rejected, however, by the Nestorians, a group that became the Assyrian Church of the East. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 declared that Jesus was one Person withtwo natures, Divine and human. The Armenians, Syrians, Coptics, and Ethiopians,

who held the belief that Christ had one Divine nature, became known as theMonophysites and formed the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The fifth ecumenicalcouncil at Constantinople (ll) in 553 reaffirmed that there is but one hypostasis or

person, our Lord Jesus Christ. In response to the Monothelite heresy, that Christ hadonly one will, the sixth ecumenical council at Constantinople (lll) in 681 confessedthat Christ had two wills and two natural operations, divine and human in harmony.

As Jesus had a true humanity and his body was finite, the seventh ecumenical councilat Nicaea (ll) in 787 recognized that the human face of Jesus could be represented in

holy images.

The Byzantine Empire fluorished for hundreds of years, while the West was underconstant attack by barbarian invasions. The Empire reached its greatest size underEmperor Justinian, the author of the Justinian Code of Law, who ruled from 527 to

565.

The language of Rome was Latin, but that of Constantinople Greek.

There was a difference in perception of Church authority between the East and West.Rome believed the Pontiff, as the representative of Peter, had supreme authority over

all of Christianity, whereas the East saw the Pope, the Bishop of Rome andrepresentative of Peter, as presiding with love in a sense of collegiality, as a first

among equals.

This difference in perception of Church authority produced the conflict over theaddition of the word filioque - and the Son - to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creedby the Roman Catholic Church. Theological thought on the Trinity had progressed

with time, particularly with St. Augustine, who saw the Holy Spirit as an expressionof love between the Father and the Son. The Council of Toledo, Spain in 587, in aneffort to combat Arianism, added the word filioque to the Creed. Charlemagne in 794insisted on the addition of filioque to the Creed, so that the phrase read the Holy Spirit

proceeded from the Father and the Son (as said today in the West). Pope Leo lll at thetime refused to allow the change and supported the original Creed; however the

Papacy finally accepted the addition of filioque at the coronation of King Henry ll in


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1014. The Eastern Churches claim that the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed is thecommon possession of the whole church and that any change must be done by an

ecumenical Council.

Nearly all of the remaining Eastern Churches, except the Maronites and the Italo-Albanians, joined the Byzantine or Greek Orthodox Church of Constantinople. 4, 5, 7, 8, 23, 24

POPE URBAN ll AND THE FIRST CRUSADE (1095)

Undertake this journey for the remission of your sins,with the assurance of the imperishable glory of the Kingdom of Heaven!


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Pope Urban II, in one of history's most powerful speeches, launched 200 years of theCrusades at the Council of Clermont, France on November 27, 1095 with this

impassioned plea. In a rare public session in an open field, he urged the knights andnoblemen to win back the Holy Land, to face their sins, and called upon those presentto save their souls and become Soldiers of Christ. Those who undertook the venture

were to wear an emblem in the shape of a red cross on their body. And so derived theword Crusader , from the Latin word cruciare - to mark with a cross. By the time his

speech ended, the captivated audience began shouting Deus le volt! - God wills it! Theexpression became the battle-cry of the crusades.

Why did Pope Urban II call for the recapture of the Holy Land? Three reasons areprimarily given for the beginning of the Crusades: (1) to reclaim the Land of Christ

and stop the Moslem invasion; (2) to heal the rift between Roman and OrthodoxChristianity following the Schism of 1054; and (3) to marshal the energy of the

constantly warring feudal lords and knights into the one cause of penitential warfare. One cannot help but observe that the effort restored Papal Primacy and Christendom.

Led by Bishop Adhemar de Puy, the only successful Crusade (of eight major efforts)was the First, when the Crusaders conquered Jerusalem on July 14, 1099. The Churchof the Holy Sepulchre was once again in Christian hands. The four Crusader states of Jerusalem, Tripoli, Antioch, and Edessa were established. The effort lasted only 88

years, when Saladin recaptured Jerusalem October 2, 1187. Richard the Lionheart of England negotiated a settlement with Saladin during the Third Crusade whereby

Christian pilgrims were given free access to Jerusalem.

The four Crusader states eventually collapsed, and with the surrender of Acre in 1291,formal Christian presence in the Holy Land ended. 1, 5, 25, 26

THE MENDICANT ORDERS, ST. THOMAS AQUINAS &SCHOLASTICISM

The thirteenth century was the peak of the Medieval Age. It was the flowering of

Christendom, a time of extraordinary intellectual activity, due to the introduction of Arabian, Hebrew, and Greek works into the Christian schools, and the rise of the

University . A new form of religious order arose whose aim was to pursue themonastic ideals of poverty, renunciation, and self-sacrifice, but also, instead of

withdrawing from the world, to maintain a presence and convert the world by exampleand preaching. They were known as friars and called the mendicant orders

(Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, Augustinians, and the Servites), because of
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begging alms to support themselves.

St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) was born to wealth. He loved adventure, butexperienced conversion after joining the military. He returned home, and heard avoice saying to him, "Francis, go and rebuild my house; it is falling down." He

adopted a life of poverty, and began to preach the Kingdom of Heaven. Francis lovedcreation (unlike the Cathari) and considered it good, for Christ himself took on fleshin the Incarnation. He loved all living creatures. St. Francis originated the Christmas

manger scene. He founded the Franciscan order, and received approval from Rome in1209. The Poor Clare Nuns began when St. Clare joined the Franciscans in 1212 in

Assisi. In 1219 St. Francis risked his life in the Fifth Crusade by calling directly uponthe Sultan of Egypt in an effort to convert him and bring peace. He received the

stigmata of Christ in 1224, 2 years before his death in 1226.

St. Dominic de Guzman (1170-1221) was born in Calaruega, Spain. On a journeythrough France he was confronted by the Albigensian heresy (as Manichaeism and theCathari). As he came with a Bishop in richly dressed clothes on horses, he realized thepeople would not be impressed with his message. This led him to a life of poverty. Hespent several years preaching in France in an attempt to convert the Albigensians. In1208 in Prouille, France, he received a vision of the Blessed Virgin Mary and beganto spread devotion to the Rosary. Dominic was a man of peace and converted many

through prayer, preaching, and his example of poverty. He founded the Order of Preachers in 1216 known as the Dominican Friars.

The universities in Europe began as guilds of scholars, which first attracted membersof the clergy and were supported financially by the Church. The first two universitiesin Europe were founded in Bologna and Paris, and Oxford and Cambridge soonfollowed. Theology, law, and medicine were the fields of advanced study. The

University of Paris was especially noted for studies in Theology. The age was the timeof Scholasticism - of the schools , a method of learning that placed emphasis on

reasoning. Important writers at the time were Bonaventure, Duns Scotus, AlbertusMagnus, and his student Thomas Aquinas, who became the greatest theologian and

philosopher of the age.

St. Thomas Aquinas was a Dominican priest who lived from 1225 to 1274. Born inRoccasecca, Italy to the Aquino family, he joined the Dominicans at the age of 18. Hereceived his doctorate in theology and taught at the University of Paris during the

height of Christendom.

One of the greatest contributions by Thomas was his incorporation of the philosophyof Aristotle into the theology of the Catholic Church. Thomas saw reason and faith as
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one and mutually supportive, and combined the Bible and Church Fathers and thereasoning of Aristotle into one unified system of understanding Christian revelation

through faith enlightened by reason.

His most noted work was the Summa Theologica , a five-volume masterpiece. St.Thomas Aquinas presented the classical approach to Biblical Exegesis. Recalling thewords of Gregory that Scripture transcends every science, " for in one and the same

sentence, while it describes a fact, it reveals a mystery." In addition to the literalsense, Thomas described the three spiritual senses of Scripture, the allegorical, the

truth revealed, the moral, the life commended, and the anagogical, the final goal to beachieved. His exposition on the Seven Sacraments remains a standard to our present

day. 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 16, 19, 27

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

The Protestant Reformation was the result of the failure of the Catholic Church toreform itself in time.

The dark side of the thirteenth through fifteenth centuries saw the Fourth Crusade toConstantinople in 1204, the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathari in 1209, and the

beginning of the Inquisition, which became severely punitive.

The Papacy suffered a great loss of respect during the Avignon Papacy (1305-1378),and especially during the Papal Schism (1378-1417), when two and at one point threemen declared themselves Pope and fought with each other. The Papal Schism had to

be resolved by Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg and the Council of Constance1414-1417, which finally deposed all three Popes and chose Martin V to continue thePapacy. However the Council also declared John Hus , the Prague reformer, a heretic;

he was burned at the stake on July 6, 1415.

Another victim of the Inquisition was St. Joan of Arc , who saved France during theHundred Years War with England. She was burned at the stake on May 30, 1431 in

Rouen, France. The Spanish Inquisition in the fifteenth century was particularlyruthless. These events led many to question the compassion and integrity of theChurch.

Christian humanism, a rejoicing in man's achievements and capabilities reflecting thegreater glory of God, had perhaps its beginning with the Divine Comedy , published in

1320 by Dante Alighieri. The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries generated the
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Renaissance or rebirth in art, architecture, literature, and sculpture. Michelangelo,Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, and Botticelli led the way in art. Brunelleschi revived the

ancient Roman style of architecture and introduced linear perspective. The greatsculptors were Donatello and Michelangelo. St. Thomas More and Erasmus were theleading Christian humanists in literature. St. Thomas More of England wrote Utopia on an ideal society in 1516, and Erasmus called for reform of the Church and a return

to spiritual values, but was left without response.

The unity of Tradition and Scripture went unchallenged through the Patristic Age andthirteenth century scholasticists such as St. Bonaventure (1221-1274) and St. Thomas

Aquinas. But the unity of Scripture and Tradition began to be questioned with thedecline of the Church. The Belgian Henry of Ghent (1217-1293) believed that one

should first have the duty to follow Scripture rather than a Church that became one inname only. The English Franciscan William of Ockham (or Occam) was known forthe principle of Occam's Razor, that one needs to reduce everything to its simplest

cause. Ockham (1288-1348) theorized on three possibilities of the relation of Scripture and the Church. First there was sola Scriptura, that one could obtain

salvation by following Scripture alone; second, that God does reveal truths to theuniversal Church, an ecclesiastical revelation supplemental to apostolic revelation;and third, the concept of orally transmitted apostolic revelation parallel to written

Scripture. Ockham believed that one could reach God only through faith and not byreason. He wrote that universals, such as truth, beauty, and goodness, were conceptsof the mind and did not exist, a philosophy known as Nominalism . Thus began the

division of the realm of faith from the secular world of reason.

The rise of Nationalism led to the end of Christendom, for countries resented anyeffort to support Rome, especially in its dismal state. The lack of Church funds led to

even further corruption, including simony and the selling of indulgences.

For example, Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz had to pay Rome ten thousand ducats forthe right to hold three dioceses at once, and agreed to a three-way split with theRoman Curia and the Fugger Banking firm from the proceeds of the selling of

indulgences.

The invention of the movable type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in Mainz,Germany saw the first printing of the Latin Vulgate Bible in 1456.

The stage was set for the reform-minded Martin Luther (1483-1546), the Augustinianmonk of Wittenberg, Germany. He received his doctorate in theology in 1512, andthen taught biblical studies at the University of Wittenberg. His study of Scripture,

particularly St. Paul in his Letter to the Romans, led him to believe that salvation was


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obtained through justification by faith alone. At first, his only interest was one of reform when he posted his 95 theses on the door of the Wittenberg Church October

31, 1517.

But the intransigence of the Church, and poor handling of the situation by the Popeand Curia only worsened matters, such that a break was inevitable. In a July 1519

debate with the Catholic theologian Johann Eck, Luther stated that sola Scriptura -Scripture alone - was the supreme authority in religion. He could no longer accept the

authority of the Pope or the Councils, such as Constance.

In 1520 Luther utilized the printing press and published 3 documents which laid downthe fundamental principles of the Reformation. In To the Christian Nobility of the

German Nation , Luther attacked the corruptions of the Church and the abuses of itsauthority, and asserted the right of the layman to spiritual independence. In the

Babylonian Captivity of the Church , he criticized the sacramental system, and set upthe Scriptures as the supreme authority in religion. In On the Freedom of the Christian Man , he expounded the doctrine of justification by faith alone, and gave a complete

presentation of his theological position. The Augsburg Confession of 1530, written byPhilip Melanchthon and approved by Martin Luther, was the most widely accepted

Lutheran confession of faith.

Once sola Scriptura became the norm, it became a matter of personal interpretation.

Huldrich Zwingli of Zurich, Switzerland was next, and he broke with Luther over the

Eucharist, but his sect died out. The Anabaptists separated from Zwingli as theydenied the validity of infant baptism; they survived as the Mennonites .

Jean Calvin published his Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536, and had aninternational impact on John Knox and the Presbyterians of Scotland; the French

Huguenots; the Dutch Reformed; and the Pilgrims and Puritans. While he agreed withLuther on the basic Protestant tenets of sola scriptura, salvation by faith alone, and thepriesthood of all believers, he went even further on such issues as predestination and

the sacraments. George Fox, the son of Puritan parents, founded the Quakers inEngland in 1647.

King Henry Vlll wrote a defense of the seven sacraments, but when refused anannulment from Catherine of Aragon, he had himself declared Supreme Head of theChurch of England. Thomas Cranmer became the new Archbishop of Canterbury in

1533, and the Anglican Church of England was established. Archbishop Cranmermarried Henry Vlll and Anne Boleyn that same year. Thomas More refused to attend

the wedding, and was imprisoned in the Tower of London and later beheaded in 1535.


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Two major sects that split off from the Anglicans were the Baptists , founded by JohnSmyth in 1607, and later the Methodists , founded by John Wesley and his brother

Charles. 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 28-30

OUR LADY OF GUADALUPE

Then God's temple in heaven was opened, and the ark of his covenant could be seen in the temple.

There were flashes of lightning, rumblings, and peals of thunder, an earthquake, and a violent hailstorm.

A great sign appeared in the sky, a woman clothed with the sun,with the moon under her feet,

and on her head a crown of twelve stars. Revelation 11:19-12:1

The four appearances of Our Lady of Guadalupe to the Aztec Indian Juan DiegoDecember 9-12 of 1531 generated the conversion of Mexico, Central and South

America to Catholicism.

On December 12, 1531, Juan Diego was obedient to the Blessed Virgin Mary'sinstruction to gather beautiful roses in his tilma and take them to the FranciscanBishop Don Fray Juan de Zumarraga, his third visit to request the building of a

Church as requested by Our Lady. Juan Diego explained to the Bishop all that hadpassed. Then he put up both hands and untied the corners of crude cloth behind hisneck. The looped-up fold of the tilma fell; the flowers he thought were the precious

sign tumbled out on the floor.

The Bishop fell on his knees in adoration before the tilma, as well as everyone else inthe room. For on the tilma was the image of the Blessed Virgin Mary, just as

described by Juan Diego, and still preserved today in original condition in Tepeyac,the outskirts of Mexico City.

The Spanish conquistadors may have conquered the Aztecs in 1521, but their ruthlesssbehavior antagonized the people, and conversions were few.

Our Lady of Guadalupe conveyed the beautiful message of Christianity: the true Godsacrificed himself for mankind, instead of the horrendous life they had endured

sacrificing humans to appease the frightful gods! It is no wonder that over the next
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seven years, from 1531 to 1538, eight million natives of Mexico converted toCatholicism!

Indeed, the Blessed Virgin Mary entered the very lifestream of Central America andbecame an inextricable part of Mexican life and a central figure to the history of Mexico itself. To this date a major religious celebration in Mexico and Central

America is December 12, the feast-day of Our Lady of Guadalupe. A harbinger of things to come, Christianity would thrive in the Americas. Her appearance in the

center of the American continents has contributed to the Virgin of Guadalupe beinggiven the title "Mother of the Americas." 1, 7, 31-33

THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION & THE COUNCIL OF

TRENT (1545-1564)"You should know how to behave in the household of God,

which is the church of the living God, the pillar and foundation of truth."

1 Timothy 3:15

The Catholic Church reformed itself both through the positive work of renewal andthrough the impetus of the Protestant Reformation. Efforts at reform had alreadybegun with the Oratory of Divine Love in Genoa in 1497. The strict order of the

Theatines was founded in 1524 and made significant efforts at the reform of the parishclergy. The Capuchins were founded in Italy in 1528 to restore the Franciscan Orderto its original ideals. St. Ignatius of Loyola began the Jesuit Order in 1534.

But the major thrust at reform was the Council of Trent. Pope Paul lll surmountedincredible obstacles to convene the first of three sessions on December 13, 1545,which continued until 1547. The second session was held 1551-1552. The third

session was convened by Pius IV, co-founder of the Theatines, and held 1562-1563.Pope Pius IV confirmed the Decrees of the Council of Trent in January 1564.

The Council addressed three areas: doctrine, discipline, and devotion.

Seven major areas were included in doctrine: that our justification was not just byfaith alone, but also by hope and charity expressed in good works in cooperation with

God's grace. Both Tradition and Scripture were essential to the faith. The LatinVulgate was promoted as the only canonical Scripture. There was a clear definition of

the seven sacraments. The Mass as a sacrificial memorial of the Sacrifice of Christ


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was confirmed, and the Council reaffirmed Transubstantiation. The Mass, known asthe Tridentine Mass, was given strict form and was celebrated only in Latin. The LatinTridentine Mass provided unity for the universal Church, for it was the same Mass in

every place and time.

What does it profit, my brethren, if a man says he has faith but has not works?Can his faith save him?

If a brother or sister is ill-clad and in lack of daily food, and one of you says to them, "Go in peace, be warmed and filled,"

without giving them the things needed for the body, what does it profit?So faith by itself, if it has no works, is dead.

Epistle of St. James 2:14-17

Discipline involved strict reform and the establishment of the seminary system for theproper and uniform training of priests. The office of indulgence seller was abolished,and doctrine on indulgences was clarified. The Bishops were given only one dioceseand residence was required, begun by the reformer St. Charles Borromeo of Milan.

Devotion became more interior, as in Marian devotion. The age of renewal wasmarked by a time of mystics and activist saints. Noteworthy were the Spanish

mysticism of St. Teresa of Avila and St. John of the Cross. St. Francis de Sales,Bishop of Geneva from 1602-1622, converted many souls to Catholicism; he helpedSt. Jane de Chantal found the Order of the Visitation Nuns in 1610. St. Vincent dePaul was noted for his efforts with the poor, and founded the Congregation of the

Mission Order in 1625; he helped St. Louise de Marillac form the Sisters of Charity in1633.

The Council of Trent marked an important turning point for the Catholic Church, forit provided clarity on the beliefs of the Church, and ecclesiastical discipline was

restored. The doctrines established at Trent persist to this day. 1, 4, 5, 7

CATHOLIC MISSIONARIES TO THE WORLD

The Catholic Reformation coincided with the wave of exploration to the New Worldand the Far East. Catholic missionaries accompanied the explorers on their journeys,

such as Christopher Columbus to the Americas in 1492, the Portuguese Vasco daGama to Goa, India in 1498, and Ferdinand Magellan to the Philippines in 1521.

St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552) exemplifies the missionary movement, and has beenrecognized as second only to the Apostle Paul in his evangelical efforts. The patron


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saint of missionaries, Francis Xavier sailed from Lisbon, Portugal and landed in Goain 1542. His humble way had great impact on the local people, and he trained theyoung in the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer. He was soon reported to

have baptized 10,000 a month. He then headed to Cape Comorin, the southern tip of India, where he made many conversions of the fisherman there. Further travels took

Francis Xavier to Malacca in Malaysia in 1545 and then to Japan in 1549.

Fr. Andres de Urdaneta and the Augustinian monks sailed on the Spanish fleet led byMiguel Lopez de Legazpi, and landed in Cebu, Philippines in 1565. Upon discovery

of Santo Nino (the Image of the Infant Jesus left by Magellan), they began theconversion of the Philippines to Catholicism.

The Missionary Franciscan Toribio de Benavente arrived in Mexico in 1524. He was aself-sacrificing man dedicated to protecting the natives, and received the name

Motolinia for his life of poverty. He recorded in his book History of the Indians of New Spain the dramatic conversions following the appearances of Our Lady of

Guadalupe. The Dominican Bartholomew de Las Casas first went to the West Indiesin 1502 as a soldier, but on viewing the horrendous enslavement of the native Indiansthrough the Spanish encomienda system, was ordained as a Dominican priest in 1523,the first ordination in America. In his role as human rights advocate for the Indians, he

is considered an early pioneer of social justice.

The Jesuits were especially noted for missionary efforts to North America, such asFather Andrew White, who accompanied the Calverts to Maryland in 1634, Isaac

Jogues to Quebec in 1636, and Jacques Marquette to Michigan in 1668. Missionaryefforts would continue to the New World for years to come. 1, 4, 7, 16, 34

THE KING JAMES BIBLE OF 1611

The history of the English Bible is intimately intertwined with the history of theReformation. Following the death of Queen Elizabeth, James VI of Scotland became

King James I of England in 1603. His claim to the throne of England derived from his

great-grandmother, Margaret Tudor, a daughter of Henry VII who married James IVof Scotland. He served until his death in 1625, when he was succeeded by his son,Charles I. It was a time when the English language reached its greatest expression in

the works of William Shakespeare (1558-1616) and the King James Bible.

King James as head of the Church of England commissioned a group of bishops andscholars to establish an authoritative translation of the Bible from the original
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languages into English in 1604. There were several English versions available, eitheras translations of the Latin Vulgate or from the 1516 Greek-Latin parallel New

Testament of Erasmus; the ones that follow influenced the King James scholars. JohnWycliffe produced a hand-written English translation of the Latin Vulgate in 1384.William Tyndale, an English Lutheran, brought the first printed version of the New

Testament into England in 1526. His colleague, Miles Coverdale, completedTyndale's work, which formed the basis for the Great Bible (1539), the first

authorized Bible in English, which was placed in every church in England. When theCatholic Queen Mary came to the throne in 1553, further work had to be done on the

European continent, and the Geneva Bible, the first to have numbered verses, waspublished in 1557. Beginning with the Protestant Elizabethan era in 1558, the EnglishCatholic Douay-Rheims Bible, a translation of the Vulgate, had to be produced on theEuropean continent as well, the Old Testament completed at Rheims, France in 1582,

and the New Testament completed at Douay, France in 1609.

The Authorized King James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611. TheKing James Bible originally included the Apocrypha but in a separate section. Aliterary masterpiece of the English language, the King James Bible is still in use

today. 5, 28, 35


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CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AMERICA

Following the discovery of Florida by Ponce de Leon in 1513, St. Augustine, Florida became the first permanent European settlement in North America in 1565, from

which missionaries spread Christianity to the native American Indians. The first Massof Thanksgiving on North American soil was actually celebrated by the Spanish withthe Timucuan Indians from Seloy village in attendance on September 8, 1565 in St.

Augustine, Florida.

Christianity continued to thrive in the New World as our young Nation developed.Four of the original 13 English colonies were specifically chartered for religiousfreedom, as a refuge from religious persecution in England at the time - William

Bradford and the Pilgrim Congregationalists at Cape Cod in 1620 and the CalvinistJohn Winthrop and the Puritan Protestants in 1629 in Massachusetts ; Lord Baltimore

George Calvert and his son Cecil Calvert for the Catholics in Maryland in 1632;
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Roger Williams and the Baptists in Providence, Rhode Island in 1644; and WilliamPenn and the Quakers in 1682 in Pennsylvania . The Mennonites also moved toPennsylvania in 1683 at the invitation of William Penn, for Pennsylvania was

established for universal religious toleration.

Early American Writings , as well as the principles of the Declaration of Independence , reflect the Christian heritage of our nation, the United States of

America. 1, 5, 7, 36-44

THE GREAT AWAKENING DURING THEENLIGHTENMENT ERA

The period from 1650 through the eighteenth century was known as the Age of Enlightenment in Europe. The time had come when men would set aside religiousviews and look to reason and social experience to guide society.

It was the loss of Christian unity that led to the secularization of Western culture.

Whereas Christendom provided one message to European society, the pluralism of religions provided different answers to questions about life and led to skepticism andconflict rather than unanimous thought. Nations and men turned to their own desires.Nations waged war in a quest for more land and power, and the peasantry suffered at

the hands of nobility.

Discoveries in science had much to do with the Age of Enlightenment. Copernicus(1473-1543) proposed the sun is the center of the solar system and the earth revolved

around the sun, and published his work shortly before his death. Galileo Galilei(1564-1642), the first to use a telescope, confirmed that Copernicus was right, and

was condemned by the Catholic Church. Scientists such as Isaac Newton (1642-1727)in physics and Robert Boyle (1642-1727) in chemistry were pioneers and gave birth to

technology, the application of science to practical problems, which led to theIndustrial Revolution. Progress based on science and technology became a major goal

of Western Society.

Mankind was left without its mooring, and philosophers set out in different directionsto provide meaning for humanity. The critical Rationalism of Rene Descartes (1596-

1650) applied to philosophy the mathematical method so effective in science, thateverything was questionable until it could be proved beyond all doubt. Blaise Pascal

(1623-1662) took a different stance and presented Pascal's Wager: it is better to live a
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good life, for if there is a God, you will end up with Him in Heaven; but if you havelived a bad life and there is a God, you are doomed! John Locke (1632-1704) applied

reason to confirm revelation. The political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu of France (1689-1755) proposed that the best form of government would incorporate aseparation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches and would be

based on the natural law. David Hume (1711- 1776) proposed a science of man, and isconsidered a pioneer in the social sciences. But Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778),

considered the father of Romanticism, took an opposite approach and spoke of thenoble savage, that man was happy only in his original native state, before government,

laws, and politics chained mankind. It was the German philosopher Immanuel Kant(1724-1804) that defined the era: "Have courage to use your own reason - that is the

motto of Enlightenment."

The Age of Enlightenment proposed that reason and science would bring an"enlightened" world.

Unfortunately, the Age of Enlightenment ignored love, emotion, spirituality andconcern for one's fellow man. It forgot that man is wounded by original and personal

sin, and his reason is colored by desire and selfishness. In fact, the Age of Enlightenment brought the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror (1789),

Naziism, Communism, and the twentieth century, with its two World Wars, thebloodiest century in history.

John Wesley (1703-1791) and his brother Charles (1707-1788) provided light for

Christianity during this Enlightenment era. John Wesley, noted for his movingsermons, and his brother Charles, a poetic genius and hymn writer, began theMethodist movement in England, and set forth an evangelical revival throughout the

British Isles, North America, and the world.

The two brothers were raised in the Anglican Church. While at Oxford they formed agroup, joined by George Whitefield and others, called the Holy Club in November1729 and read the Greek New Testament. Because of their strict method of living,

they were soon called the Methodists.

In 1735 the brothers sailed to Savannah, Georgia for a missionary trip to nativeAmericans. The mission proved futile and they returned home to England. However,John Wesley experienced a heartwarming conversion experience at Aldersgate Streetin London in 1738. He preached in the English countryside to the poor, and sparked areligious revival throughout England. He assured the people that all could be saved by

experiencing God and opening their hearts to his grace.


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The Methodist movement proved most successful in North America. GeorgeWhitefield made seven trips to America beginning in 1738 and was one of the mostpowerful evangelists ever; he could be heard by up to 30,000 at one time. He, alongwith others, kindled a spiritual revival throughout the thirteen colonies known as theGreat Awakening . In 1784 John Wesley appointed one hundred preachers through

the Deed of Declaration, and appointed Francis Asbury and Thomas Coke assuperintendents of the Methodist Church in America. Methodist circuit-riders were

effective missionaries in spreading the Christian faith from the South to settlers in themid-West. By the beginning of the American Civil War, Methodism was the largest

Christian denomination in North America.

Methodism was the key Christian revival during the Enlightenment and proved thehuman need for spiritual experience through Jesus Christ. 4, 5, 7, 28, 37, 38, 41

THE RELIGIOUS CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

But I say to you, do not resist an evil person; but whoever slaps you on your right cheek, turn the other to him also.

Gospel of Matthew 5:39

The American Declaration of Independence of July 4, 1776 read all men are createdequal, but slavery persisted. How could the Revolutionary War be fought for freedom

without granting freedom to all? The 1861-1865 American Civil War reflected theChristian heritage of our Nation, for the moral issue of slavery troubled the hearts of Americans from our very beginning. The Civil War ended slavery, but left the USA

with separate but equal segregation.

The non-violent religious movement of the 1950s and 1960s emerged as the civilrights movement in the USA, which finally afforded racial equality for African-

Americans, one hundred years after the Emancipation Proclamation! The crusadearose within Negro Churches, the center of their life. African-Americans had begun toreceive recognition in the fields of art, music, and sports. But it took an unknown lady

in Montgomery, Alabama named Rosa Parks , who was arrested on December 1,1955 for refusing to move to the back of the bus for a white person, that sparked thedrive for civil rights. The young and eloquent pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist

Church, Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. , was elected President of theMontgomery Improvement Association, which had begun the Montgomery Bus

boycott. The boycott lasted 381 days until a Supreme Court decision endedsegregation on city buses. Reverend King then organized 60 pastors into the Southern

Christian Leadership Conference, which fostered the civil rights movement.


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St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas distinguished between just and unjust laws.

Non-violent civil disobedience , advocated by John Locke, Henry David Thoreau, andMahatma Gandhi, was employed by civil rights leaders against oppressive and unjustcivil laws. In general, one is obligated to obey civil laws that are just (Matthew 22:21,Romans 13:1-7), but first one must obey God rather than man (Acts 5:29) in the eventof unjust laws, such as Pharaoh's daughter v. the Pharaoh (Exodus 1:15-2:10); Rahabv. the King of Jericho (Joshua 2:1-21); Shadrach, Meshach, and Abegnego v. KingNebuchadnezzar (Daniel 3:19-30); the Maji v. King Herod (Matthew 2:1-23); and

Peter and the Apostles v. the Sanhedrin (Acts 4:5-22 and 5:17-42). Law itself is notmeant for the righteous (l Timothy 1:9). The early Christians refused to obey the

Romans and suffered martyrdom rather than worship the Emperor.

President John F. Kennedy announced on a nationwide televised speech on June 11,1963 that he would submit Civil Rights legislation the following week: "This Nation

was founded on the principle that all men are created equal, and that the rights of every man are diminished when the rights of one man are threatened...We are

confronted primarily with a moral issue. It is old as the Scriptures and as clear as the American Constitution." Reverend King quoted Scripture in his speeches and his

powerful Letter from a Birmingham Jail , and urged non-violent protest to turn the tidein favor of racial equality, a movement that crystallized in his famous I Have A Dream

speech on the Washington, D. C. National Mall on August 28, 1963. 37-44

THE SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL (1962-1965)

"Holy Father, keep them in your name that you have given me,

so that they may be one, just as we are."Gospel of John 17:11

The surprise announcement of a Second Vatican Council by Pope John XXIII waswelcomed with open arms by all of Christianity, for the Pope called not only for anintense spiritual cultivation of the modern world, but also sought Christian unity .

His opening speech convening the Second Vatican Council on October 11, 1962referred to Jesus in the Gospel of John (17:11): "The Catholic Church, therefore,

considers it her duty to work actively so that there may be fulfilled the great mysteryof that unity, which Jesus Christ invoked with fervent prayer from His heavenly

Father on the eve of His sacrifice."
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The Pope then stressed the need for unity in three areas: namely, the unity of

Catholics among themselves; the unity with those Christians separated from ourChurch, and unity in dignity for those who follow non-Christian religions. This efforttowards unity accelerated the original call for Christian unity by the Protestant World Missionary Conference of Edinburgh in 1906, who recognized the lack of Christian

unity proved to be a grave impediment to bringing non-Christians into the Church.

The Second Vatican Council literally "reset the course" for the Catholic Church, aChurch which had been described by some as a fortress Church embattled during theEnlightenment and the Modernist era. The reforms of the Council of Trent begun in

1545 were necessary following the Protestant Reformation. To coin the expression of Hans Urs von Balthazar in 1952, the time had come to raze the bastions of the

Church. It was time for the aggiornamento of Pope John XXIII, the "opening of thewindow" of the Church to the outside world, "a translation of the Christian message

into an intellectual language understandable by the modern world."

Sixteen documents were published throughout the Council. There were four principalConstitutions: the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy; the Dogmatic Constitution on

Divine Revelation; the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church; and the PastoralConstitution on the Church in the Modern World. There were also nine Decrees - theDecrees on Ecumenism and the Eastern Catholic Churches; on the Missions and theMedia, and five on the Clergy, Religious and Laity. There were three Declarations -the Declaration on Religious Liberty; Relations with non-Christian religions; and the

necessity of Christian Education. The important contributions of Vatican ll include:

1) The liturgy of the Mass may be said in the native (or vernacular) language, whichallows the liturgy to be intelligible to the layman and helps secure their participation

in the fullest.

2) Lumen Gentium shifted the emphasis of the Church away from its pyramidalstructure to the vision of the whole People of God . The role of the hierarchy is seen asprimarily one of service. The affirmation of the collegial relationship of the Pope and

bishops was stressed at Vatican ll. The roles of Bishop, Priest, and Deacon were

reaffirmed. The vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience are ever more important forthe religious orders, to serve as examples for the modern world. The role of the laityto order temporal affairs to the plan of God was emphasized.

3) The spirit of ecumenism and the change of heart towards all Christian brethren wastruly a gift of the Holy Spirit. Lumen Gentium declared "the one Church of Jesus

Christ subsists in the Catholic Church, although many elements of sanctification and


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truth exist outside its visible structure, elements which impel toward catholic unity."In the Declaration on Religious Liberty, the Vatican declared that the human person

has a right to religious freedom.

4) The Decree on Eastern Catholic Churches and the Second Vatican Council havehad a dramatic impact on the growth and viability of the Eastern Catholic Churches.

5) The call for dialogue with the modern secular world was a landmark step for theChurch, as described in Gaudium et Spes . Dr. Alan Schreck of Franciscan Universityoffers 3 keys to Gaudium et Spes: (a) the root of the world's problems is found in thehuman heart. (b) God has created each person in his image and likeness and thereforeeach person has his own value and dignity. Pope John Paul ll, who was involved in itswriting, calls Gaudium et Spes the "magna carta of human activity, to be safeguardedand promoted." (c) The need for the Church to be a prophetic witness of the truth and

to proclaim Jesus Christ.

6) Implementation of the Second Vatican Council led to the decision to create theCatechism of the Catholic Church , first published in 1992.

7) The greatest fruit of the Second Vatican Council was the exceptional Papacy of John Paul ll (1978-2005), who integrated the vision of Vatican ll into the life of hisPapacy. Vatican ll was the lens, the perspective of his view of the Church and the

world. In fact, the Pope, in his 1994 book Crossing The Threshold of Hope , called theSecond Vatican Council "the Seminary of the Holy Spirit." 1, 4, 7, 44-47

THE PAPACY OF POPE JOHN PAUL ll (1978-2005)

Karol Wojtyla (1920-2005) will be remembered as Pope John Paul ll. A playwright,actor, and poet, he was born May 18, 1920 in Wadowice, Poland. In 1938 he enrolledin the school of drama at Jagiellonian University in Krakow, where he played goalieon the college soccer team. He entered an underground seminary in 1942 during the

Nazi Regime, and was ordained a priest in 1946 after Poland fell under Communism.

Oppression by the Nazis and Communists forged his dedication to freedom andhuman rights. He earned a doctorate in theology in 1948 and a doctorate in philosopyin 1954. His first book was Love and Responsibility , on love and sexual morality,published in 1960. His highly successful play on love, The Jeweler's Shop , was

published in 1960 and subsequently translated into 22 languages, and was made into amovie in 1988.


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Karol Wojtyla became Bishop of Krakow, Poland in 1958. He attended the SecondVatican Council and helped to draft the documents on Religious Liberty and the

Church in the Modern World. He then became Archbishop of Krakow in 1964 andCardinal in 1967. Following the 33-day papacy of John Paul l, the Conclave of

Cardinals elected the bright, personable, and vigorous Wojtyla the 264th Pope onOctober 16, 1978.

Pope John Paul ll was truly one of the most dynamic Popes in the history of theCatholic Church. The man lived his philosophy, that man is a relational being . Theworld was his parish, as the loving and outgoing Pope made an unprecedented 104

papal trips abroad. During his three pilgrimages to Poland, his repeated call forfreedom and spiritual renewal was the turning-point that ultimately led to the non-

violent collapse of Communism, symbolized by the fall of the Berlin Wall onNovember 9, 1989.

The world was moved when he forgave and visited the man who seriously woundedhim in St. Peter's Square on May 13, 1981. He became a symbol of hope to the youngwith his inauguration of International World Youth Day in 1987. As expressed in his1994 book Crossing the Thres

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