HISTORICAL WATERWORKS IN TURKEY ABSTRACT ...iwtc.info/2005_pdf/05-1.pdfThe most ancient remains of...

Ninth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC9 2005, Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt

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HISTORICAL WATERWORKS IN TURKEY

Ünal ÖZ�� (*) Ay�en TÜRKMAN (**) Yalçın ÖZDEM�R (*) (*) Civil Engineering Department

(**) Environmental Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering, Dokuz Eylül University, Buca, �zmir, Turkey

ABSTRACT Turkey has been the home of ancient civilizations since the beginning of history. Hittites, Urartus, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Seljukides and Ottomans left delicate remains in Anatolia. Ancient waterworks are distributed all over the country making Turkey an open-air museum with respect to water history.

The most ancient remains of waterworks in Turkey date back to the II. Millenium BC, the Hittite period in Central Anatolia, like the Karakuyu dam, the springwater collection chamber in Bo�azkale, and some others. From the first half of the I. Millenium BC, the Urartu period in Eastern Anatolia, there exist various remains of dams and canals, some of them still in use like the 56 km long �amram canal, the dams at Ke�i� and Doni lakes.

Remains of Hellenistic and especially Roman and early Byzantine waterworks in Western and Southern Turkey, from the second half of the I. Millenium BC to the first half of the I. Millenium AD; are very numerous and new discoveries add to the rich variety of them. Among the remains of waterworks from the Ottoman period in Turkey, 14. to 20. centuries, those for �stanbul and Edirne deserve particular interest. Starting from 1923, the Turkish Republic has also spent huge effort in water resources development projects. Keywords: Historical, , ancient, waterworks, Turkey.

INTRODUCTION

The relationship between water and civilizations is obvious: ancient civilizations have developed near water resources. There are many examples of engineering structures remaining from the ancient times. Water-related documents and remains show that the oldest water works were realized in the Nile basin, in Mesopotamia formed by Euphrates and Tigris, in Indus and Huang-Ho (Yellow river) basins, during the III. and II. Millennia BC, primarily for control of rivers and for irrigation.

It is almost obvious, that the flourishing of such civilizations in relatively arid zones, but close to large rivers, could have only been achieved by the development of waterwork systems enabling the control and utilization of these rivers. Hence, the earliest powerful states appeared in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus and China; due to the necessity of a powerful central authority to manage the large water systems in these countries and they


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were also called "hydraulic civilizations". On the other hand, it is quite natural that the need for large waterworks in less arid zones with suitable climate and lacking such large rivers, like Turkey and many other Mediterranean countries arises quite later. The first powerful state in Asia Minor, the Hittites, dates from the II. Millennium BC and those in other Mediterranean regions are quite later.

Significant variations, in time and space, of precipitation, groundwater and especially river discharges, led the inhabitants of this planet to construct dams for preventing damages caused by water and/or for beneficial use of water. Since about 5000 years, such dams served to control floods, to divert rivers, to supply domestic and irrigation water, and even to harness the mechanical energy of water through water-mills, long before the development of modern hydraulic structures and hydroelectric equipment.

Although archeologists, historians and occasionally civil engineers have made limited number of publications until the second half of the 20. century on ancient waterworks, they attracted growing interest after 1950’s, especially with increasing contributions of civil engineers and with special interest towards ancient hydraulic works in Turkey (Garbrecht [1,2], Grewe [3, 4], Fahlbusch [5], Tölle-Kastenbein [6], Yıldız & Kuzum [23], Hodge [7], Crouch [8], Schnitter [9], Özi� [10-19], Bildirici [20], Büyükyıldırım [21], D.S.�. [22], Viollet [24]).

The first traces of the actual concept of positive sciences and the transition from art to science in water engineering are observed in the Aegean region of the Anatolian soil, beginning with the contributions of Thales (624-548 BC), the founder of the Miletus-school and one of the seven wisest men of his time. However, the real emphasis of positive sciences in the design and construction of waterworks could be achieved after the 17. century AD.

Hydraulic structures implemented during the last four thousand years on Anatolian soil, which was the crossroads of civilizations, make Turkey one of the richest and interesting open-air museums of the world with regard to ancient waterworks. Table 1 gives the summary of ancient waterworks in Turkey. The locations are indicated in Figure 1.

HITTITE PERIOD IN CENTRAL ANATOLIA

The most ancient remains of waterworks in Turkey date back to the II. Millennium BC, the Hittite period in Central Anatolia. These include Karakuyu and some other dams like Eflatunpınar, Köylütolu, Yalburt,


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Gölpınar, Güneykale (Emre [25], Özi� [18]; Bildirici [26], the springwater collection in Bo�azkale (Neve [27]), and some irrigation works in Central Anatolia (Bildirici & Bildirici [28]).

Table 1. Summary of ancient waterworks in Turkey.

Civilization Period Waterworks Location

Hitite 2nd millennium BC

-Dams -Springwater collection chambers -Conduits

Central Anatolia

Urartu 1st millennium (first half) BC

-Canals -Dams -Galleries

Eastern Anatolia

Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine

1st millennium (second half) - 1st millennium AD

-Conveyance systems -Cisterns -Tunnels -Dams

Western and Southern Anatolia

Seljukide 10th -13th century -Conveyance systems -Irrigation canals

Different parts of Turkey

Ottoman 13th -20th century -Conveyance systems -Dams

Different parts of Turkey

Republic of Turkey 1923-present - All types Different parts of

Turkey URARTU PERIOD IN EASTERN ANATOLIA From the first half of the I. Millenium BC, the Urartu period in Eastern Anatolia, there exist various remains of dams and canals (Ö�ün [29], Garbrecht [30], Belli [31], Özi� [18], Bildirici [26]). Some of them are still in use like the 56 km long �amram canal, the dams at Ke�i�, Doni and Süphan lakes. Still in use are also certain qanats in Van, with additional examples from the Seljukide period, and carefully maintained in the Ottoman period. HELLENISTIC, ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS IN WESTERN AND SOUTHERN ANATOLIA

1. Long distance water conveyance to cities

Remains of Hellenistic and especially Roman and early Byzantine waterworks in Western and Southern Turkey, from the second half of the I. Millenium BC to the first half of the I. Millenium AD, are very numerous and new discoveries add to the rich variety of them.

Cities like:


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- �stanbul (Dalman [32], Çeçen [33], Özi� [18]); - Pergamon (Garbrecht [34, 35], Fahlbusch [36]) - Ephesus (Forchheimer [37], Atalay, Özi� et al. [38, 39, 40], Ortloff&Crouch [41], Wiplinger [42] (Figure 2); - �zmir (Weber [43], Özi�, Özdemir; et al. [44] (Figure 3); - Perge (Büyükyıldırım [21]; were supplied by several water conveyance systems.

With regard to the length, the most important conveyances are: - 240 km long water conveyance system to �stanbul along the southern slopes of Istranca-mountains in Thrace (Çeçen [33]); - almost 100 km long water conveyance from Muradiye springs to Phocea (Özi� [10, 11, 12]); - 65 km long water conveyance from Soma to Pergamon (Garbrecht [39, 35], Fahlbusch [36]); - 43 km long water conveyance from Ku�adası to Ephesus (Atalay, Özi� et al. [38, 39, 40]) (Figure 2).

The water conveyance sytems to: Side (Grewe [45]); Aspendos (Büyükyıldırım [21], Kessener & Piras [46], Kessener [47], Piras [48], Alabanda (Özi� [49]) (Figure 4); Diocaisereia, Olba, Elaiussa (Arısoy, Özi� et al. [50]) (Figure 5); Oenoanda and other Cibyratis cities (Coulton [51]); Patara (Büyükyıldırım [21]); Antiochia of Pisidia (Burdy and Ta�lıalan [52]); Selge (Büyükyıldırım [21]); Xanthos (Büyükyıldırım [21]; Burdy & Lebouteiller [53]); Amaseia (D.S.�. [22]); Magnesia (Baykan, Tanrıöver et al. [54]); Miletus (Tuttahs [55]); Samosata (�zmirligil [56]); Hierapolis; Laodiceia; Iassos; Antiochia of Orontes; Nicomedia; Ankara; as well as Aphrodisias, Nysa, Metropolis, Tripolis, Alinda, Tralleis (Weber [57]; Coulton [51], Özi� [10, 12, 13, 19]); deserve also particular interest with regard to hydraulics technology.

The antique water conveyance systems in Turkey encompass aqueducts up to 40 m height; tunnels of over 2 m height; inverted siphons up to 190 m pressure for lead and 155 m for stone pipese; lead-, stone-, clay-pipes of various sizes; rock-cut and masonry canals; springwater collection chambers; city reservoirs; water distribution and sewerage networks.

Along the water conveyance systems, the aqueducts of �stanbul, Pergamon, Side, Ephesus, Elaiussa, �zmir, Alinda, Phaselis; the lead-pipe inverted siphon of Pergamon; the stone-pipe inverted siphons of �zmir, Gerga, Laodikeia, Oenoanda, Ankara; the siphon substructures and stone-pipe siphons of Aspendos and Patara; tunnels of Side, Diokaisereia, Olba; springwater colection chambers of Alabanda; city reservoirs of Hierapolis and Alabanda; deserve special mention. The water distribution and wastewater collection nets of Priene are exceptional examples of antique urban hydraulics technology (Crouch [8]), Özi� [10, 13].

2. Cisterns

Cisterns have almost during all periods of the history played a certain part in Turkey (Özi� [58]). Covered and open cisterns in �stanbul, from the 4th to 8th centuries, with side lengths in the order of 150 to 250 m, are extraordinary examples of antique cisterns (Forchheimer & Strzygowski [59]).


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3. Dams Dams like the 10 m high Çavdarhisar, 16 m high Örükaya and Böget in central Anatolia,

Ildır near Çe�me date back to the Roman period; the three Dara-dams, with the first being one of the oldest arch dams, as well as Lö�tü�ün, Sihke, Sultan dams to the early Byzantine period; some of the dams around Van in eastern Anatolia might date to the

middle-ages (Schnitter [60, 9], Garbrecht & Vogel [6], Özi� [10, 13, 18], Bildirici [26]).

Figure 1. Location map of ancient hydraulic works in Turkey (prepared by Arısoy for a book by Özi� & Benzeden (eds) to be published).


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Figure 2. Long-distance water conveyance systems to Ephesus (Özi�, Atalay, et al. [39])


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Figure 3. Long-distance water conveyance systems to �zmir (Özi�, Özdemir et al. [44])


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Figure 4. Long-distance water conveyance systems to Alabanda (Özi� [9]) The Faruk-dam near Van, half of it having collapsed in 1988, is difficult to be dated; the anticipated origin might go back to the Urartu-period, whereas other opinions put them to the 10th-14th centuries, as contemporary of some dams in Iran (Schnitter [60], Garbrecht [62], Özi� [10, 18]).

4. Tunnels and tunnel-like superstructures on creeks

The diversion system of the creek flowing through in Seleuceia Pieria, to prevent the siltation of the port, began to be constructed in the 1.century AD and was completed in the 2.century AD. The system has a total length of 875 m; encompass a 15 m high dam (Garbrecht [63], Özi� [18]); two tunnel stretches of horse-shoe and trapezoidal cross-sections with 6-7 m side lengths; three rock-cut canal stretches (Alkan & Özi� [64], Grewe [4]); and forms a unique example of its kind (Figure 6).

The tunnel-like twin-superstructures on Pergamon-creek, each with almost 200 m length, were constructed during the roman period; they have simple horse-shoe cross-sections, with 9 m width and 7.5 m height, forming the largest of its kind in the world; the superstructure on Nysa-creek has a width of 7 m at the entrance and 5.5 to 6 m heights (Özi�, Harmancıo�lu, et al. [65], Grewe, Özi�, et al. [66]).


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SELJUKIDE PERIOD IN ANATOLIA

There are certain remains from the Seljukide period in Central and Eastern Anatolia, from 10. to 13. centuries. These include the water conveyance canal to a water-mill in Çermik (Özi� [11, 12]); qanats and other water conduits in �anlıurfa; the Sahip Ata irrigation canals in Konya, the irrigation systems in Ere�li and some others in central Anatolia (Bildirici [20]; Bildirici & Bildirici [28]).

The Great Seljukides have constructed several dams in Iran and Turkmenistan, outside the actual territory of Turkey, where the existence of only two dam sites, impounded by the reservoirs of modern Altinapa and Sille dams near Konya, are reported according to ancient documents (Çeçen [67]). The book by El Cezeri (1196) is a masterpiece on hydromechanical devices, dating from the same period.

OTTOMAN PERIOD IN ANATOLIA & THRACE

1. Water conveyance systems to �stanbul and Edirne

Among the remains of waterworks from the Ottoman period in Turkey, 14. to 20. centuries, those for �stanbul (Özi� [68, 13], Çeçen [69]) and Edirne (Özi�, Arısoy [70, 71] deserve particular interest. The Halkalı conveyance systems to �stanbul constructed in the period of 1450's to 1750's, consist of 16 systems with a total length of 130.

The most important among the Halkalı systems, is the 50 km long Süleymaniye water conveyance, constructed by Sinan the Architect in 1550's (Çeçen [69]). The 50 km long Ta�lımüsellim system to Edirne, is also considered as a work of Sinan, dating from 1530's (Özi� & Arısoy [70, 71]) (Figure 7).


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Figure 5. Long-distance water conveyance systems to Diocaisereia, Olba, Elaiussa in Lamas (Limonlu) basin (Arısoy, Özi�, Kaya [50]).

Figure 6. Layout of the diversion tunnel in Seleucia Pieria (Çevlik) (Alkan & Özi� [64])


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The 55 km long Kırkçe�me system to �stanbul from 1560's, is one of the masterworks of Sinan, with four major aqueducts (Uzun, E�ri, Ma�lova, Güzelce) up to 35 m height and 700 m length (Çeçen [69], Özi� & Arısoy [70, 71], Schnitter [72]). The Taksim water conveyance to �stanbul from 1730's and the Üsküdar systems east of Bosphorus from 16. to 19. centuries are also noteworthy. In spite of all these water conveyance systems, �stanbul experienced water scarcity from time to time.

2. Dams

In the period of 1620 to 1839, the Kırkçe�me system is supported by four, the Taksim system by three dams, with heights up to 17 m and crest lengths up to 104 m (Özi� [73, 74, 10, 12, 13, 18], Çeçen [67, 69], Bildirici [26]) (Figure 8).

All these dams, Kırkçe�me and Taksim systems as well as the Ta�lımüsellim-Edirne system are for the large part still in operation. The Elmalı I dam, constructed in 1893 on the asian side of �stanbul, is also still in operation; �amlar in �stanbul, Maden near Adapazarı, Semalı near Amasya are other interesting dams of the Ottoman period (Çeçen [67], Özi� [18]).

3. Other waterworks

Sinan planned towards the end of the 16.th century, in order to accomplish an attempt going back to the 6.th century, the connection of Marmara and Black Sea through Sapanca lake and Sakarya river; this latter plan remained also unrealised. The water works of �anlıurfa were extended during the ottoman period; qanats in the regions of Van and �anlıurfa were carefully maintained.

The diversion of Gediz river to prevent the closure of the �zmir bay in late 19. century (Özi� [10]); Bey�ehir-Çumra irrigation south of Konya in early 20. century (Bildirici [20], Özi� [10]); the generation of the first electricity in Turkey in 1902 at the Tarsus hydroelectric scheme (Özi� [10]) are other interesting achievements at the down of the Ottoman Empire.

CONCLUSIONS

Various dams, dating from the Hittite period in Central Anatolia, from the Urartu period in Eastern Anatolia, from the Hellenistic-Roman-Byzantine periods as well as from the Seljukide and Ottoman periods in different parts of Turkey, with some of them still in use after so many centuries, even millennia, make Turkey one of the most outstanding open-air museums of the world in this respect.

Large variations in time and space made necessary the regulation of watercourses through reservoirs created by dams and use long-distance conveyances. The basic dam construction technology was earth dams with stone paved slopes by the Hittites, earth core between two masonry walls made of stone blocks by the Urartus, opus-


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caementitium core between two masonry walls made of rectangular stone blocks by the Romans, rubble masonry core with mortar between vertical upstream and inclined downstream facing of regular stone blocks by the Ottomans.

Figure 7. Long-distance water conveyance system from Ta�lımüsellim to Edirne (Özi� & Arısoy [70])


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Figure 8. Location of ancient ottoman dams in �stanbul and the alignment of Kırkçe�me and Taksim long-distance water

conveyance systems (Özi�, [74]) Turkey's water resources are in the order of 185 billion m3/year surface and 8 billion m3/year groundwater potential. Although this appears as a large potential in absolute terms, when compared to most of her neighbors in the Middle-East and Eastern Mediterranean, the water potential per capita is actually about 3000 m3/year/person, being quite less than the world's average. All these ancient dams and other hydraulic works have developed only a very small fraction of the total potential. Therefore, based on a four-millennia-long tradition of hydraulics technology and dam construction, the modern Republic of Turkey, founded in 1923 by the great Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, began in 1930's to attempt the development of the country's water resources on a larger scale. Turkey is intensely involved in constructing large-scale water works, to supply billions of m3 water for urban and industrial needs, to irrigate 8.5 million hectares of land and to generate 125 billion kWh/year, by means of over 700 large dams and 600 hydroelectric power plants. Turkey, being an open-air museum with regard to historical waterworks from Karakuyu (black well) dam of the II. Millenium BC to Karakaya (black rock) dam of 20. Century,


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should develop its water resources up to 2023, by making use of this 4000 years of experience in order to provide food and light to its own citizens and to support neighboring countries. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This manuscript is based on various papers by the senior author and his collaborators, cited in the list of references. He greatly appreciates their contributions. He also appreciates the support of various institutions in his activities on historical hydraulic works, primarily of D.S.�. (Devlet Su ��leri = State Hydraulic Works), as well as of the Armed Forces of Turkey, Municipalities of �stanbul and Edirne, and last but not the least, of Ege and Dokuz Eylül Universities in �zmir. He further acknowledges the support of the late Ord.Prof.Dr. Ekrem Akurgal and other personalities from the field of archeology and art history, of the late Prof.Dr. Kazım Çeçen and other personalities from the field of civil engineering.

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