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1. ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORYIntroudction

The ancient civilization of India grew up in a sharply demarcated sub-continent bounded on the north by the world's largest mountain range-the chain of the Himalayas, which, with its extensions to east and west, divided India from the rest of Asia and the world.

The long sea coasts of India facilitated the growth of maritime trade and a large number of harbours were established through which trade relations with Rome, China, Malaya, South East Asian archipelago were set up. India's centralised position in Indian Ocean is also of great strategic and economic importance.

India is a curious meeting place of diverse religions, races, manners and customs. From the point of religion, India is the home of the Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Sikhs and the Paris. Diversity is also to be seen in the languages of the Indian people. From the points of view of race, religions, language, manners and customs, the Indians constitute a composite population.

In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions of India:-

1. Madhyadesa,i.e. Indo Gangetic plain stretcing from the valley of the river Saraswat to the Rajmahal Hill. This division has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times.

2. Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e. North-West India 3. Pratichyaor Aparanta i.e. Western India 4. Dakshinapatha or Dakshinatya i.e. the area south of Madhyadesa 5. Prachya or Purvadesa, the region east of Madhyadesa

The course of history is also shaped through geographical factors, such as geology, climate, etc. The study of Indian physiography, therefore, can be classified into three territorial compartments, such as the northern plains of the Indus and Ganga basin, the Deccan plateau lying to the south of the Narmada and to the north of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and the far south Tamil states. Rivers made the irrigation easier by continuous supply of perennial water to this tract which includes the states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.

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The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and of ancient remains. Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around 2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of implements they used. The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux. The Mahajanapadas attracted the risings of smaller states. As early as in 5th century BC, Herodotus observed that "of all the nations, that we know, it is India has the largest population."

Points to Remember

Father Hameleden was the first to master Sanskrit language and compile a grammer book. Father Coeurdoux recognised the kinship of Sanskrit and languages of Europe in 1767. Alexander Hamilton (1762-1824), a French, was the first person to teach Sanskrit in Europe. Freidrich Schlegel was the first German Sanskritist. Franz Bopp (1791-1867) succeded in reconstructing the common ancestor of classical

languages of Europe and Sanskrit in 1816. Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1900) edited the translation of Rig Veda Otto Bohtlingk and Rudolf Roth produced the Sanskrit-German dictionary known as the St-

Petersburg Lexicon James Prinsep successfully interpreted for the first time the earliest Brahmi script in 1837.

He was able to read the edicts of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. William Jones translated in 1789 Kalidasa's masterpiece Abhijnana-Shakuntalam into

English. Wilkins translated the Bhagwat Gita into English in 1785.

SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY CAN BE DESCRIBED UNDER THE FOLLOWING FIVE HEADINGS:-

1. Literary Sources: The ancient Indian literature were mostly religious in nature and contains no definite date for events and kings eg. the Puranas and the epics. Vedic literature has no trace of political history but has a reliable glimpses of culture and civilisation of the age. The epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Jaina and Buddhist religious texts supply us with some important historical material with doses of religious messeges.

Upanishadas: Main source of Indian philosophy; also called "Vedantas"

Jaina Parisistapravana, Buddhist Dwipavamsa and Mahavamsa contain traditions which supply us some historical materials. Gargi Samhita , a book on astronomy, the grammer of Panini and Patanjali also contain materials that help us in the recontruction of the history of the ancient period of India.

From the second half of the ancient period of Indian history, there are not only panegyrics of kings and emperors but also political treatises dealing with the principles of administration. Kautilya's Arthasastra and Manusmriti may be mentioned in this connection. It was a work of the Maurya period. Vishakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa gives a glimpse of Maurya society and culture. Similarly, events of the Pushyamitra Sunga's

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reign are mentioned by Kalidasa in Malvikagnimitram. Among the personal accounts of ancient period, Banabhatta's Harshacharita , dealing with the character and achievements of Harshvardhana as also history of his times, Bakpatiraja's Gaudabaho describings how Yasovarman conquered Gauda deserves special mention. Poet Bilhana described the history of the reign of Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI in his Vikramanka Charita . Sandhyaakar Nandi's Ramacharita is a description of the reign of Rampal, a king of the Pala dynasty of Bengal. Kalhana's Rajatarangini is a valuable book on the history of the kings of Kashmir. Likewise, Padmagupta's Nabasahasanka Charita, Hem Chandra's Dwasraya Kavya , Nyaya Chandra's Hammir Kavya , Ballal's Bhoja Prabandha contains important historical materials.

2. Archaeological Evidence : The archaeological evidence is obtained by the systematic and skilled examination of building monuments, and work of art. The credit for excavating the pre-Aryan past goes to Sir William Jones of Asiatic Society of Bengal (established on 1st January 1784). General Sir Alexander Cunningham, one of its Royal Engineers, dugged out the ruins of ancient site of pre-Aryan culture. From his arrival in India in 1831, Cunningham, the Father of Indian Archaeology devoted every minute he could spare from his military duties to the study of material remains of ancient India, until in 1862, the Indian government established the post of Archaeological Surveyor, to which he was appointed. Until his retirement in 1885, he devoted himself to the unravelling of India's past with complete single-heartedness.

In 1901, Lord Curzon revived and enlarged the Archaeological Survey and appoint John Marshall its Director General. The discovery of India's oldest cities dating back to the second Inter-Glacial period between 400,000 and 200,000 BC in 1921 by Daya Ram Shahni was the biggest achievement of Archaeological Survey of India under Marshall, the first relics of which were noticed by Cunningham. The cities discovered were named Harappa and Mohenjodaro and the civilisation as the Indus Valley Civilisation.

In 1922, an Indian officer of the Archaeological Survey, R.D.Banerjee, founded further seals at Mohenjodaro in Sindh, and recongnized that they were remains of a pre-Aryan civilisation of great antiquity. Under Sir John Marshall's direction, the sites were systematically excavated from 1924 until his retirement in 1931.

3. Inscriptions : Inscriptions are the most reliable evidence and their study is called epigraphy . These are mostly carved on gold, silver, iron, copper, bronze plates or stone pillars, rocks temple walls and bricks and are free from interpolations. Inscriptions again are mainly of three types:- royal eulogy, official documents like royal rescripts, boundary marks, deeds, gift, etc. and private records of votive, donative or dedicative type.

Inscriptions in Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Telgu, Tamil and other languages have been discovered. But most of the inscriptions are in Brahmi and Kharosti scripts.

James Prinsep, the Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal succeeded for the first time in deciphering the Brahmi script. Among the inscriptions of ancient past, those of emperor Ashoka are by far the best historical evidence about his reign. Inscriptions of Kharvela, king of Kalinga, Saka rular Rudradamana, Allahabad Prasasti by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta, are important evidences for the reconstruction of the history of India.

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4. Coins : The study of coins is known as numismatics. Thousands of ancient Indian coins have been discovered from which idea about the contemporary economic condition, currency system, development of the matallurgical art has been obtained. The image of Samudragupta playing on a lyre gives us an idea of his love of music. From the dates on the coins, it has been possible to understand the contemporary political history. Samudragupta's Aswamedha coins and Lion-slayer coins gives us an idea of his ambition and love of hunting.

5. Accounts of the Foreigners : A great deal of our knowledge of ancient Indian History are supplemented by the writing of foreigners.

The below table gives a brief survey of important literary works of foreign scholars, mentioning the subjects their works deals with.

Literary Works of Foreign Authors

Author Book Subject

Magasthenes(G) IndicaValuable information on administration and socio-economic of Mauryan India

Ptolemy(G) Geography Geographical treatise on India in 2nd Century AD

Pliny(G) Naturakus Historia Accounts trade relations between Rome and India in 1st Century AD

Anonymous(G) Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Records personal voyage of Indian coasts in 80 A.D.

Fa-Hien(C) Record of the Buddhist Countries Records the Gupta Empire in the 5th Century AD

Hiuen Tsang(C) Buddhist Records of the Western World

Describes the social, economic and religious conditions of India in the 5th and 7th Century AD.

I-tsing(C) A record of the Buddhists religion as practised in India and Malay Archipelago.

Studies the Gupta period under Sri Gupta in the 7th Century AD.

Hwuili(C) Life of Hiuen Tsang Accounts Hiuen Tsang's travel in India.

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I. Pre Historic PeriodIntroduction

Earth is very old and so is the antiquity of man. The earliest human fossils have been found in Africa dating about 4.2 million years. The primitive man was shorter in height and had a smaller brain. Homo sapiens evolved over a period of these years about 50,000 years ago. Humans have been using stone tools and their life story is, therefore, divided into Paleolithic,Mesolithic and Neolithic age.

Evolution of Man

First Fossile -- Male -Ramapithecus                     Female - Shivapithecus                                 (10-14 million years ago)

These fossils were found in Shivalik and Salt range Homoerectus: Found in Hathnora (Lower Palaeolithic) 10 lakh B.C. Homo sapiens : Found in Upper Palaeolithic Regions

The designation of the cultural past of man was done by P.F. Suhm in as early as 1776. C.J.Thomsen, in 1836, followed the same to arrange the exhibits in Danish museums. Lubbock in France divided the stone age further into Paleolithic and Neolithic. In 1930, Gabriel de Mortillet, a French investigator, started the practice of naming cultural divisions in the manner of compartments or stages. Yet, it is generally classified as follows:-

Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age Chalcolithic Age Copper Phase Iron Age

Pre History

Palaeolithic Age or Mesolithic Age or Neolithic Age or Old stone age Late Stone Age New Stone age(500,000-10,000 BC) (10,000-4,000 BC) (6,000-1,000 BC)

Palaeolithic Age cab be further divided into following:- Palaeolithic Age

Lower Palaeolithic Culture Middle Palaeolithic Culture Upper Palaeolithic Culture

(5,00,000 - 100,00 BC) (100,000 - 40,000 BC) (40,000 - 10,000 BC)

Pre Historic Phases

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Stone Age Primary Culture Major Site Importance

Lower Palaeolithic

Flakes,Chopper Chopping Culture

Kashmir, Punjab, Whole India except Sind and Kerala. Main :- Sohan(Punjab), Singrauli basin (U.P.), Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand), Assam, Narmada, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.

- Head axe and pebble tools, Fossil of Homo Erectus from Hathnaura (Narmada basin) - Represented by Sohan Culture (now in Pakistan.)

Middle Palaeolithic

Scraper/Booer Culture

Navasa (Maharashtra), Didwana (Rajasthan), Bhimbetka (MP), Bankura and Purulia (West Bengal), Narmada Valley etc.

- Varieties of Blades, Points, Borer and Scraper made of Flakes. - 200 rock shelters and caves are located on Bhimbetka hills having thousands of paintings.

Upper Palaeolithic

Blade and Burin Culture

A.P. (Kurnool, Chittor) Karnataka, Central MP, Jharkhan Plateau, U.P., Rajasthan, Gujrat

- The age of Neanderthal Man - Earlier "Homo Sapiens" - Harpoon, blade tools from Renugunta (A.P.) - Bone tools from Kurnool.

Meslithic Age

Microliths Culture or Fluting & Gometrical tools

Karnataka, Rajasthan (Bagor, Tilwara), Gujrat (Langhanj), M.P., Tamil Nadu,West Benal (Birbhanpur), U.P. (Sarai Nahar Rai)

- Microlith (a great technological development, introduction of compound tools) - Man still a savage but pottery maing (Tilwara) and permanent habitation found, still a hunder, fisher.

Neolithic Ate

Polished tool culture

Kashmir (Burzahom, Gufkral), Assam (Daojili Hading), Garohill Meghalaya, Bihar (Chirand), Peninsular India, Amri, Kotdiji, Mehargarh etc

- Earlies Farming community - Kinship became the basis of social organisation - Pit dwelling houses - Food begain to be cooked by fire

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-Evidence of dogs, circular huts made of bamboo, bone-tools, hand made pottery etc - Also called "Neolithic Revolution" -Boat making, spinning cotton and wool.

(a) Palaeolithic Age (50,000 - 1,00,000 BC)

It was basically a hunting and food gathering culture 'Palaeo' means 'old' and 'lithic' means 'stone'. Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases:

1. Early or Lower Palaeothic (50,000 - 100,000 BC) : It covers the greater part of the Ice Age and its characteristic feature is the use of hand-axe, cleaners and choppen

2. Middle Palaeothic (100,000 - 40,000 BC): The Middle Palaeothic culture is characterised by flakes. The principal tools are variety of blades, points and scrappers made of flakes.

3. Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 - 10,000 BC) : It marks the appearance of Homo Sapiens and new flint industries; widespread appearance of a figurines and other artifacts reflecting art and rituals; the appearance of wide range of bone tools, including needles, fishing tools, harpoons, blades and burin tools.

Palaeolithic Age People :

Earliest Palaeolithic man lived on hunting and food gathering. The hunting and gathering pattern was dependent upon the season. The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate. Not knowing how to grow his food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc. The people were wanderers and moved from places to place. They took refuge under the rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks.

Facts to Remember

The Palaeolithic culture of India developed in Pleistocene period. Robert Bruce Foot was the first to discover a Palaeolithic stone in India in 1863. The Palaeolithic research in India got a boost only with the coming of Yale Cambridge

Expedition in 1935 led by Deterra and Patterson. The tools were usually made of hard rock 'quartzite' and therefore Palaeolithic man in

India is also called "Quartzite Man"

Rock paintings and carvings have been numerously founded in Bhimbetka from different periods. The animals depicted in these paintings were mostly bisons, elephants, tigers,

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rhinocerous, boars etc. and were based on their hunting lives. The upper Palaeolithic art is characterised by red and green colours.

(B) Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 4,000 BC)

It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characcteristic tools are microliths all made of stone. The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock Shelters. This age is also known by various names like Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age. The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of animals has alo been witnessed from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

Mesolithic Tools : Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally one to five centimeters long.

Paintings : At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock and cave paintings have been discovered. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and human scenes have been found. Animals are the most frequently depicted subjects either alone or in large and small groups and shown in various poses.

Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite common. Dancing, running, hunting, playing games and quarrelling were commonly depicted scenes. Colours like deep red, gree, white and yellow were used in making these paintings.

(C) Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)(6,000-1,000 BC)

The word 'neolithic' was first coined by Sir John Lubbock in 1865. Miles Burkit enumerated four characteristics of neolithic culture

1. Animal domestication2. Agricultural practice 3. Grined and Polished stone tools and 4. Pottery manufacture

The discovery of the tools and implements of the neolithic age was made by Le Mesurier in Uttar Pradesh in 1860. Later on, Frasher discovered such objects in Bellary in South India. The people of this age used tools and implements of polished stone.

Neolithic People : The civilisation and culture of the Neolithic age shows distinct traces of progress. The Neolithic men had a settled life. They practised agriculture and grew fruits and corn. Animals, such as the cow, dog, ox, goat etc. were domesticated. The art of producing fire

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by the friction of bamboos or pieces of stones was known to them. Instead of eating the uncooked flesh of various animals, they now started roasting it. Besides this, bows and arrows were invented and were used for the purpose of hunting. They also learnt pottery, at first by hand and then with the potter's wheel. They painted and decorated their pots. They lived in caves, the walls of which were polished and painted with the scenes of hunting and dancing. The also learnt the art of spinning and weaving clothes. They used to bury their dead and construct tombs over them which were known as Dolmens, Menhirs etc.s

Neolithic Tools : The stone tools of the Neolithic age bear unmistakeable signs of polish either all over the tools or at the buttend and working-end, or only at the working end. They fashioned their tools out of fine-grained dark-green trap, though there are examples of the use of diorite, basalt, slate, chlorite, schist, indurated shale, gneiss, sand stone and quartzite.

Occupation : Neolithic settlers were cattle-herders and agriculturists. They produced ragi, wheat, barley, rice, masoor, moong, kulthi etc. Hand-made pottery is also found in the early stage. Elephant, rhino, buffalo, ox, stag remains are also found in plenty. But there is no specification of these domesticated. The pottery were well made but were coarse in nature, not that much polished.

Red, Grey, Black and Red Ware, Black Burnished Ware and Mat-impressed Wars are associated with this culture.

Tools making was another important occupation which included a variety of picks, scrapers, eyed needles, bodkins and pierced batons.

Facts to Remember

Sir John Lubbock coined the term Neolithic in his book Prehistoric Teme , first published in 1865. The term refers to an age in which stone implements were more skillfully made and more varied in form.

It was V. Gardon Childe who defined the Neolothic-Chalcolithic culture as a self sufficient food economy

Miles Burkit put forward the following four characteristics a culture should fulfil to be called a Neolithic Culture

1. Agriculture practice 2. Domestication of animal 3. polished and grined stone tools 4. pottery manufacture

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(D) Chalcolithic Age

Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals. Firt metal to be used was copper and the culture of that time is called Chalcolithic cultre. The earliest settlements belonging to this phase are extended from the Chhotanagpur plateau to the copper Gangetic basin. Some sites are found at Brahmagiri near Mysore and Navada Toli on the Narmada.

The transition from use of stone to the use of metals is slow and long drawn. There is no doubt that there was an overlapping period when both stone and metals were used. This is proved by the close resemblance of metallic tools and implements with those made of stone. The Chalcolithic i.e. copper bronze age or stone-copper age of India produced a splendid civilisation in the Indus Valley which spread in the neighbouring regions.

Occupation: Their economy was based on subsistence agricultre, stock-raising, hunting and fishing. Their tools consisted of a specialised blade and flake of silicious material like chalcedony and chert. Copper and bronze tools were present in a limited number. The culture shares the common characteristic of painted pottery.

Burial Practices: Another striking feature was the burial practice of the dead. The dead were buried in north-south position in Maharashtra but in east-west position in south India. In eastern India, only a fraction of population buried their dead.

Chalcolithic Settlement Pattern

Largest - Diamabad Town features at Diamabad and Inamagaon Town Planning - Inamgaon Fortification - Nagada, Inamgaon, Diamabad, Balathal Baked Brick Evidence - Gilund Stone Dwellings - Ahar Chiefly circular and rectangular houses have been found Microliths have been found from Ahar Flat, Rectangular copper axe have been found frm Jorwey and Chandoli Chief Crop Barley Evidence of Rice has been found from Inamgaon Fire Altars and Fire Worksip were prevalent Inner Funeral System North South direction of burials East West direction of burials were prevalent in South India

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About Pottery and Types

Pottery Type

Ahar Red Ware

Kayatha Deep Red Ware

Malwa Deep Brown & Black

Saalda Pictographic (Red & Black)

Jorwe Pictographic (Red & Black)

Prabhas Pictographic (Red & Black)

Rangpur Polished Red

(E) The Copper Phase

More than forty hoards consisting of rings, celts, hatches, swords, harpoons, spearheads and human-like figures have been found in a wide area ranging from West Bengal and Orrisa in the East to Gujrat and Haryana in the West, and from Andhra Pradesh in the south to Uttar Pradesh in North. The largest hoard comes from Gungeria in Madhya Pradesh; it contains 424 copper tools and weapons and 102 thin sheets of silver objects. But nearly half of the copper hoards are concentrated in the Ganga-Yamuna doab.

All the implements of the copper hoards supplemented by stone tools led a settled life, and were one of the earliest Chalcolithic agriculturists and artisans to settle in a good portion of the doab.

Copper Hoard

Stretched from North-West to East and upto Tamil Nadu Black copper has been found at these sites It continued upto 1500 BC Chief Area - Gangetic Valley Chief Sites - Gungeria (MP), Saibia (UP), Bithur (UP), Visauli (UP), Rajpur Parsu (UP)

Pottery : This period was marked by two types of pottery: Ochre-Coloured Pottery which can be roughly placed between 2000 BC-1500 BC on the scientific dating and Black and Red pottery from about 1000 BC.

Ochre-Coloured Pottery (OCP): A new pottery type was discovered during excavatings at Badaun and Bijnor in Uttar Pradesh in 1950. It was called Ochre Coloured (OCP) as it contained a wash of ochre. The colour of the pottery ranges from orange to red. The Chalcolithic sites with such type of ware are ascribed to OCP culture. The period covered by the OCP culture is roughly placed between 2000 BC and 1500 BC. The Black and Red Ware (BRW) followed the OCP.

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Black and Red Ware (BRW) : Excavations of Atranjikheda in Uttar Pradesh in the 1960s brought to light a distinct pottery. The pottery, called the BRW, is sandwiched between the OCP and the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) of Iron Age or the Early Vedic Age.

(F)Iron Age

In Southern India, use of iron came after the use of stone. In any case, there were periods of overlappongs in the use of stone, copper, bronze and iron. Our only evidence of the transition from copper-bronze age to the iron age is the monuments like dolmens, cairns, cremolechs. These have been found in wide areas all over India such as Assam, Bihar, Orrisa, Central India, Gujrat and Kashmir. But by far the largest number has been found in south India, in Karnataka and the Decan. These iron monuments appear to have belonged to both pre-historic and historic periods.

Monuments discovered in Hyderabad, Mysore, Tinnevelly district, Coimbatore, Malaba, Penumbur etc. also show varied stages of development. Neolithic, Microlithic tools along with copper, bronze and iron implements have been discovered, making it difficult to identify the actual period of transition from copper-bronze age to iron age. At this stage of our limited knowledge, no definite conclusion in this regard can be arrived at. Iron age is usually associated with the Painted Grey Ware.

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) :It referes to the ceramics which have been fired grey and then painted with black designs. The name chosen is highly misleading and can lead many beginners to think this, as a type, which is painted with grey colour. The grey colour, it is believed, is obtained by firing thin clay pots to as high as at temperature as 800 degree celcius.

Pre Historic Findings

Bhimbetka - Homo Sapiens' Cave 500 painted Rock Shelters Nevasa - Evidence of cotton Atranjikheda - Textile printing Hastinapur - Wild Sugarcane Inamgaon - Statue of mother goddness Mehargarh - Earliest evidence of agriculture Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice Bagor and Adamgarh - Earliest evidences of Domestication of animal Chirand - Serpant cult Burzahom Gulfkral - Pit-dwelling

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II. Indus Valley CivilisationIn 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement of Sir John Marshall that his Indian aides, particularly R.D.Banerjee , discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana district of Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a civilisation, one of the oldest of the world. A few hundred miles towards the north of Mohenjo-daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. That the civilisation was not confined to the limits of the Indus Valley can be understood from

the finds of relics of the same civilisation at the Sutkagendor on the sea board of the south Baluchistan, in the west of Alamgirpur in the Uttar Pradesh in the east.

Until the discovery of the remains of the Indus Civilisation, it was believed by scholars that the history of India practically began with the coming of the Aryans. But this theory is an exploded one and the pre-historic civilisation of India, that is, the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Name of Sites Year of

Excavation

Excavators Region/River Features

Harappa 1921 Daya Ram Sahni

Montgomery district of Punjab (Now in Pak) on the left bank of Ravi

1. City followed grid planning

2. Row of six granaries 3. Only place having

evidences of coffin burial 4. Evidence of fractional

burial and coffin burial 5. Cemetery-H of alien

people.

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Mohenjo-daro 1922 R.D.Banarjee

Larkana district in Sind on the right bank of Indus(Now in Pak)

1. City followed grid planning

2. A large granary and Great Bath, a college

3. Human skeletons showing invasiona and massacre.

4. Evidence of Horse come from superficial level.

5. A piece of woven cotton alongwith spindle whorls and needles

6. Town was flooded more then seven times.

Chanhu-daro 1931 N. Gopal Majumdar, Mackey

Situtated in Sind on the bank of Indus

1. The city has no citadal 2. Famous for bead makers

shop 3. A small pot, possibly an

inkpot 4. Foot prints of a dog

chasing a cat 5. Three different cultural

layers, Indus,Jhukar and Jhangar

Kalibangan 1953 A. Ghosh

Situated in Rajasthan on the Bank of Ghaggar

1. Shows both Pre Harappan and Harappan phase

2. Evidence of furrowed land

3. Evidence of seven fire altars and camel bones

4. Many houses had their own well

5. Kalibangan stand for black bangles

6. Evidence of wooden furrow

Lothal 1953 S.R. Rao Situated in Gujarat on Bhogava river near Gulf of Cambay

1. A titled floor which bears intersecting design of circles

2. Remains of rice husk 3. Evidence of horse from a

terracotta figurine 4. A ship designed on a seal 5. Beads & trade ports

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6. An instrument for measuring angles,pointing to modern day compass

Banwali 1974 R.S. Bisht Situated in Hissar district of Haryana

1. Shows both Pre-Harappan and Harppan phase

2. Good quantity of barley found here

Surkotada 1964 J.P. Joshi

Situated in Kutch (Bhuj) district of Gujarat

1. Bones of horses, Bead making shops

Sutkagendor 1927 Stein, R.L. Situated in Baluchistan on Dast River

1. Trade point between Harappa and Babylon, belong to mature phase

2. Evidence of horse

Amri 1935 N.G. Majumdar Situated in Sind on the bank of Indus

1. Evidence of antelope

Dholavira 1985-90 R.S. Bisht Situated in Gujarat in Rann of Kutch

1. Seven cultural stages 2. Largest site 3. Three party of city 4. Unique water

management

Rangpur 1953 M.S. Vats, B.B. Lal & S.R. Rao

Situated on the bank of Mahar in Gujarat

1. Rice was cultivated

Kot Diji 1953 Fazal Ahmed Situated on the bank of Indus

1. Wheel made painted pottery

2. Traces of defensive wall and well aligned streets

3. Knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc

4.

Ropar 1953 Y.D. Sharma Situated in Punjab of the banks of Sutlej

1. Evidence of burying a dog below the human bural

2. One example of rectangular mudbrick chamber was noticed

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3. Five fold cultures - Harappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana - Gupta and Medieval

Balakot 1963-76 George F Dales Situated on the Arabian Sea

1. Remain of pre Harappan and Harappan civilisation

2. The mounds rise to the height of about 9.7mts and are spread 2.8 sq hectare of area

Alamgirpur 1958 Y.D. Sharma Situated on Hindon in Ghaziabad

1. The impression of cloth on a trough is discovered

2. Usually considered to be the eastern boundary of the Indus culture

A)Controversial Period

We cannot fix a precise date for the beginning of this civilisation, but certain indications synchronize it roughly with the village cultures of Baluchistan. The site of Rana Ghundai produced a stratification which showed, in the third phase of the village's history, a type of pottery with bold designs in black on a red background. From evidence discovered by Sir R.E. Mortimer Wheeler in 1946, it seems that city of Harppa was built on a site occupied by people using similar pottery. There is no evidence of the date of the foundation of the other great city of Mohenjo-daro, for its lowest strata are now below the level of the Indus, whose bed has slowly risen with the centuries; though diggings have reached 30 feet below the surface, flooding has prevented the exacavation of the earliest levels of the city. From the faint indications which are all the evidence we have, it would seem that the Indus cities rose in the first half, perhaps towards the middle, of the third millennium BC.

Difference between Pre Harappan and Proto Harappan Cultures : Cultures that preceded Harappan culture are pre Harappan, while proto Harappan cultures are those pre Harappan cultures which have some close similarities with the Harappan culture or which may be said to have anticipated certain essential elements of Harappan culture. In short, all proto Harappan cultures are necesssarily pre Harappan cultures, but all pre Harappan cultures are not necessarily proto Harappan cultures.

Periodization of Indus Valley Civilization

Date Range Phase Era

5500-3300 Mehargarh II-IV Regionalization Era

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3300-2600 Early Harappan (Early Bronze Age)

3300-2800 2800-2600

Harppan - I(Ravi Phase) Harappan 2(Kot Diji Phase,Naisharo 1, Mehrgarh VII)

2600-1900 Mature Harappan (Middle Bronze Age)

2600-2450 Harappan 3A (Nausharo IIO) Integration Era

2450-2200 Harappan 3B

2200-1900 Harappan 3C

1900-1300 Late Harappan (Late Bronze Age)

1900-1700 1700-1300

Harappan 4 Harappan 5

Localization Era

B) Economic Life

The discovery of granaries and the urban lifestyle of the people proves that the Harappan people were undoubtedly "comfort loving" and were prosperous. It also shows great knowledge of crop-pattern and seasons.

Currency : Thousands of seals have been discovered not only from the Harappans sites but also from the remains of other world civilisations. Every merchant and his family had a seal bearing and emblem and a brief inscription. But it is still unknown whether they used these seals as currency or not. In absence of evidence, it is safe to assume that the Harappans practised barter system and got goods they need in exchange of their articles.

Agriculture : The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plain in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April before the advent of the next flood. The Harappans probably used the wooden plough with wooden or copper ploughware.

       The Indus people produced wheat, barley, peas, kodon, sanwa, jowar, ragi, etc. They produced two typles of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been discovered at Banwali. In addition to this, they produced sesame and mustard. The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.

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Domestication of Animals: Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a large scale Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheeps domestic fowls and pigs were domesticated. The humped bulls were regarded as pets. Cats were also domesticated and signs of the feet of both dogs and cats have been noticed. They also kept asses and camels, which were possibly used as beasts of burden. Elephants were well known to the Harappan, who were also acquanited with the rhinoceros, spotted dear, sambhar deer, hog deer, wild pig etc. Therefore there is ample evidence to show patrolism of Harappan people.

Trade and Commerce :The thriving agriculural economy supported a flourishing trade both within the northern and western areas of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture and those of the Persian and Gulf and Mesopotamia. The products of Indus have been found in Mesopotamia. It seals and produce were also discovered at Sumer. The findings of Indus seals suggest that merchants from Indus actually resided in Mesopotamia. Their chief merchandise were probably cotton exported from probably Lothal harbour. The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC refer to trade relations with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region.

Major Imports by the Harappans

Material Source

Gold Afghanistan, Persia, Karnataka

Silver Afghanistan, Iran

Copper Baluchistan and Khetri(Rajasthan)

Tin Afghanistan, Central Asia

Agates Western India

Lead Rajasthan, South India, Afghanistan, Iran

Coins Copper seals from Lothal and Desalpur

Jade Central Asia

Crafts and Industies : Mohenjo-daro was a great industrial center. Weaving was probably the chief industry. Harappans were also acquainted with the art of dyeing. Pottery was an important industry. We should not forgot that harappan pictographical scripts are mainly found on potteries. Harappans used to export these pots made on potter's wheel and burnt in kilns not only to nearby areas but alo to the far-flung places. The art of smelting metals were well-known to the people of Harappa. They also attest to a class of mesons. The Harappans also practised boat-making, seal-making and terracotta manufacturing.

Weights and Measures : The regulations of weights and measures forms the basis of trade and Harappans were very accurate in this respect. The sexagesimal system and the decimal system were known to the Harappans. The weights were of cubical and spherical in shape and were made of chert, jasper and agate and sometimes of grey stone and were in series, first doubling from 1, 2, 4, 8 to 64 then going to 160, 320, 640 and so forth.

Communications : Transport and communications are a major part of trade and commerce. Harappans also had good transporting system for their internal and external trade. Representation

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of ships and boats are found on some seals and as graffiti on pottery. For onland journey and transport, they relied upon the bullock carts and rarely horse carts. They practicsed navigation on the coasts of the Arabian Sea. Mohenjo-daro seals bear the picture of ship.

Arts : The Harappans were utilitarians although not completely devoid of artistic sense. They were well-acquainted with the manufacture and use of bronze. Bronze smiths produced images and utensils. They also made several kinds of tools and weapons, namely axes, knives and spears. Jewelleries of Silver, gold and copper were also made on a large scale.

     The most notable artistic achievement of the Harappans was in their seal engravings, especially those of animals. The pots were beautifully painted in several colours such as red, black, green and rarely yellow. The terracotta figuries, both human and animal, and toys prove that the Harappa people, enojoyed the work of art. Status made of bronze, stone and sandstone repsresent their high sense of art.

C) Geographical Extent

The Harappan culture was the most extensive of the ancient civilisation in area(geographical extent), including not only the Indus plain (the Punjab and Sind), but also northern Rajasthan and the region of the Kathiawar in western India. It was essentially a city culture and among the the centers of authority were the two cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The 1400 settlements, discovered so far are distributed over a very wide geographical area. Its known extent in the west is upto Sutkagendor in Baluchistan; Alamgirpur in Merrut district (Uttar Pradesh) in east; and Manda (Akhnoor district, Jammu and Kashmir) in north, covering an area of almost 1600 km, east-west and 1400 km in north south. The total geographical area over which this civilization flourished is more than 20 times of the area of Egytian and more than 12 times of the area of about 12,50,000 sq.km. Harappan settlements are mostly located on river banks of Indus and Saraswati.

Some New Findings

Site Location Discovered by

Ganverivala Pakistan Rafeeq Mughal

Rakhi Garhi Jind (Haryana, India) Rafeeq Mughal

D) Political Life

here is no idea about the political organization of the Harappans. Perhaps the Harappan rulers were more concerned with commerce that with conquests, and Harappa was possibly ruled by the a class of merchants. Accroding to Amaur De Riencourt : "All the evidence points to a high degree of standardization and organization, implying strong centralisation with full control over production and distribution and probably a high efficient system of taxation". Evidences, like drainage, town planning, trading items suggests that there was an organisation like a municipal corporation to look after the civil amenities of the people.

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Relation with other Civilizations The indus valley civilization had a direct contact with many of the contemporary world civilizations: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Turkmenia, Oman and Bahrain. Harappan shells and carnelian beads have been found iin Mesopotamian royal burials, Mesopotamian clay tahlets refer to wood, gold and lapis lazuli coming from Meluha, the ancient Akkadian name for the Indus region. Harrapan Seals and other objects have been excavated in several Mesopotamian cities, such as Sura, Kish, Nippur and Ur. Evidence of a direct relationship between Harappan culture and Egypt in fragmentary and inconclusive. There are evidences of Harappan artfacts, such as etched carnelian beads and ivory, in Bahrain.

Decline and Disappearance The Harappan culture flourished until about 1800 BC. Afterwards, the culture began to decline. There is no unanimity among historian on the exact reason of the decline of this urban civilization. Different theories of decline have been put forward by different scholars. The following table gives the important theories and their profounders as regards decline of the Indus culture.

Decline of Indus Valley

Theorists Reasons of decline

Gorden Childe, Stuart Piggot External Aggression

H.T.Lambrick Unstable river system

K.U.R.Kenedy Natural calamity

Orell Stein and A.N. Ghosh Climate change

R. Mprtimer Wheeler Aryan invasion

Robert Raikes Earthquake

Sood and Aggarwal Dryness of river

Walter Fairservis Ecological imbalance

E) Social And Religious Life

The social life of the Harappans can be arranged into following categories :-

1. Class : It is not proved if there existed any classes or caster as the Aryan's verna system. Based upon the mounds we can assume that there were classes if not castes according to the occupation of the people, probably priestly class and general people.

2. Dress and Oranments : As far as their dress is concerned, one cannot say anything definitely, because all information about theri dress is based on inferences arrived at from two types of materials; firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly from the

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dress of status and carvings on different seals found in those cities. Ornaments were also popular among both men and women.

3. Religion : Following were the highlights of the religious life of the Harappans: o The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva represented in seals, as sitting

in a yogic posture on a low and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction, and tow deers appear at his feet

o The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms to please fertility Goddess.

o There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of femals sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of phallus, have been discovered. Fertility cult was main feature.

o The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and Harappa.

o Indus people who worshipped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals (unicorn etc)

o They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection against them.

4. Script : The script of the Harappans people had 400 to 500 signs and it were not alphabetic but was logosyllablic writing system. Although the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered, overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from kalibangan show that the writing was from left to right and from right to left in alternate lines.

5. Games : The Harappans preferred indoor hobbies to outdoor amusements. Dance and music were their popular amusements. Some tubular and conical dices discovered in these cities show that the evil of gambling is as old as history. Another game which they played resembles our modern chess. Marbles dolls and animals toys show that the children of Mohenjo-daro were well supplied with playthings. Fishing and hunting animals were other source of entertainment.

6. Disposal of the Dead : No definite proof is available regarding the disposal of the dead bodies yet. It is believed that the dead were either burnt completely, cremation followed by burial of ashes and rarely the burial of the dead after exposure to birds and beasts. But R-37 of Harappa suggests grave burial as a large practice.

F) Town Planning

The first thing that strikes us with regard to Harappan culture is the town planning and urbanisation. Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal or Sutkagendor were built on similar plan. To the

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west of each a citadel built on a high platform suggest division in society or some upper class existence. It was defended by walll and on it were construced the public buildings. Below this citadel was the town proper. Everywhere, the main streets ran from north to south and other streets ran at right angles to the main streets. Houses, residential or others, stood on both sides of the streets. Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, houses were built of kiln-burnt bricks. At Lothal and Kalibangan, residential houses were made of sun-dried bricks. An average house had, besides kitchen and bath, four to six living rooms. Large houses with thity rooms and staircases suggest that there were large two or three storyed buildings. Most of the houses had wells within them and a drainage system carried the waste water to the main underground drain of the steet.

Town Associated with Different Industries

Levan Stone tools factory

Sukar Stone tools factory

Lothal Stone tools factory Factory for metallic finished goods

Balakot Factory for pearl finished goods, Bangle's factory

Chanhudaro

Beads Factory Pearl finished goods factory Metallic finished goods factory Bangle's factory

Evidence from Chief Sites

Cemetery H & R-37 Harappa

Prepared Garments Mohenjodaro

Lower fortified town Kalibangan

Port town Lothal

Evidence of Rice Lothal, Rangpur

Coffin Burial Harappa

Horse Bone Surkotada

Fire Altar Kalibangan & Lothal

Temple like palace Mohenjodaro

Horse's Tooth Rana Ghundai

Pashuptai Seal Mohenjodaro

Goddesses Mohenjodaro

Copper Rhino Diamabad

Copper Chariot Diamabad

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Copper Elephant Diamabad

Granery Mohenjodaro & Harappa

Bronze Female Dancer Mohenjodaro

Granery outside fort Harappa

Beads Factory Chanhudaro, Balakot

Copper ox Kalibangan

Bangles Factory Chanhudaro, Balakot

Graveyard Harappa, Lothal

Phallur Worship Harappa

Bronze Bufallo Diamabad

Evidence of Earthquake Kalibangan

Evidence of Plough Kalibangan

Copper dog Lothal

Camel's Bone Kalibangan

Stone Covered Grave Surkotada

Canals Malavan

Woodenn Drainage Kalibangan

G) Indus Valley FactsIndus Valley Facts at a Glance

The state which has accounted for highest number of Harappan sites after independence : Gujarat

Three Harappan sites that have yielded three stages of Harappan Civilization (Pre-Harappan, Harappan and post-Harappan : Rojde, Desalpur and Surkotada )

Most commonly engraved animal on Harappan seals : Humpless bull or unicorn

Site which have yielded evidence of a pre-Harappan settlement: Kot-Diji, Kalibangan and Harappa

Major Harappan cities that acted as ports : Lothal, Balakot, Suktagendor and

Evidence of cultivation of peas. Till has been traced from Harappa, paddy from Lothal

Harappans had trade relations with Mesopotamians around 2300 BC.

Largest Harappan site in India is situated in Haryana Rakhigarhi, second largest is Dholavira in Gujarat.

Dimension of Brick-length 11 inches, width -5.5 inches, depth -2.75 inches, ratio 4 2:1

Harappan wheels were axeless Mohenjo-daro had 10.5 mt wide road. In Harappa, perhaps because of river

Ravi the Granery is outside the fort. In the Lothal Port, there was a dockyard

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Allahdin (Pakistan) The Harappan city with most impressive

drainage system : Mohenjo-daro The geometric shape of the region

covered by the Indus civilisation : Triangle

Wheeler said: Indus Valley is the colony of Sumerians

Lions have not been found anywhere in Harappa.

Mother goddess was not worshipped at Rangpur.

A Kushana period Stupa has been found from Mohenjo-daro

which is 216 meters in length and 37 meters in breadth

Sukotada is the only Indus site where remains of a horse have actually been found.

Terracoota seals found at Mehargarh were the earliest precussors of Harappan seals.

Wider road of Harappa was 30 foot. Most common materials used for the

Harappan stone sculpture : Limestone and steatite

Time span of the Harappan civilization as fixed on the basis of radio-carbon dating: 2300 BC - 1750 BC.

III. Vedic AgeEarly Vedic Age: The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend upto 6000 BCE with the coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical

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languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.

Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is "knowledge", the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely, Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda

10th Mandala Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th

Mandala) Varna - Rigveda Four fold division of Society - Rigveda

10th Mandala Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala

Upanishada War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda Transmigration of Soul -

Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana

Wife and Husband are complementary - Satapathabrahmana

Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala)

Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana

Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha

Brahmana Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa -

Katha Upanishada

A) Origin of Aryans

Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar, believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the area east of Alps, in the region known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian Sea and the southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing into a number of tribes migrated in search of pasture, to Greece and Asia Minor, to Iran and to India. By that time, they came to be known as Aryans. This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC and the Mitanni inscriptions of the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which suggest that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.

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Original Home of Aryans

Region Theorist

Asia

Central Asia Max Muller

Tibet Dayanand Saraswati

Pamirs Mayor

Turkistan Hurz Feld

Bactria J.C. Rod

Steepes Brandstein

Europe

Germany Penka and Hert

Hungry Giles

Southern Russia Nehring

West Baltic Mach

Arctic Region B.G. Tilak

Russian Steppes Prof. Belfy

India

Central India Rajbali Pandey

Kashmir L.D. Kala

Sapta Sindhu A.C. Das

Himalayan Foothills Pt. Laxmidhar Shastri

Other Scholars, such as Ganganath Jha, A.C. Das, Dr. Sampurnanand etc established the Sapta-Sindhu theory of Rig Veda which believe that Aryans were not foreigners but were indigenous people residing in the region comprising modern Punjab and Sindh. This theory has met with criticism, as the historians argue over the vast differences of culture between the Harappans and the Aryans.

Another theory propounded by Lokmanya Tilak suggests the Polar region as the regional homeland of Aryans, Zend Avesta and Rig Veda. Shows peculiar similarities in the terms used for religion and socio-economic context.

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B) Aryans arrival in India

The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as dasa or dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.

Some of the chief tribes of the period were Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu Puru, Kuru, Panchala, Bharata and Tritsu. Among the inter-tribal conflicts the most important was the 'Battle of the Ten Kings.'

Dravidians

It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India, the greater part of Northern and North-Western India was inhabited by a group of people known as Dravidians.

On arrival of the Aryans, unable to meet their challenge, they gradually moved southwards.

Perhaps, in India, they were first to use rivers for navigation and irrigation

Aryans

The group of Indo-Europeans who moved to Persia and India are known to Aryans The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia. The arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an on going debate. The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to as

the Brahmavarta) The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives whom they called

Dasas or Dasyus The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500

BC to 1000 BC) The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the later Vedic Period and this region came

to be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC)

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The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses along with them.

C) Rig Vedic Polity

The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period worked with the tribal chief in the centre. He was called rajan. Although his post was hereditary, we have also some traces of election by the tribal assembly called the samiti. The king was called the protector of his tribe. He protected its cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers to gods on its behalf.

Several tribal assemblies, such as sabha, samiti, vidatha, and gana mentioned in the Rig Veda exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. Even women attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But from the political point of view important were the sabha and samiti

In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few functionaries. The most important functionary seems to have been the purohita. The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda were Vasishtha and Visvamitra. The next important functionary seems to be the senani. Princes received from the people voluntary offering called bali.

There were cases of theft and burglary, and especially we hear of the theft of cows. Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities. The officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground was called vrajapati. He led to the heads of the families called Kulapas. or the heads of the fighting hordes called gramanis to battle. The king did not maintain any regular or standing arymy, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha.

Tribal Polity

The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal

assemblies Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the

oldest. These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in

nature and less exclusive than Sabha. Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times. A few non-monarchical states (ganas), are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.

D) Socio Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Tribal Organizatoin: Kinship was the basis of social structure. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called jana. Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda is vis. Probably the vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. When the gramas clashed with one another, it caused samgrama or war. The term for

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family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by term griha. Differentiation in family relationship leading to the setting up of seperate households had not proceeded far, and the family was a very large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family headed by the father. Since it was a patriarchal society, the birth was desired again and again.

Marriage and Status of Women: The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of primitive practices survived, We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. The status of women was equal to men and they received Upanayana and education, studied Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns. Monogamy was established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Varna System: Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and sudras. Gradually, the tribal society was divided into three groups-warriors, priests and the people. The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Veda period. In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was not very sharp.

Occupation: Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life. The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation. The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or 'search for cows'. The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc. This indicates that they practiced all these crafts. The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working was known.

Metals Known to Rig Vedic People

Gold Hiranya

Iron Shyama

Copper Ayas

Diet: The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for the cow, felt no scruple about sacrificing both fulls and cows at weddings or on other important occasions. The persons who took part in the sacrifice ate the flesh of the victim, whether bull, cow, or horse. But meat was eaten only as an exception. Milk was an important article of food, and was supplemented by cakes of barley or wheat (yava), vegetables and fruit.

Strong Drinks: The people freely indulged in two kinds of intoxicating liquor, called soma and sura. Sura probably was a kind of beer. Soma juice was considered to be particularly acceptable to the Gods, and was offered with elaborate ceremonial. The Sama Veda provides the chants appropriate for the ceremonies.

Amusements: Amusements included dancing, music, chariot-racing, and dicing. Gambling with dice is mentioned so frequently in both the Rig Veda and the later documents that the prevalence of the practice is beyond doubt.

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Rivers Mentioned in Rig Veda

Rig Vedic Name New Name

Gomati Gomal

Krumi Kurram

Kubha Kabul

Suvastu Swat

Sindhu Indus

Drishadvari Ghaghar/Chitang

Satudri Satluj

Vipas Beas

Parushni Ravi

Asikni Chenab

Vitasta Jhelum

Frequency of Important Words Mentioned in Rig Veda

Word Times Mentioned Word Times Mentioned

Pita 335 Rajya 1

Ashva 315 Kulpa 1

Jana 275 Ganga 1

Mata 234 Samudra 1

Indra 250 Sabha 8

Gau 176 Samiti 9

Vish 171 Grama 13

Vidata 122 Vidatha 122

Brahmana 14 Yamuna 3

Surya 10 Rashtra 10

Kshatriya 9 Krishi 33

Yamuna 3 Sena 20 Approx.

Raja 1 Rudra 3

Sudra 1 Vrihaspati 11

Vaishya 1 Prithavi 1

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E) Rig Vedic Gods

The early Vedic religion was naturalistic. Evidently, there were neither temples nor idols. The mode of prayer was recitation of mantras. Sacrifice was offered for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth) and not for spritual upliftment or misery.

Early Vedic Religion

Believed in one Supreme God Did not believe in idol worship Worshipped the forces of nature as the manifestation of one Supreme God Vedic Gods have been classified into 3 categories - Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Celestial Indra, Agni, Varuna, Surya, Rudra, Yama, Soma, Marut, Dyaus, Vayu and Prajanaya.

Prithvi, Saraswati, Usha, aditi were female deities. They were not given the same position as male Gods.

People did not worship for spiritual reasons but for the welfare of Praja & Pashu Recitation of prayers, chanting of Vedic hymns and sacrifices or yajnas were an important

part of the worship.

Rig Vedic Gods

Indra

He was the most important divinity. He played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. 250 hymns are devoted to him in the Rig Veda. He was associated with thunder and storm and is addressed by various names: Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa, Purandra, Varitrahan and Maghayam

Agni He was the second important divinity. He was intermediary between Gods and men. 200 hymns of the Rig Veda are devoted to him.

Varuna He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order. He personified water.

Soma He was considered to be the God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also called soma.

Yama He was the guardian of the world of dead.

Surya Similar to that of the Greek God Helios

Savitri The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri

Pusan Lord of jungle path, main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle.

Vishnu A relatively minor God at that time.

Vayu Wind God

Dyaus Father of Heaven

Aditi Goddess of Eternity

Maruts Storm Spirits

Gandharvas Divine Musicians

Ashvins Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art

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Ribhus Gnomes

Apsaras Mistresses of Gods

Rudra An archer of God, whose anger brought disease

Vishvadeva Intermediate Deities

Aranyani Goddess of Forest

Usha Goddess of Dawn

Prithvi Goddess of Earth

F) Later Vedic Polity and Economy

Political Organisation: In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed. Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and Brahmanas. The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this period. The King performed the rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power to him. He performed the asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal house ran uninterrupted. He also performed the vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. During this period collection of taxes and tributes, the king officer called sangrihitri. Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. Tribal units were mustered in times of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat along with his people from the same plate.

Regions and Kings

Eastern King Samrat

Western King Suvrat

Northern King Virat

Southern King Bhoja

King of middle country Raja

Imp Ratnins/Officials in Later Vedic Period

Purohita Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa

Senani Supreme Commander of army

Vrajapati Officer-in-Charge of pasture land

Jivagribha Police Officer

Spasas/Dutas Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers

Gramani Head of the village

Kulapati Head of the family

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Madhyamasi Mediator on disputes

Bhagadugha Revenue collector

Sangrahitri Treasurer

Mahishi Chief Queen

Suta Charioteer and court minstrel

Govikartana Keeper of games and forests

Palagala Messenger

Kshatri Chamberlain

Akshavapa Accountant

Sthapati Chief Justice

Takshan Carpenter

Kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age

Kingdom Location

Gandhar Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts of Western Punjab

Kekaya On the bank of River Beas, east of Gandhar kingdom

Uttar Madra Kashmir

Eastern Madra Near Kangra

Southern Madra Near Amritsar

Kushinagar Nothern region of modern Uttar Pradesh

Panchal Bareilly, Badayun and Farrukhabad districts of modern Uttar Pradesh

Kashi Modern Varanasi

Koshal Faizabad region of today's Uttar Pradesh

Occupation: The Aryans now lived a sedentary life, domesticated animal and cultivated on a greater scale than earlier suger-cane. Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property. Elephants were tamed. However, the idea of private possession of land gradually began to crystallize. Wheat was also cultivated during this period along with barley. Rice is mentioned in sources but was not an important crop at this time. Beans and Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known. New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e. smelters, ironsmiths, carpenters, weavers, leather workers, jewellers, dyers and potters. Trade was also boosted.

Pottery: The later Vedic Aryans used four types of pottery- Black and Red Ware, Black Slipped Ware, Painted Grey Ware(PGW), and Red Ware. The black and red earthen pots were used around 600 BC by the people of Koshala. The Aryans knew copper or bronze and Iron. The introduced the PGW in northern India. It consisted of bowls and dishes, which were used either for rituals or for eating or both. These were mostly found to the upper Gangetic basin.

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Currency: A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in Sathapatha-Brahmana. Nishka was the popular currency. Suvarna and Krishnala were two other classes of coins of circulation. Barter system will continued in spite of the presence of metallic coins. Money-lending was a lucrative trade and the interest on loan was moderately charged. The usurer is mentioned as Kusidin.

G) Later Vedic Society

Social Organisation: The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaisyas and shudras, each varna was assigned with its duty. Brahmanas conducted rituals and sacrifices for their clients and for themselves, and also officiated at the festivals associated with agricultural operations. They prayed for the success of their patron in war, and in return the king pledged not to do any harm to hem. Sometimes, the brahmanas came into conflict with the rajanyas, who represented the order of the warrior-nobles, for position of supremacy. Towards the end of the Vedic period, they began to engage in trade. All the three higher varnas shared one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice born), i.e., they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras. The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with its began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras. Outside the caste-system, there stood two important bodies of men, namely, Vratyas and Nishadas.

According to the Aitareya Brahmana, in relation to the prince, the brahmana is described as a seeker of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at will. A vaisya is called tribute-paying, meant for being beaten, and to be oppressed at will. The worst position is reserved for the shudra. He is called the servant of another. Certain section of artisans such as rathakara or chariot-maker enjoyed a higher status, and were entitled to the sacred thread ceremony. The term Nagara appears for the first time showing joint beginnings of town life. Women were generally giver a lower position. Although some women theologians took part in philosophic discussions and some queens participated in coronation rituals, ordinarily women were thought to be inferior and subordinate to men.

Types of Marriages in the Later Vedic Age

Brahma Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same varna with Vedic rites and rituals

Daiva Father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priests as part of fee or dakshina.

Arsa A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given.

Prajapati Marriage without dowry and bride-price.

Gandharva Marriage by the consent of two parties, often clandestine. A special form of it was swayamvara or self choice.

Asura Marriage by purchase.

Paisacha It is seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk, hence it can hardly be called a marriage.

Rakshasa Marriage by Capture

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Marriage: Eight types of marriage were prevalent in the later Vedic age. Of these, four (Brahman, Daiva, Arsa and Prajapati) were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. These were religious marriages and were indissoluble.

Anuloma Marriage: Marriage of a man below his varna was called Anuloma. It was sanctioned by the sacred texts.

Pratiloma Marriage: Pratiloma marriage was the marriage of a girl or women to one lower than her own varna. It was not sanctioned by the sacred texts.

Gotra System: The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times. Literally, it means the cow-pen or the place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept. The gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the socio-political ties, as new relationships were forged between hitherto unrelated people. People began to practise gotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between persons belonging to the same gotra or having the same ancestor.

Ashrama System: Ashramas or four stages of life were not well established in early Vedic times. In the post-Vedic texts, we hear of four ashramas: that of brahmachari or student, grihastha or householder, vanaprastha or partial retirement and sanyasa or complete retirement from the world. But only three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. The last or the fourth stage had not been well-established in Later Vedic times. 4th Ashrama only mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.

Food and Drinks: The staple diet was milk and ghee, vegetables, fruit and barely. Wheat was rarely eaten. On ceremonial occasions at a religious feast or the arrival of a guest, a more elaborate meal usually including the flesh of ox, goat, sheep and birds were taken after being washed with sura. Fish and other river animals were also relished upon. The guests were never served vegetarian foods, or at least one non-vegetarian food was compulsory.

Dress: Clothes were simple. Two piece clothes were normally worn: uttariya or the upper garment and antariya or the lower garment. There was no difference between the clothes of male and female. Ornaments were used by both the sexes and bangles were worn by privileged few, Shoes were used. Use of oil, comb, mirror razors, hair ointment and a few cosmetics was known.

Amusements: Music, both vocal and instrumental, was the major source of amusements. Playing of veena, drum flute, harp and cymbals were more common, also were dance. Chariot-racing and gambling were other sources of amusement.

Education: It was for a privileged few. Only Brahamanas and Kshatriyas were allowed to get education. Even women education was discouraged and the study of Vedic literature were forbidden to women in spite of the fact that a few gifted women scholars were present at the time and female teachers were also there. The subject taught were veda, itihasa, grammer, mathematics etihcs, dialectics, astronomy, military science, fine arts, music and medical science.s

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H) Religion in Later Vedic Period

The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance. On the other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later Vedic pantheon. Rudra, the god of animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people. In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we notice signs of idolatry. Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as the god to the sudras. Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha (goddess of Dawn), Aditi (Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River deity). The mode of worship changed considerably. Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the gods. Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both public and domestic character. The guest were known as the goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The priests who officiated at sacrifices were regarded generously and given dakshinas or gifts.

Chief Priests

The Chief priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were:-

1. Hotri: The invoker, he recited hymns from Rig Veda2. Adhvaryu: The executor, he recited hymns from Yajur Veda.3. Udgatri: The singer, he recited hymns from Sama Veda

The Chief Priests received voluntary offering from the people called Bali

Important Vedic Rituals

Rajasuya: The King's influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him.

Asvamedha: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony laster for three days at the end of which horse sacrifice was performed.

Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. The ritual lasted for seventeen days and was believed not only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from the position to raja of that of samrat

Garbhadhana: A ceremony which is performed to promote conception in women Pumsayam: This ritual is performed to procure a male child Semontonayam: It is ritual performed to ensure the safety of the child in the womb. Jatkarma: It is a birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord. Culakarma: It is a ritual, also known as tonsure, performed for boys in their third year. Upanayana: It is an initiation ceremony to confor dvija(twice horn) status of boys of the

higher varnas in their eight year.

I)Vedic Literature

FOUR VEDAS

Samveda

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Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda "Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a

special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value.

Has only 75 fundamental hymns 1. Karnataka - Jaiminga 2. Gujarat - Kanthun 3. Maharashtra - Ranayaniya

Sung by Udgatri

Rigveda

Collection of hymns Oldest of all vedas Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028 Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'. Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas. The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably

added later. Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'. Mandala II to VII were created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri,

Bharadwaj, Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma

Yajurveda

Book of sacrifical prayers Rituals of yajnas Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu" Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the

"Adhvaryus"- the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice.

Has been compiled in "fourth path" Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda Prose text

Atharvaveda

Mantras for magic spells Populate ritualistic system & superstitions Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community Collection of 711/731/760 hymns Not included in 'Trai' Has been divided in 20 "Kandas" 18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works Provides freedom from evils spirits. Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

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The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts - Sruti and Smriti

1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means 'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.

The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-

i. The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed ii. Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed

iii. the Sutra period.

These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.

Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later.

Vedas and their Brahmanas

1. Rigveda Aitereya and Kaushitaki

2. Samaveda Tandya and Jaiminiya

3. Yajurveda Tattiriya and Satpatha

4. Atharvaveda Gopatha

The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe.

Aranyaka

Literarily, it means 'Jungle' Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles Give stress on meditation Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.

Upanishada

1. Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge to their disciples

2. Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy

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3. They are also called "Vedanta" 4. Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya" 5. Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms. 6. Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world.7. Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas 8. Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani 9. Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-

a. The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)

b. The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha', Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.

c. Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.

d. Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number

The Eighteen Puranas

1 Brahma Purana 2 Vishnu Purana

3 Shiva Purana 4 Padma Purana

5 Shrimad Bhagwat Purana 6 Agni Purana

7 Narad Purana 8 Markandey Purana

9 Bhavishya Purana 10 Ling Purana

11 Varah Purana 12 Vaman Purana

13 Brahm Vaivertya Purana 14 Shanda Purana

15 Surya Purana 16 Matsya Purana

17 Garuda Purana 18 Brahmand Purana

e. Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.

f. Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars

g. Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.

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h. Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'

4. Epics : Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana are the two great epics of this period. Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes the Mahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many 'Shlokas'. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD 250.

Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is the Bhagavad Gita .

J) Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism

By the end of the Later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy had been established. They are as follows:

Darshans Authors Year of

Beginning Original

Book Theme

Nyaya Gautama 6th BC Nyaya Sutra It is a logical quest for God. It tells that the material power Maya, with the help of God, becomes the universe.

Vaisheshik Kanada 6th BC Vaisheshik Sutra

It aims is to receive happiness in this life and finally ultimate liberation through the attachment of true knowledge of the Divine.

Sankhya Kapila 6th BC Sankhya Sutra

It explains that the aim of Sankhya is to eliminate all kinds of physical and mental pains and to receive liberation.

Yoga Maharishi Patanjali

2nd BC Yog Sutra It has four chapters and accepts three kinds of evidences for determining the aim of life.

Purva Mimansa

Jaimini 4th BC Purva Mimansa

It is condensed explanation of Vedic theme and at the same time, the

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Sutra classification of its issues.

Vedanta (Uttara Mimansa)

Maharishi Vyasa

4th BC Uttara Mimansa Sutra

It explains that Brahama Sutra is for that person who has a real deep desire to know God. True liberation could only be attained by lovingly surrendering to Him.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda

10th Mandala Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th

Mandala) Varna - Rigveda Four fold division of Society - Rigveda

10th Mandala Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala

Upanishada War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda Transmigration of Soul -

Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana

Wife and Husband are complementary - Satapathabrahmana

Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala)

Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana

Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha

Brahmana Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa -

Katha Upanishada

IV. Emergence of Mahajanapadas (600-321 BC)

In the later Vedic period, the tribal organisations changed its identity and gradually shifted to the territorial identity, and the area of settlement were now regarded as janapadas or states. In transition from tribe to monarchy, they lost the essential democratic pattern of the tribe but retained the idea of government through an assembly representing the tribes. These states consisted of either a single tribe such as Shakyas, Kolias, Malas etc. The people in the lower Ganges Valley and Delta, which were outside the Aryan pale, were not incorporated. There was, therefore, a strong consciousness of the pure land of the Aryans called Aryavarta. Each janapada tried to dominate and subjugate other janapadas to become Mahajanapadas.

The 16 Mahajanapadas

Mahajanapadas Capitals Locations

Gandhara Taxila Covering the region between Kabul and Rawalpindi in North Western Province.

Kamboja Rajpur Covering the area around the Punch area in Kashmir

Asmaka Potana Covering modern Paithan in Maharashtra; on the

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bank of River Godavari

Vatsa Kaushambi Covering modern districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur

Avanti Ujjain Covering modern Malwa (Ujjain) region of Madhya Pradesh.

Surasena Mathura Located in the Mathura region at the junction of the Uttarapath & Dakshinapath

Chedi Shuktimati Covering the modern Budelkhand area

Maila Kushinara, Pawa Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur in eastern Uttar Pradesh. Later merged into Maghada Kingdom

Kurus Hastinapur/Indraprastha Covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the west of River Yamuna

Matsya Virat Nagari Covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in Rajasthan

Vajjis Vaishali

Located to the north of the River Ganga in Bihar. It was the seat of united republic of eight smaller kingdoms of which Lichhavis, Janatriks and Videhas were also members.

Anga Champa Covering the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur in Bihar. The Kingdoms were later merged by Bindusara into Magadha.

Kashi Banaras Located in and around present day Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh.

Kosala Shravasti Covering the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich, etc.

Magadga Girivraja/Rajgriha Covering modern districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad.

Panchala Ahichhatra (W. Panchala),Kampilya (S. Panchala)

Present day Rohilkhand and part of Central Doab in Uttar Pradesh.

Important Republics: The kings in these states had the supreme authority. The Mahajapandas of Vriji, Malla, Kuru, Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga, and Moriya. These republican states had a Gana-parishad or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. This Gana-Parishad had the supreme authority in the state. All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad. Again, the republics were basically of two types: (a) the republics comprising a single tribe like those of the Sakyas, the Kolias and the Mallas, and (b) the republics comprising a number of tribes or the republics of confederacy like the Vrijjis.

Difference between Republics and Monarchies

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In republics, every tribal oligarch claimed share in revenues from peasants. In the monarchies, the king claimed to be the sole recipient of such revenues.

In the tribal oligarchy or republic, each raja (tribal oligarch) was free to maintain his own little army under his senapati. In a monarchy, the king maintaind his regular standing army. He did not permit any other armed forces within his boundaries.

Republics functioned under the leadership of the oligarchic assemblies, while a monarchy functioned under the individual leadership of the king.

The Brahamanas had a considerable influence on the monarchial administration, while they were relegated to the background in the republics.

Alexander Invasion

In the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world. The Greek ruler Alexander conquered not only Asia Minor and Iraq but also Iran. From Iran, he marched to India, obviously attracted by its great wealth. Alexander conquered principalities one by one. Among the rulers of these territories, two were well-known: Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, and Porus whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab. After the conquest of Iran, Alexander moved on to Kabul, from where he marched India through the Khyber Pass. Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, readily submitted to the invader, augmented his army and replenished his treasure. Alexander remained in India for 19 months (326-325 BC), which were full of fighting. He had barely any time to organize his of the conquest. Still, he made some arrangements. Most of the conquered states were restored to their rulers who submitted to his authority. But his own territorial possessions were divided into three parts, which were placed under three Greek governors.

Alexander Invasion

Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 BC His advance was checked on the bank of the Beas because of the mutiny of his soldiers In 325 BC, he began his homeguard journey. In 324 BC, he reached Susa in Persia and died the next year.

Persian Invasion

The Achaemenian rulers of Iran, who expanded their empire at the same time as the Magadhan kings, took advantage of the political disunity on the north-west frontier. The Iranian ruler, Darius, penetrated into north-west India in 518 BC and annexed Punjab, west of the Indus, and Sindh.

He divided the province in 20th Straphy, which was considered to be the richest and the most populous province of the Persian empire. According to Herodotus, Punjab and Sindh satrapy (province) was the twentieth in the Persian empire. It was considered to be the richest and the most popular province of the Persian empire. Its annual tribute amounted to 360 Euboic talents of gold-dust. The Kharosthi script was used on the north-western frontier since then uptil about

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4th century AD. On the eve of Alexander's invasion, the hold of Persian emperors on their Indian provinces had become weak.

Chronology of Foreign Invasions

518-486 BC King Darius or Darus invaded India

326 BC Alexander invaded India

190 BC Indo Greeks or Bactrians invaded India

90 BC Sakas invaded India

Ist century AD Pahalavas invaded India

45 AD Kushanas or Yue-chis invaded India

Effects of Persian Invasion

Introduction into India the Araminc form of writing, which later developed into the Kharoshthi alphabet.

Promotion of Indo-Iranian trade Geographical exploration of the Indus and the Arabian Sea, leading to opening of a new

water route. Fusion of Iranian/Persian features in the Mauryan art. Impact of Buddhism on the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia.

Effects of Greek Invasion

1. The Greek invasion of India opened the trade route between north west and Wester India 2. Eastwards trade went through the Ganga delta to the coast of Northern Burma and south

along the east coast. 3. Guilds (Shreni) came into existence 4. Money was introduced. Punch-marked coins in gold and silver and of copper cast have

been discovered. 5. Introduction of money facilitated the trade. 6. Divided his army during the last expedition at Patala and appointed Niyarkas as head of

Navy. 7. Opening up of four distinct routes between India & Greek by land sea paving way for

increased trade and cultural contacts between the two regions. 8. Establishments of more Greek settlements in north-western region 9. Ashokan pillars were also influenced by Greek Art. 10. Establishment of the coast and search for harbours from the mouth of the Indus to that of

the Euphrates. 11. Promotion to expansion of the Mauryan empire in north-west India due to destruction of

local powers by Alexander 12. India and Greek established trade contact. 13. Coins of India non inscribed on 'Uluk Model' of the Greeks 14. Many Greek scholars came to India with Alexander and wrote on Indian history which

are relevant in constructions of contemporary socio-religious aspect.

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Rise of Magadha

Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present day Bihar) became the most powerful Mahajanapada. The Haryankas: Magadha came into prominence under the leadership of Bimbisara (542-493 BC), who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He strengthened his position by marriage alliances. He took three wives. His first wife was the daughter of the king of Kosala and the sister of Prasenajit. His second wife Chellana was a Lichchhavi Princess from Vaishali, and his third wife was the daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab. Marriage relations with the different princely families gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the way for the expansion of Magadha westward and northward.

The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called Girivraja at that time. It was surrounded by five hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir impregnable.

Bimbisar was succeeded by his son Ajatasatru (492-460 BC). Ajatasatru killed his father and seized the throne for himself. Throughout his reign, he pursued an aggressive policy of expansion.

Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC), His reign is important because he built the fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and Son at Patna. This was done because Patna lay in the centre of the Magadhan kingdom.

The Sisunagas: Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of Sisunagas, who temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali. Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of the Avanti with its capital at Ujjain. This brought to an end the 100 years old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.

The Nandas: The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas, who proved to be the most powerful rulers of Magadha. So great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not dare to move towards the east. The Nandas added to the Magadhan power by the conquering Kalinga from where they brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy. All this took place in the reign of Mahapadma Nanda. He claimed to the ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes.

The Nandas were the first non-kshatriya rulers. The last Nanda ruler was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya who founded the Maurya Empire.

Causes for the rise of Magadha

Advantages geographical location with both Rajgir and Pataliputra situated at strategic locations.

Abudance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with effective weapons.

The alluvial soil of the Gangatic plains and sufficient rainfall were they conductive for agriculture produces.

Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce. The princess could levy tolls and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army.

Use of elephants on a large scale in wars with its proximity to ancient Kalinga.

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Unorthodox character of Magadhan society Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers. Ambitious rulers and their policies.

Socio Economic Conditions During Mahajanapadas

Besides, the establishment of big empires, another important feature of the age was increased prosperity and the growth of towns. The primary reason of increased prosperity of India was its growth of foreign trade with the countries of the North-West, Western countries and several countries of Asia.

There were several trade routes and roads connecting different parts of India in all directions. One trade route was from Kosambi, through Gangetic plain, to Punjab and then Taxila joining the routes to Iran, Central Asia, European countries and several countries of Asia. Another route started from Rajagriha and, passing through Kosambi and Ujjaini, was connected with the port of Baroach from where the trade was carried on with western countries through sea-route. One important route passed through the entire Gangetic plain and reached the boundary of Burma and yet, another route connected northern plain with the sea-coast of south-east. These routes developed because of increased trade and, in turn, helped in enhancing internal as well as external trade.

The increased prosperity of the Indian affected their social structure as well. Towns became not only the centers of trade but centers of industries as well. Various goods were produced on a large scale to feed the foreign trade and that could be possible only in town or vice versa. By that time, Indian rulers had started minting good coins of different metals. It helped in the development of trade and growth of industries because coins proved to be a good medium of exchange and, thus, facilitated transactions. The growth of trade and industry formed rich trading and industrial communities which concentraded themselves in towns. We find existence of different guilds formed by traders and industrialism during this period. It created various organised and consciously awakened groups in towns which, finally, resulted in the formations of several sub-castes.

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2. MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORYFollowing are some of the Sources of Medieval Indian History

Tajur Masir - Hassan Nizami : This is the first historical narrative of which deals with the beginning of the Muslim rule in India. The author gives in detail the military exploits of Qutobuddin Aibek from 1192 to 1206. The author does not mention Aram Shah but describes the events of Iltutmish's regin up to 1217.

Tabquat i Narisi - Minhajus Siraj : Siraj produced an elaborate history of the Islamic world in twenty-three compact volumes or books. He starts with the account of the earlier prophets and aneestors of Mohammad.

Each of his subsequent books is devoted to the history of the caliphs and Muslim rulers of various countries and periods.

Works of Amir Kusrau : Amir Khusrau was the first and by far the most prominent representive of Indo-Muslim culture of early medieval India. His major works include Qiran us Sa'adain, Miftahed Futuh, Khazainul Futuh, Dewal Rani, Khisly Khani, Nuh Sipir and Tughluq Nama. Quiran us Sa'adain gives an eye-witness account of the meeting that took place in Oudh between Sultan Kaigubad and his father Bughra Kha, the governor of Bengal.

Dewal Rani Khizr Khani entitled Ashiqa, narrates the romantic story of Khizr Khan, son of Alauddin Khilzi and Dewal Rani, the daughter of Rana Karan of Gujarat. Nuh Sipir is the poetic composition which deals with the region of Mubarak Shah Khilji, the successor of Alauddin Khilhji.

Tughluq Nama was composed by Amir Khusrau to commemorate the victory of Ghisuddin Tughluq over Khurram Khan (1320 AD), leading to the establishment of a new ruling dynasty.

Tarikh i Firoze Shahi - Ziauddin barani : This work preserves the history of the Delhi Sultanat for the period 1259 to 1352; it gives the histoy of nine rulers from Balban to Firoze Shah Tughluq. Barani's write up including the narrative of Firoze Tughluq, constitutes a standard a standard work of history, which establishes his reputation as premier historain of his age.

Fatawa I Jahandari-Barani: It is a complementary volume to the Tarikh i Firoze Shahi. In this book, the author recapitulates and futher elaborates the political philosophy of the sultnate on the basis of his earlier narrative.

Firoze Tughluq's Authobiography : Sultan Firoze Shan Tughluq has left a brochure of thirty two pages in autobiographical writing, called Futuhat i Firoze Shahi: it give a brief summary of his military compaigns, some of which failed to produce the desired results.

Tarikh i Forize Shahi - Shams i Siraj Afif: The book is devoted exclusively to the reign of Firoze Tughluq and constitutes the most accurate and authentic contemporary account of his times. The book is unique in sense that it also describes the life and conditions of the people at large.

Tuzuk i Mubarak Shahi - Yahaya bin Ahmed Sirhindi This is the only contemporary source discovered so far on the history of the Sayyad dynasty(1414-51). The book begins with the rise of the Ghori dynasty and the conquest of the northern India by the turns.

Futuhus Salatin - Khwaja Abdullah Malik Isami This work was written in 1349-50, on the Turkish rule in India from the Ghaznavids to Muhmmad bin Tughluq.

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Kitab ur Rehla -Ibn batuttaIbn batutta was an Arab traveler and adventure frm Morocoo. His book is a primary source of history of the region of Muhmmad bin Tughluq it throws ligh on the socio-political condition of his times.

Historiography :The study and method of writing history is called historiography. Medieval India History was predominantly court centric and generally took no note of the world beyond the royal durbar. The noble courtiers used to account the history e.g. Abul Fazl's Akbarnama

Early Turkish Rulers (1206-1290)

Qutbuddin Aibak 1206 - 1210

Shamsuddin 1210 - 1236

Raziya 1236 - 1240

Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266 - 1287

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(A)“Early Medieval India (650-1206 AD)”North India and the Decan :In the post Harsha period, three great centres of powers emerged in North India and Deccan: Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas.

Gurjara-Pratiharas The Gurjara-Pratiharas were the early Rajputs who began theri rule from Gujarat and south western Rajasthan. Later they ruled from Kanauj. Nagabhata I was the first great ruler of the dynasty. He defeated the Muslim forces of Arab. Bhoja I (AD 836-885) was the most famous ruler of this dynasty. He was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha, which has been incorporated as a legend on some of his coins.

Palas The Pala dynasty came into power in Bengal in about the middle of the eighth century AD. The founder of this dynasty was Gopala I who was elected as the king by the people. Dharampala and Devapala were the most famous rulers of this dynasty. They extended and consolidated the Pala empire. The Palas ruled over Bihar, Bengal and part of Orissa and Assam with mny ups and down in their learning and religions. Dharmapala founded the famous Buddhist monastery at Vikramshila, which became second only to Nalanda in fame as a centre for higher learning. During Devapals's reign, the king of Suvarnadvipa(South East Asia), Balaputradeva, built a monastery in Nalanda and requested Devapala to endow the income of five villages for the maintenance of the monastery.

Rashtrakutas The Rashtrakutas called themselves descendants of Satyaki. The founder of the Rashtrakuta power was Dantivarma or Dantidurga who was a contemporary of Chalukya King Pulakeshin II. Dantidurga occupied all territories between the Godavari and the Vima.

      Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle Krishnaraja (768-772). Krishnaraja was responsible for the construction of the Kailash Temple of Ellora which stands as an excellent specimen of the Rastrakuta art and architecture.

Points to Remember

The Rashtrakutas kept on the best of terms with the Arabs of Sindh and enriched their subjects by encouraging commerce

They encouraged Hinduism and Digambara Jainism Their capital was at Manyakheta The king Amonghavarsha I himself authored a part of Kavirajamarga, the earliest known

Kannada poem. Rashtrakutas were the followers of Jainism.

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The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was Amoghavarsha. Asa warrior, he was, however no match with his father Govinda II, but he succeeded in defeating the East-Chalukya kings. It was Amoghavarsha who had successfully arrested the progress of the Gurjara King Bhoja I towards South India.

Temples Constructed by Rashtrakutas

Temples Place Constructed By

Vijalaycholeshwar Naratmatai Vijayalaya

Balsubramaniyam Kannanur Aditaya I

Nageshwar Kuminakanam Aditaya I

Kornagnain Sriniwasnallur Vartak I

Moverkaite Padukottai Bhutivikram Kesiri

Tiruvaleswaram Brahmadesha Raj Raj I

Uttarkailash Tiruvadi Raj Raj I

Rajrajeshwar Tanjore Rajendra I

Gangaikondchola Gangai Kondacholapuram Rajendra I

Airavateshwar Darsunam Raj Raj II

Kamhaveshwar Tirumaranam Kallotunga III

Tripartite Struggle The most important event of post-Harsha Period was tripartite struggle among the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutus and Palas for the supremacy of the north. This struggle started during the reign of Vatsaraja-Pratihara. He ascended the throne in 778 AD. In order to give practicle shape to his imperialist designs, Vatsaraja attacked Dharmpala, the Pala King of Bengal, and carried away his state umbrella.      The majore causes for the continuous struggle between the Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakuta, known in history as tripartite struggle, are as follows:-

To get control over Gujarat and Malwa, the regions very important for foreign trade due to their nearness to the coast.

To acquire supremacy over kanauj, a symbol of prestige in Indian politics. To get control over the vast resources of the Gangetic valley. Desire to impress the pretty kingdoms with the sense of their might. Lust for war booty, a prominent source for maintaining huge army

Kashmir Kashmir was ruled by three dynasties- the Karkota, Utpala and Loharas. Lalitaditya was the most famous ruler of Kashmir during this period.

The Cholas

Cholas were the most civilised race of the south. It is believed that this dynasty was founded by Karikala. Chola empire was called Cholamandalam. It included in itself Trichnopoly, Tanjore and some districts of Mysore and Madras (Now Chennai). Kaveripattam was its capital. The real

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founder of the Chola dynasty of Tanjore was Vijayalaya, a feudatory of the Pallavas. His dynasty rose to its eminence and lasted for more than two centuries.

Official Language Tamil

Capitals Early Cholas:- Poompuhar,UrayurMedieval Cholas:-Pazhaiyaarai, Thanjavur, Gangaikonda,Cholapuram

Government Monarchy

King Vijayalaya Chola - 848-871Rajendra Choal III-126-1279

Then Chola empire reached its zenith during the reigns of Rajaraja (985-1014) and his son, Rajendra I (1014-1041)

Rajaraja's majore achievements were :-

1. conquering Madurai and capturing the Pandyan ruler 2. invading northern part of Sri Lanka and making it a Chola province 3. conquering Maldive islands 4. emerging as a strong naval power by destroying the stongest naval power of the Chera

kingdom.

Rajendra I's majore achievements were :-

1. conquering several trans-Ganga kingdoms and assuming the title of Gangai Kondachola 2. founding a new capital called Gangai Kondacholapuram 3. conquering the whole of Ceylon or Sri Lanka 4. Indianisation of several lands of the south-East Asia 5. defeating the kings of Sumatra in a naval campaign and annexing a part of Sumarata

kingdom to his kingdom

Kulottunga (1178-1210) was the last greatest Chola emperor. After him, the Chola empire collapsed and its place was taken by the Pandyas and Hoysalas.

Epithet (Sub-title) of the Chola Rulers

Name of the King Epither

Prantak I Madiraikond

Prantak II Sundarchola

Rajaraja I Martanda Chola

Rajendra I Vijayrajendra

Vikramachola Tagayasamudra

Kulothinga Sangam Tavarta

Chola Administration : Of all the South Indian dynasties, the Cholas have left most detailed information on the working of the administration set up by them. At the head of the state stood the king. He was the pivot round which the machinery of the state moved. During the reigns of

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Rajaraja I and his son, royal orders could be proclaimed only after these had been confirmed by the chief secretary (Olainayakam) and another highly responsible officer known as the Perundaram. Nagaram was an assembly of merchants. It belonged to localities where merchants and traders were important.

Important Places Associated with Chola Rule

Anuradhapura: The Sri Lankan capital which was destroyed by Rajaraja I

Chidambaram: The place where Chola kings were coronated.

Gangaikondacholapuram: The city which was constructed by Rajendra I after his successful North India campaign.

Mumidcholamandalam: The name of the province which Rajaraja I carved out from the Sri Lankan territories

Nagapattanam: The place where Mahendra V, a Shailendra ruler, constructed a vihara.

Polannaruva: The Sri Lankan city annexed by Rajaraja.

Thanjavur or Tanjore: The Cholan capital where Rajaraja I constructed the Brihadeswara temple

Uttaramerur: The place where two tenth century inscriptions relating to Chola administration have been found.

Vellur:It was the place where Chola king Parantaka I defeated the combined army of the Pandyas and Sri Lanka.

The Chola craftsman excelled in bronze sculptures. The made images by the deities, especially of Nataraja, the dancing Siva, and saints by the cire perdu process.

The Pandyas

When Hieun Tsang visited the Deccan, the Pandya country was under the Pallavas. Of course, Hieun Tsang did not visit the Pandya country, The Pandya king, Sundar Pandya, was originally a Jaina, Later on, he adopted Saivism and is said to have followed a policy of persecution of the Jainas.

Official Language Tamil

Capitals Karkai Madurai

Government Monarchy

Preceding State Kalabhras

Succeeding State Delhi Sultnate

       The Pandya kings were constantly at war with Pallavas, Cholas and Ceylon. In the eleventh and the twelfth centuries, the Pandyas were compelled to owe allegiance to the Cholas. It was in the thirteenth century that the Pandya kingdom acquired independence and became one of the important powers of the Deccan. In the same country, Marco Polo visited Pandya country twice:

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once in 1288 and again in 1292. In his account, Kayal, the capital of the Pandya Kingdom was a prosperous port and a beautiful city. With the fall of the Tamil power at the hands of Malik Kafur in 1310, the Pandya kingdom also came to an end.

The Later Pandyas (1150-1350) entered their golden age under Maravman Sundara and Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan, who expanded the empire into Telugu country, conquered Kalinga(Orrisa) and invaded and conquered Sri Lanka. They also had extensive trade links with Southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. During their history, the Pandyas were repeatedly in conflict with the Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas and finally the Muslim invaders from the Delhi Sultanate. The Pandyan Kingdom finally became extinct after the establishment of the madurai Sultnate in the 16th Century.

The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature before the Christian Era. They controlled the pearl fisheries among the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world.

Other Kingdoms of South

Kingdom Capital Real founder

Western/Later Chalukyas Kalyani,Karnataka Tailap II

Kakatiyas (1110-1326) Warangal, Andhra Pradesh Prolaraja II

Yadavas (1187-1312) Devagiri,Maharashtra Bhillam V

Hoyasalas (1173-1342) Dwarasamudra, Karnataka Vittigadev 'Vishnuvardhan'

Note: The temple of Hoyasaleshwara at Dwarasamudra (Modern Halebid) is the greatest achievement of Hoyasala art.

Royal Families of Deccan                     

1. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi : Pulakesin II's brother, Kubja Vishnu Vardhan founded a new dynasty with its capital at the ancient city of Vengi. But soon its power was exhausted and in about 10th century they allied with the Cholas but the Chola king did not maintain the alliance and annexed the kingdom in 1076 AD.

2. Western Chalukyas of Kalyani : The kingdom established by Taila II in 1973, after defeating Amoghavasha IV, the last Rashtrakuta ruler, claimd descent from the Chalukyas of Badami. The kingdom was extended uptil the southern part of Paramara kingdom of Malwa. Vikramaditya II Tribhuvanmalla (1076-1126) was the greatest ruler of this dynasty and is posed as the hero of Bilhana's Vikramanka-deva-Charita. He is founder of Vikram Samvat era.

3. The Cheras : The ancient name of the Cheras is Keralas. Their Kingdom included the districts of Malabar, Travancore, Cochin etc. The Cheras had trade relations with Rome in the first century AD. The account of the Cheras of early times is found in the

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edicts of Ashoka, in which they have been called by the name of Kerala Putras. Sufficient historical material about the history of Keralas is not available.

4. The Hoyasalas : Their kingdom lay mid-way between the kingdom of the Chalukyas on the North-West and that of the Cholas on south-east. They ruled over modern Mysore and Madras. Their capital was Dwarasamudra. The credit of bringing this dynasty into prominence goes to Vishnu Vardhan. He improved political position of his kingdom by his conquests. The Chennakesava temple built by Vishnuvardhan at Belur in 1117 AD and the Hoyasaleswar temple built in 1150 AD at Haleheid are examples of Hoyasala architecture. The last king of this dynasty was Vir Balla III, who was defeated by Malik Kafur, the cheif general of Alauddin Khilji, in 1311. He deposed him from the throne and thus this, dynasty came to its end.

5. The Yadavas : The Yadavas were, at first, under the domination of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas, but at the downfall of the Chalukyas, they became independent and began to gain power. They ruled over the region that stretched from Nasik to Devagiri. Thus, Khandesh territory was under their sway. Their prominent rulers were Bhillama, Simhana Ramachandra etc. Bhillama was the first important king of this dynasty. He reigned from 1187 to 1191 AD. He defeated the Hoyasalas and made Devagiri his capital. The most prominent king of this dynasty was Simhana who vanished several dynasties, such as the Hoyasalas, the Andharas etc. The last king of this dynasty was Ramachandra who dominated the whole of the region up to the river Narmada.

6. The Kakatiyas : In the begining, the Kakatiyas were under the control of the Chalukyas dynasty and after their downfall they asserted their independent in the territories of Telangana and Warrangal, where they established their own kingdom. Some of the prominent and important kings of this dynasty were Parolaraja, Ganpati Pratap Rudra Deo etc. Ganpati defeated the Cholas, the Yadavas and several other rulers of various families. He was the most important king of Kakatiya dynasty. In his reign, the Kakatiya rule was at the height of its power and progress. Malik Kafur invaded their kingdom in 1309 AD.

7. The Kadambas : This dynasty was founded by Brahman Maysurasarman in north Karnataka with his capital at Banavasi after defeating Satvahana. Maysursaraman was a champion of Vedic sacrifices and is reported to have performed 18 Ashvamedha sacrifices. The kingdom was annexed to the Chalukaya kingdom by Pulkesin II.

Emergence of Rajputs

In northern India, the smaller states were ruled by people known as Rajputs. With the breakup of Pratihara empire, a number of Rajput states came into existence in north India. The period between 647 AD and 1192 AD i.e. 500 years is known as the Rajput period in the history of India.

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Origin : There is no agreement among modern scholars regarding the origins of Rajputs. According to one tradition, the Rajputs are the descendants of the ancient Kshatriyas belonging to either sun family (Suryavansha) or moon family (Chandravansha) mentioned in the Mahabharata.

Rajputs Ruling Dynasties : The most important Rajputs dynasties were the Gahadavalas of Kanauj, the Paramaras of Malwa, and the Chauhans of Ajmer. There were other smaller dynasties in different parts of the country, such as the Kalachuris in the are around modern Jabalpur, the Chandellas of Mahoha in Bundelkhand, the Chalukyas of Gujarat, the Tomars of Delhi etc.

      Chandradeva and Govindachandra were the famous rulers of the Ghadavala family. The Paramara ruler, was a great patron of art and literature. He himself was a great poet and scholar. Prithvijar Chauhan or Rai Pithora was the famous Chauhan ruler. He defeated Muhammad Ghori in the first battle of Tarain(1191). However, Ghori defeated him in the second battle of Tarain(1192). Dhanga was the most powerful king of the Chandella family.

Rajputs Clans : The basis of Rajputs society was the clan. Every clan traced its descent from a common ancestor, real or imaginary. The clans generally dominated a compact territory. Sometimes, these settlements were based on units of 12 or 24 or 48 or 84 villages.

The four Agnikula Rajputs Clans

i. The Parihara :Also known as Pratihara, based themselves in southern Rajasthan. ii. The Chauhans:Helped Pratihara against Arabs, based in eastern Rajasthan.

iii. The Solankis :Also called Chalukayas of Gujarat, based in Kathiwara. iv. The Pawars of Parmars :Established their control in Malwa with their capital at Dhar

near Indore.

Rajputs Society : The Feudal order was strongly established among the Rajputs. The Rajputs rulers divided the Kingdoms among landed units called Jagirs and distributed them among faithful nobles. The Rajputs were Hindus and were known as Kshatriyas, beign a warrior class. They celebrated the major Hindu festivals and invoked goddess like Durga or Bhavani for strength and valour. Rajputs women were respected in society but did not enjoy the same position as men.

Rajputs Art and Architecture : The fort structure reached perfection under the Rajputs. The palaces of Jaipur and Udaipur and the forts of Chittor, Mandu, Jodhpur and Gwalior are fine specimens of Rajputs architecture. Dilwara temples at Mount Abu, the Vimla Vasahi and the Luna Vasahi were built by Solankis of Gujarat.

Rajputs Paintings : The Rajputs paintings are divided into the Rajput School of Art and the Pahari School of Art. The Rajasthani School flourished in Mewar, Bikanar, Jaipur, Jodhpur adn Jaisalmer and specialized in depicting scenes from Krishna Lila, Nayika Veda and Ritu Charita. The Pahari School was patronized by the rulers of Himalayan states especially in the regions of Basoli, Mandi, Jammu, Kangra and Garhwal.

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Arab Conquest of Sindh

In 712 AD, AI Hajjaj, the Governor of Basra, led an expedition against Sindh's ruler Dahir, under his nephew and son-in-law, Muhammad-bin-Qasim. This expedition put Sindh under the Arabs.

      The cause of this expedition was neither the desire for territorial expansion nor religious. The king of Ceylon had sent some gifts to the king of Turkey which were looted at Debal in Sindh by the pirates. The ruler of Sindh, Dahir, refused to compensate the loss by showing his ignorance to the incident. This emerged AI Hajjaj and he attacked Sindh.

      However, the Arabs failed to build a permanent empire in India. Several factors were responsible for this.

1. Imprisonment of Muhammad bin Qasim by the new Khalifa 2. New Khalifa's indifferent attitude towards desert Sindh province 3. Diversion of Arab attention due to fight over Khilafat or Caliphate 4. Bravery and Heroism of Indian ruler 5. Long distance between Baghdad and Sindh.

Impact of Arab Rule in Sindh

Conversion of Sindh population to Islam, albeit on a very limited and temporary scale Laying the foundation of Islam in India Introduction of formal slavery system in India Promotion to Arab trade. New Arab settlements on sea-coast.

Attacks of Muhmud of Ghazni

Mahmud of Ghazni raided India for the first time in AD 1000 for her wealth. He wanted to make Ghazni, a principality of Afghanistan, into a region wielding formidable power in the politics of Central Asia. In a short period of 25 years, he made 17 raids. He destroyed many temple e.g. Somnath temple in Gujarat (1025 AD) as they were ddepositories of vast quantitites of wealth.

      Muhmud did not make any systematic effort to capture India. However, he may be seen as the founder of Turkish rule in India to th extent that his expeditions opened India to conquest from the north-west.

Dynasties (Regions) King/Kings

Hindu Shahi (Kabul and Punjab) Jayapala, Anandapal

Lohar (Kashmir) Rani Didda, Sangam Raj

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Tomar (Delhi) Angapal

Pratihara (Kannauj) Rajyapala

Paramara (Malwa) Sindhuraj

Chaulkya (Gujarat) Chamundaran, Durlabharaj

Chandellas (Bundelkhand) Vidyadhara

Kalachuri (Tripuri) Kokkal II, Gangeyadeva

Pala (Bengal) Mahipala

Chalukyas of Kalyani (Maharashtra) Jaisimha II

Significance of Muhmud Ghazni's Invasion

Exposition of India's military weakness. Exposition of India's political disunity. Weakening of the economic condition of India as Mahmud carried huge wealth out of the

country. Great setback to Indian art and sculpture owing to destruction of idols and templses. Opening of India to foreign attacks. Opportunity to Islam to set its foothold in India Growing of the feeling of hatred and fear among the Hindus towards the Muslims. Arrivals of Muslim saints, called the Sufis ,providing impetus to greater Hindu-Muslim

interaction.

Attacks of Muhammed Ghori

The second attack from north-west was made by the Muhammed Ghori at the end of 12th century, for which India was not prepared. He attacked from Gomal Pass in 1182, and conquered Sindh. In 1182, he conquered Lahore and soon after, an attack was commenced on the Rajputs kingdoms controlling the Ganges plain. Prithviraj Chauhan led the Rajputs against Muhammed Ghori at the First battle of Tarain in 1191 and the Rajputs became victorious. At the Second battle of Tarain in 1191 at the same place, Prithviraj was defeated by the kingdom of Delhi fell to Ghori. Muhammad Ghori defeated and killed Jayachandra, the king of Kanauj, in the Battle of Chadawar. Before his assassination in 1206, Turks had conuered the Ganga-Yamuna doab and its neighbouring areas, and Bihar and Bengal wwere also overrun. This started a new era in Indian history.

Raids of Muhmammad Ghori

Ist Raid 1175 AD Over Multan and Uchha

IInd Raid 1178 AD Over Abu and Anilwar

IIIrd Raid 1179 AD Over Punjab (Peshawar)

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IVth Raid 1185 AD Over Sialkot

Vth Raid 1186 AD Defeated Malik Khusoro of Lahore and captured Punjab

VIth Raid 1191 AD Ist Battle of Tarain

VIIth Raid 1192 AD IInd Battle of Tarain

VIIIth Raid 1194 AD Against Kannauj, defeated Jaichand

IXth Raid 1205,1206 AD Against Khokkar (A tribe of Punjab)

Vardhanas and their Capitals

Vardhanas and their Capitals

Name of State

Location

Capital

Maithrakas

Gujarat

Vallabhi

Yashodhrama

Malwa

Mondasar

Mukharis

Kanauj

Kanauj

Gurjaras

Jodhpur

Jodhpur

Gurajaras

Nandipur

Naandoda

Samantha guptas

Magadha

Patalipura

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Gowdas

Bengal

Rangmati

Lichavis

Nepal

Kathmandu

Varmas

Kamarupa

Pragjothishyapura

Manas

Orrisa

Padmakoti

Huns

Punjab

Sialkot

Vakatakas

Vidharba

Parverapura

Kadambas

Goa

Panaji

Kadambas

Hanagal

Hanagal

Nolambas

Hemavati

Hemavati

Gangas

Kalinga

Kalinga City

Trikutas

Aparantha

Anirudapura

Shi Ko Bali

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laharas

nkan

pattana

Kalabras

Kodumbalur

Kodambalur

Satyaputras

Konganadu

Kongunadu

Vishnu Kundis

Vinukonda

Vinukonda

Solankis

Vengi

Venipura

Anands

Guntur

Kundapur

Brihadphalyanas

Mashipotam

Mashipotam

Ikshwakus

Nagarjunakonda

Nagarjunakonda

Cholas

Uraiyur

Uraiyur

Pallavas

Kanchi

Kanchi

Pandyas

Madurai

Madurai

Ga Tal Ku

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nges

kad valala

Alupas

Udyavara

Udyavara

Alupas

Barakur

Barakur

Cheras

Kondangallur

Kondangallur

Major Literary Works in Early Medieval Period

Major Literary Works in Early Medieval Period

Subject Area Name of Author

Name of Work Remarks

Poetry

Jaideva BharaviBharatrihariDamodar GuptaMagha

Gita Govinda Kiratarjuniyam Ravana VadhaKuttanimataSishupala Vadha

Jaideva was the court poet of Lakshman Sena of Bengal.

Drama Rajasekhara Bhavabhuti

Bal RamayanaKarpurmanjariMahavir CharitaMalati Madhav

Rajasekhara was the court poet of Mehendrapal, the Pratihara ruler Bhavabhuti wrote in Prakrit.

Historical Work

Kalhana Jayanik Hemchanda

Rajatarangini Prithviraj Vijay Kumarpalcharita

Veni Sanhara is full of heroic tales. Rajatarangini narrates the history of Kashmir.

Biography

BilhanaChand BardoiBallalaSomadeva

VikramankdevacharitaPrithviraj RasoBhoja Prabandhu

It is the biography of Chalukya king It deals with the exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan. It throws light on the life of King Bhoja.

Stories Somadeva Kathasarita Sagar Hitopadesha

Hitopadesha is a collection of short stories based on Panchatantra.

Medicine and Science

BaghbhattaChakrapani

AstanghridayAyurveda

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DuttaBhaskaracharyaSaridhari

Siddhanta SiromaniTarisati

Grammer JayadityaBharatrihari

Commentary on Panini's Mahabhasya

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(B)“The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)”

Introduction : The defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan in the second battle of Tarain in 1192 by Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghori inaugurated an era of Muslim rule in India. The sudden death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 and his failure to specify succession procedures pitted his three slaves Tajuddin Yalduz, Nasiruddin Qubacha and Qutbuddin Aibek against each other.

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The period between 1206 and 1526 in the Indian history is known as the "Period of the Sultan Rulers" . During this period, rulers belonging to five different dynasties- The Slaves, the Khiljis, the Tughlaqs, the Sayyids and the Lodhis-ruled over India.

The Background of Delhi Sultanate

First Muslim Invasion-Mohammad Bin Qasim's Invasion (712 AD) : Mohammad Bin Qasim invaded India in 712 AD and conquered Sindh which became the province of Omayyad Khilafat.

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First Turk Invasion-Mahmud Ghaznavi's Invasion (998-1030 AD) :Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni led about 17 expeditions to India to enrich himself by taking away the wealth from India. In 1025 he attacked and raided the most celebrated Hindu temple of Somnath that lies on the coast in the extreme south of Kathiwar. The temple was destroyed in 1026 AD.

Second Turk Invasion-Mohammad Ghori's Invasion (1175-1206 AD) :Mohammad Ghori invaded India and laid the foundation of the Muslim domination in India. He may be considered the founder of muslim rule in India.

Reasons for the Sucess of Turks in India : 1. Rajputs lacked unity and organisation;divided by rivalaries 2. There was no central government3. Kingdoms were small and scattered 4. Turks were better organised and took advantage of the lack of mutual cooperation

among the Rajputs.

Mohammad Ghori's conquests became the nucleus of a new political entity in India-the Delhi Sultnate. This period can be divided into 5 distint periods viz

1. The Slave dynasty (1206-1290) 2. The Khijli Dynasty (1290-1320) 3. The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414) 4. The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451) 5. The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)

THE SLAVE DYNASTY (1206-1290)

All the Muslim rules that ascended the throne of Delhi after the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 till 1290 were either themselves slaves or the descendants of these slave rulers. That is why the rulers belonging ot this dynasty are generally are known as the "Slave Rulers" or the Mameluk Sultans and the dynasty is called the "Slave dynasty. " Muhaammad Ghori had left Indian possessions in the care of his former slave, Qutub-ud-bin Aibek, who on the death of his master, severed his links with Ghazni and asserted his independence, becuase he use to give (harity.)

Qutubuddin Aibek: 1206-1210

A Turkish slave by origin, he was purchased by Mohammad Ghori who later made him his Governor. After the death of Ghori, Aibek became the master of Hindustan and founded the Slave dynasty in 1206. For his generosity, he was given the title of Lakh Bakhsh (give of Lakhs.)

He died in 1210 while playing Chaugan or Polo He constructed two mosques-Quwat-ul-Islam at Delhi and Adhai din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer. He also

began the construction of Qutub Minar, in the honour of famus Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhityar Kaki.

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Aibek was great patron of learning and patronised writers like Hasan-un-Nizami, author of 'Taj-ul-Massir' and Fakhruddin,author of 'Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shah'

Shamsuddin Iltutmish: 1211-1236

He was a slave of Qutubuddin Aibak and occupied the throne of Delhi in 1211 after deposing Aram Bakhsh.

He was a very capable ruler and is regarded as the 'real founder of the DelhiSultanate'. He made Delhi the capital in the place of Lahore.

He saved Delhi Sultanate from the wrath of Chengiz Khan, the Mongol leader, by refuing shelter to Khwarizm Shah, whom Chengiz was chasing.

He introduced the silver coin (tanka) and the copper coin (jital). He organised the lqta System and introduced reforms in civil administration and army, which was now centrally paid and recruited.

He set up an official nobality of slaves known as Chahalgani/Chlisa(group of 40) He completed the construction of Qutub Minar which was started by Aibeks He patronised Minhaj-us-Siraj, author of 'Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'.

Razia Sultan: 1236-1240

Though Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Razia as the successor, the nobles placed Ruknuddin Firoj on the throne. However, Razia got rid of Ruknuddin and ascended the throne.

She was the 'first and only Muslim lady who ever ruled India' She was popular among the people but she was not acceptable to the nobles and theologians.

She further offended the nobles by her perference for an Abyssian slave Yakut. Soon after her accession, the governors of Multan, Badaun, Hansi & Lahore openly revolted

against her. There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinad. Altunia, governor of Bhatinda refused to accept suzerainity of Razia. Razia accompained by Yakut marched against Altunia.

However, Altunia got Yakut murdered and imprisoned Razia. Subsequently, Razia married Altunia and both of them marched towards Delhi.

In 1240 AD, Razia became the victim of a conspiracy and was assassinated near Kaithal (Haryana)

Bahram Shah: 1240-1242

After Razia, Iltutmish' third son Bahram Shah was put on throne by powerful turkish council Chalisa.

He was considered only as de jure ruler, while Naib-e-mamlakat (the regent) was de facto ruler. Bahram Shah lost his life after failed attempt to assert his authority once on the throne.

Masud Shah: 1242:1246

He was son of Raknuddin but was disposed after Balban and Nasiruddin Mahamud' Mother, Malika-e-Jehan, conspired against him and established Nasiruddin Mahamud as the new Sultan.

Nasiruddin Mahamud: 1246-1266

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He was the son of Iltutmish and was known as the Darvesi King as he was very pious and noble. He died in 1266.

Ghiyasuddin Balban: 1266-1287

Balban ascended the throne in 1266. He broke the power of Chalisa and resorted the prestige of the crown. That was his greatest

contribution towards the stability of the Sultanate. To keep himself well-informed Balban appointed spies. He created a strong centralised army to deal with internal disturbances and to cheek Mongols

who were posing a serious danger to Delhi Sultante. He established the military department Diwani-i-Arz The Persian court model influenced balban's conception of Kingship. He took up the title of Zil-i-

Ilahi (Shadow of God) He destroyed Mewati Rajputa brigandage in the doab, where forests were cut and forts built. In his last days he overlooked Sultanate affairs due to dealth of his eldest and most loving son,

Muhammad, and rebellion by his closed and most loved slave, Tughril. Muhammad died fighting Mongolians in 1285 and Tughril was captured and beheaded.

Kaiqubad: 1287-1290

A grandon of Balban was established on the throne by Fakruddin, the Kotwal of Delhi who assumed high political authority during last days of Balban. But Kaiqubad was killed by the Khiliji family, which saw end of Slave dynasty and beginning of Khiliji dynasty at Delhi throne.

Qutb-ud-din-aibak (1206-1210)Lakh Baksh-Siraaj

Qutb-ud-din had played a vital role under his chief in extending the authority of the Ghoris. Qutb's achievements as monarch were, however, a mere shadow of his achievements as Viceroy. Within the brief span of four years he was destined to reign and live, his work was naturally concerned with retention of what he had acquired rather than with expansion. His devotion to Islam is attested by two mosques built by him at Delhi and Ajmer. The fact that Aibek could not sufficiently consolidate his position is borne out by the fact that his nominee and adopted son, Aram Shah, was driven out from the throne by the Turkish nobles of Delhi who replaced Aram by their own nominee Shamsuddin Iltutmish. In 1210, Aibak died from the effects of a fall from his horse while playing polo. Consolidated the empire.

Important Conquests and Consolidation of Power

1192 AD Crushed a rebellion in Ajmer and Merrut

1193 AD Crushed a second rebellion in Ajmer

1194 AD Helped Mahmud Ghori defeat Jaichandra

1197 AD Attacked the chief of Nehrwala

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1202 AD Marched against the fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand and defeated the Rajputs.He also captured Mohoba & badun, one of the riches cities of Hindustan.

Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 AD)

Iltutmish was the son-in-law of Aibak. Herendered great service to the Islamic empire in India. He secured a letter of investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad in 1229 which bestowed him the title of Sultan of Hindustan. He not only suppressed the rebellious chiefs and nobles but also his powerful rivals like Yaldoz and Qubacha and the Khiljis of Bengal to protect the Muslim empire in India from various challenges. He destroyed the power of Rajput princes and brought the whole of North India under his control. Instead of Lahore, he made Delhi the capital and centre of the Muslim Empire. Before becoming the king. He was (governor) Subedar of Badayun.

Shamusddin Iltutmish

Reign 1211-1236

Full name Shams-ud-din Iltutmish

Title Nasir Amir-ul-mominin

Died May 1, 1236

Place of death Delhi

Buried Qutb Complex, Mehrauli, Delhi

Predecessor Aram Shah

Successor Rukn-ud-din Firuz

Dynasty Mumluk(Slave) Dynasty

Religious belief Islam

Iltutmish introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital-the two basic coins of the Sultanate period, with a standard weight of 175 grains.

During his period the sultanate acquired estability and he made the post hereditary. Shifted Capital from Lahore to Delhi Coins-Tanka (Silver), Jital(Copper)

Iltutmish

Organisation of a group of 40 loyal nobles-Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa or Forty Introduction of the silver coins called tanka and copper coins called jitals. Introudction of Iqtadari system:division of empire into Iqtas, which were assigned to the

nobles and officers in lieu of salary. Refusal to provide shelter to Jalal-ud-din the Khwarizm ruler who fled to Punjab

following the attack of Chengiz Khan.

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Completion of the construction of Qutb Minar in Delhi.

Razia Sultan (1236-1240 AD)

Razia, the daughter of Iltutmish, assumed the reigns of the government in 1236. She was the first and last woman among the Muslim rulers who sat on the throne of Delhi. However, the Pathan nobles regarded it below their dignity to pay obedience to a woman. On the other hand, the traditional Muslims resented her public appearances without covering her face with burqa or a veil. Also, the appointment of an Abyssinian slave named Jamat-ud-din Yakut as superintment of the stables was resented by the Chahalgani Turks or Chalisa.

Razia had all the qualities to rule Delhi Sultanate; the only weakness was that she was a woman. That was the main reason of her decline. Rajiya was murdered near Kaithal in 1240. She was succeeded by several of her kins till 1266 when Balban emerged as a powerful sultan. Though Balban formally become the ruler in 1266, the period 1246-87 is known in history as the age of Balban due to the dominant role he played at Delhi at the time after Rajia rule come.

Razia Sultan (Sultan of Delhi--1236-1240)

Preceded by Rukn ud din Firuz

Succeeded by Muiz ud din Bahram

Balban (1266-1287 AD)

Ghiyasuddin Balban ascended the throne in Feburary 1266. He first executed the survivors of the Chalisa and relieved himself of the dangers of rivalry. He suppressed with an iron hand the hillmen whose forays were a terror in the subrubs of Delhi. He cleared the forests around Delhi and 'at an sacrifice of 100,000 men turned a haunt of busg-rangers into a peaceable agricultural district.' He freed the roads from brigands by killing and burning without mercy.

He built forts and established Afghan garrisons to guard communications with Bengal. The titles of Turkish Khans for vast estates were strickly examined and he took back the lands from which no adequate military service was received and thus, reduced the power of the nobles. He maintained pomp and dignity at his court.

Balban

Declaration that the Sultan was the representative of God on earth-forwarding the Iranian Divine Right Theory of Kingship.

Introduction of the practice of sijda (under this practice, people would kneel and touch the ground with their head to gree the Sultan) and pabos.

End of the influence of Chalisa Ereation of the department of military affairs (Diwan-i-arz) Abollition of the post of naik Royal instruction to the ulemas to confine themselves to religious affairs.

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THE KHILJI DYNASTY

The Khiljis, wrongly believed to be Afghans, were actually Turks who had for a long time settled in the region of Afghanistan, called Khalji had adopted Afghan manners and customs. There for their coming to the thrown of Delhi is called "Khalji" revulusion. The Ghazani's and Ghori's invasions, and Mongol pressure from Central Asia had pushed them into India.

The term Khilji was their-designation, meaning in Turkic languages "swordsman". Although they had played a conspicuous role in the success of Turkic armies in India, they had always been locked down upon by the leading Turks, the dominant group during the Slave dynasty.

Jalauddin Khalji: 1290-1296 AD

Jalaluddin Kjilji founded Khilji dynasty He followed mild and generous policies This generous policy of the Sultan affected his foreign policy as well. In 1290, he invaded

the fort of Ranthambhor. In 1294, Ala-ud-din nephew of Jalal-ud-din, invaded Ramchandra, the ruler of Devagiri in the south. Ramchandra was defeated and Ala-ud-din returneed with an immense booty.

Alauddin Khalji: 1296-1316 AD

He was a nephew and son-in-law of Jalaluddin Khilji. Alauddin Khilji killed him and succeeded the throne in 1296.

He was the first Turkish Sultan of Delhi who seperated religion from politics. He proclaimed 'Kingship knows no Kinship'.

Alauddin's Imperialism : Alauddin annexed Gujarat (1298), Ranthambhor (1301), Mewar (1303), Malwa (1305), Jalor (1311). In Deccan, Aluddin's army led by Malik Kafur defeated Ram Chandra, Pratap Rudradeva, Vir ballal III and Vir Pandya.

The most important experiment undertaken by the Alauddin was the attempt to control the markets. Alauddin sought to control the prices of all commodities, from foodgrains to horse, and from cattle and slaves to costly imported cloth.

Economic Reforms (1304)

o Introduction of Dagh or branding of horses and Chehra o Confiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands o Creation of new department viz Diwan-i-Mustakhraj to enquire into the revenue

arears and to collect themo Establishment of separate markets for foodgrains cloth, horses, fruits etc

Administrative Reforms Ordinances

o Reorganised the Spy system o Prohibition on use of wine in Delhi o Nobles should not intermarry without his permission. o Confiscated the properties of Nobles classes.

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Military Reforms

o Introduced the first permanent standing army of India o Abolition of Iqtas of royal troppers and the payment of their salaries in crash. o Regular muster of the army.

Shihabuddin Omar: 1316 AD

Mubarak Khan: 1316-1320 AD

After the death of Kafur (1316), Mubarak Khan was freed from prison and was appointed as regent for Shiab-ud-din. He captured the throne at the first opportunity he got, but could rule only for 4 years as he sank into debauchry and could not give up his dissipated lifestyle. He awarded his lover Hassan authority over the army and place guards, and the latter soon obtained full control over the Sultan's palace. Hassan was given the tittle Khusarau Khan by the Sultan and within months Khasrau killed Mubarak Khan and assumed the title of Nasir-ud-din in mid 1320.

Khusro Khan: 1320 AD

Khusrau Khan was killed by Ghazni Khan, governor of Dipalpur when he tried to oppose a rebellion by Ghazni Malik and his son Fakhr-ud-din Jaima. This marked the ned of the Khalji dynasty and the rise of Tughlaq dynasty at the throne of Delhi.

THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1414 AD) The Tughlaq Dynasty

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq 1320-24 AD

Muhammad Tughlaq 1324-51 AD

Firoz Shah Tughlaq 1351-88 AD

Mohammad Khan 1388 AD

Ghiyassuddin Tughlaq Shah II 1388 AD

Abu Baqr 1389-90 AD

Nasiruddin Muhammad 1390-94 AD

Humayun 1394-95 AD

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Nasiruddin Mahmud 1395-1412 AD

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 AD)

Khusrau Khan, the last king of the Khilji dynasty was killed by Ghazni Malik, and Ghazni Malik ascended the throne assuming the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

He died in an accident and his sone Jauna (Ulugh Khan) succeeded him under the title Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq.

Mohammad-bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 AD)

Prince Jauna, Son of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ascended the throne in 1325 He tried to introduce many administrative reforms. He had 5 ambitious projects for which he has

became particulary debatable. 1. Taxation in the Doab (1326) 2. Transfer of Capital (1327) 3. Introduction of Token Currency (1329) 4. Proposed Khurasan Expedition (1329) 5. Qarachil Expedition (1330)

His five projects have led to revolts all around his empire. His last days were spent in checking the revolts

1335 -- Mudurai became independent (Jalaluddin Ahsan Shah)

1336 -- Foundation of Vijayanagar (Harihar & Bukka), Warrangal became independent (Kanhaiya)

1341-47 -- Revolts of Sada Amirs & Foundation of Bahamani in 1347 (Hasan Gangu)

He died in Thatta while campaigning in Sindh against Taghi, a Turkish slave.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq(1351-1388 AD)

He was a cousin of Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq. After his death the nobles and the theologians of the court selected Firoz Shah as the next Sultan.

Established of Diwan-i-Khairat (department for poor and needy people) and Diwan-l-Bundagan (department of slaves)

Making Iqtadari system hereditary. Construction of canals for irrigation from

1. Yamuna to the city of Hissar 2. From the Sutlej to the Ghaggar 3. From the Ghaggar to Firuzabad 4. From Mandvi and Sirmour Hills to Hansi in Haryana.

Establishment of four new towns, Firuzabad, Fatebabad, Jaunpur and Hissar.

After Firoz Shah Tughlaq(1388-1414 AD)

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The Tughlaq dynasty would not survive much after Firoz Shah's death. The Malwa, Gujarat and Sharqi (Jaunpur) Kingdoms broke away from the Sultanate.

Timur Invasion : (1398-99)Timur, a Turk, invaded India in 1398 during the reign of Muhammad Shah Tughlaq , the last ruler of Tughlaq dynasty. His army mercilessely sacked and plundered Dellhi. Timur returned to Central Asia, leaving a nominee to rule to Punjab which ended the Tughlaq dynasty.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

Ghiyasud-din Tughlaq was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. From an ordinary person, he rose to the position of provincial governor of Dinapur under Mubarak Khalji. He repelled the Mongol invaders several times. He killed Khurso Khan, the usurper, and became the Sultan, He was a wise and generous ruler.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 AD)

Khusrau Khan, the last king of the Khilji dynasty was killed by Ghazni Malik, and Ghazni Malik ascended the throne assuming the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

He died in an accident and his sone Jauna (Ulugh Khan) succeeded him under the title Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq.

Achievements of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq

Reintroduced the food laws of Ala-ud-Din Supressed the rebellions in the distant provinces with strong hand and resorted the peace

and order Organised better postal system Encouraged agriculture

In 1323, he defeated the ruler of Warrangal and annexed his territory. A war of succession was going on in Bengal. Ghiyas-ud-din took an advantage of such a situtation and invaded Bengal. He suppressed the rebels and in this way Bengal also became a part of his empire.

Mohammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 AD)

Mohammad bin Tughlaq is best remembered as a ruler who undertake a number of bold experiments, and showed a keen interest in agriculture. He was deeply read in religion and philosophy and had a critical and open mind. He had deep interest in philosophy, astronomy, logic and mathematics. he conversed not only with the muslim mystics, but also with the Hindu yogis and Jain saints such as Junaprabha Suri.

Muhammad bin tughlaq's Reforms:- He tried to introduce many administrative reforms. But most of these fails due to his impatience and lack of judgement.

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1. Taxation in the Doab: The Sultan made an ill-advised financial experiment in the Doab between the Ganges and Jamuna. He not only increased the rate of taxation but also revived and created some additional Abwabs or cessess. Although the share of the state remained half as in the time of Alauddin, it was fixed arbitrarily and not on the basis of actual produce.

2. Transfer of Capital(1327): It appears that the Sultan wanted to make Deogir second capital so that he might be able to control south India better. Deogir was named Daulatabad. However, after a couple of years, Muhammad Tughlaq decided to abandon Daulatabad largely because he soon found that just as he could not control south India from Delhi, he could not control North from Daulatabad.

3. Introduction of Token Currency(1330): Muhammad Tughlaq decided to introduce bronze coins, which were to have the same value as the silver coins. Muhammad Tughlaq might have been successful if he could prevent people from forging the new coins. He was not able to to do so and soon the new coins begain to be greatly devalued in markets.

4. Khurasan Expedition: The Sultan had a vision of universal conquest. He decided to conquest Khurasan and Iraq and mobilized a huge army for the purpose. But his expedition proved a failure.

5. Quarachi Expedition: This expedition was launched to counter Chinese incursions. It also appears that the expedition was directed against some refractory tribes in Kumaon-Garhwal region with the object of bringing them under Delhi Sultanate. The first attack was a success but when the rainy season set in, the invaders suffered terribly.

Muhummad Bin Tughlaq

Transfer of the capital from Daultabad, earlier known as Devagiri. Introduction of token copper currency to replace gold and silver coins. Unsuccessful expedition to subjugate Quarajal-the region identified as the modern Kulu in

Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh. Futile plan to conquer Khurasan and Iraq. Creation of Diwan-i-Kohi Independence of dinar(a gold coin) and adl(a silver coin). Establishment of city of Jahanpanah. Arrival of an envoy from the Chinese ruler, Toghan Timur(1341)

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 AD)

The nobles and theologians at the court selected Muhammad's cousin Firoz Shah and the next Sultan. He gave a number of important concessions to the theologians. He tried to ban practices with the orthodox theologians considered un-Islamic. Thus, he prohibited the practice of Muslim women going out to worship at the graves of saints. He perecuted a number of Muslim sects which were considered heretical by the theologians.

Firoz extended the principal of heredity to the army. Soldiers were allowed to rest in peace and to send in their place their sons. The soldiers were not paid in cash but by assignments on land revenue of villages. This novel technique of payment led to many abuses. He tried to win over the theologians proclaiming that he was a true Muslim king and the state under him was truly Islamic.

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Feroz Shah Tughlaq

Establishment of Diwan-i-Khairat(department for poor and needy people) and Diwan-i-Bundagan(department of slaves).

Making Iqtadari system hereditary. Construction of canals for irrigation from

1. Yamuna to the city of Hissar 2. From the Sutlej to the Ghaggar 3. From the Ghaggar to Firuzabad 4. From Mandvi and Sirmour Hills to Hansi in Haryana.

Establishment of four new towns, Firuzabad, Fatebabad, Jaunpur and Hissar. Imposition of Jaziya on the Brahmans for the first time Establishment in Delhi a hospital described variously as Darul-Shifa, Bimaristan or

Shifa Khana

THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-50 AD)

Khizr-Khan , a lieutenant of Timur, was a Sayyid and so his dynasty is called Sayyid Dynasty. Khizr Khan ruled till 1421, but his whole reign was marked by utter chaos and disorder. He was succeeded, after his death, by his son Mubarak Shah (1421-1434). During his reign the subedars of Punjab, bhatinda and Doab broke out in revolt and the whole of his period was spent in trying to supress them. He died in 1434 and was succeeded by his son Mohammad Shat (1434-1443). During his reign, the ruler of Malwa invaded Delhi, which was however, saved by the valiant Subedar of Lahore, Bahlol Lodhi

Sayyid Dynasty

Khizr Khan 1414-21 AD

Mubarak Shah 1421-33 AD

Muhammad Shah 1421-43 AD

Alauddin Alam Shah 1443-51 AD

Points for Sayyid Dynasty

Khizr Khan (1414-1421):Timur's nominee captured Delhi and was proclaimed the new Sultan and the first of the Sayyid Dynasty. They ruled over Delhi and surroundings districts.

Mubarak Shah (1421-1434):He succeeded Khizr at the throne after his successful expeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and the Gangetic Doab area. He was killed by the nobles in his own court.

Muhammad Shah (1434-1443):The nobles put Muhammad Shah on the throne, but could not survive the in-fighting among the nobles in the court. He was authorized to rule a

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meagre area of around 30 miles and rest of the Sultnate was ruled by the nobles.

Alam Shah (1443-1451):The last Sayyid king descended in favour of Bahlol Lodhi and himself retired. Thus began the Lodhi dynasty, which confined to Delhi and a few surrounding areas.

THE LODHI DYNASTY (1451-1526 AD)

Lodhi or Pathans Sultans

Bahlol Lodhi (1451-88 AD)

Bahlol Lodhi was one of the Afghan sardars who established himself in Punjab afer invasion of Timur

He founded the Lodhi dynasty. He founded the rule of the Lodhi dynasty by usurping the throne from the last of the Sayyid rulers.

He was a strong and brave ruler. He tried to restore the glory of Delhi by conquering territories around Delhi and after continuous war for 26 years, he succeeded in extending his authority over Jaunpur, Rewail, Itawah, Mewar, Sambhal, Gwalior etc.

He was a kind and generous ruler. He was always prepared to help his subjects. Though he was himself illiterate, he extended his patronage to art and learning. He died in 1488.

Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD)

Sikandar Lodhi was the son of Bahlol Lodhi who conquered Bihar and Western Bengal. He shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city founded by him. Sikandar was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the Jwalamukhi

Temple at Naga Kot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed. He took a keen interest in the development of agriculture. He introduced the Gaz-i-

Sikandari (Sikandar's yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields. He was a staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic. He lacked religious tolerance. In the name

of religion, he perpetuated untold cruelties on the Hindus.

Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26 AD)

He was the last king of Lodhi dynasty and the last Sultan of Delhi He was the son of Sikandar Lodhi The Afghan nobility was brave and freedom-loving people but it was because of its

fissiparous and individualistic tendencies that the Afghan monarchy was weakened. Moreover, Ibrahim Lodhi asserted the absolute power of the Sultan.

At last Daulat Kan Lodhi, the governor of Punab invited Babur to poverthrow Ibrahim Lodhi, Babur accepted the offer and inflicated a crushing defeat on Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat in 1526.

No Sultan of India except Sultan Ibrahim had been killed on the battle field.

Causes of Decline of Delhi Sultnate : The main causes were :-

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1. Deposite and military type of government which did not have the confidence of the people

2. Degeneration of Delhi Sultans (esp. the wild projects of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, Incompetence of Firoz Tughlaq)

3. War of succession as there was no fixed law of it 4. Greed and incompetency of nobles 5. Defective military organisation 6. Vastness of empire and poor means of communication 7. Finanical instability 8. Number of slaves increased to 1,80,000 in Firoz Tughlaq's time which was a burden on

the treasury 9. Invasion of Timur

IMPORTANT CENTRAL DEPARTMENT, OFFICIALS

Important Central Departments

Department Function

Diwan-i-Risalat (Foreign Minister) Department of appeals

Diwan-i-Ariz Military department

Diwan-i-Bandagan Department of slaves

Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mamalik Department of justice

Diwan-i-Isthiaq Department of pensions

Diwan-i-Mustakhraj Department of arrears

Diwan-i-Khairat Department of charity

Diwan-i-Kohi Department of agriculture

Diwan-i-Insha Department of correspondence

Important Central Officials

Wazir The cheif Minister of the State-in Charge of revenue and finances, controlled by other department.

Ariz-i-Mamlik Head of Military department

Qazi Legal Officer(dispensed civil law based on Muslim law Shariat)

Wakil-i-dar Controller of the royal house hold.

Barid-i-mumalik Head of the state news agency

Amir-i-majlis Officer-in-charge of royal feasts, conference and festivals.

Majlis-i-am Council of friends and officers consulted on important affairs of the state.

Dahir-i-mumalik Head of the royal correspondence.

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Sadr-us-sudur Dealt with the religious matters and endowments.

Sadr-i-jahan Officers-in-charge of religious and charitable endowment.

Amir-i-dad Public prosecutors

Naib wazir Deputy Minister

Mushrif-i-mumalik

Accountant general

Amir-i-hazib Officer-in-charge of the royal court

Kazi-i-mumalik Chief Justice

Kazi-ul-kazat Head of the Central Judicial department

GENERAL ADMINISTRATION OF SULTANATE

Political Theory of State :

The Turkish Sultans in India declared themselves Lieutenant of the faithfuli.e. of the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad and included his name in Khutba, it did not mean that the Caliph became the legal ruler. The Caliph had only a moral position

Political, legal and military authorities were vested in the Sultan. He was responsible for administration and was also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. He was also responsible for the maintenance of law and justice.

No clear law of succession developed among Muslim rulers. Thus, military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne.

With the exceptions Alauddin Khalji and Mubarak Shah Khalji, all other sultans styled themselves as duputies of Caliph with the title such as Nasir-i-amir ur Momin -assistant of the leader of the faithful or Yamin ul Khalifa i.e. the right hand man of Caliph.

When the Turks conquered the country, they divided it into a number of tacts called Iqtas, which were assigned among the leading Turkish nobles. The holders of the office were called Muqti or Walis . It was these tracts, which later Caliph province or Subah.

Below the province were the Shiqs and below them the Paragana. We are told that the villages were grouped into units of 100 or 84 traditionally called Chaurasi. The Paragana were headed by Amil.

Central Government :

The sultanate of Delhi was a police state, whose strength or weakness depended exclusively on the military powers and personality of its depostic sultan.

The sultan was assisted in the discharge of his function by a number of dignitaries. To begin with the sultans of the slave dynasty constituted four ministers at the top level.

When the sultnate was well-established, two more departmen heads were raised to the status of central ministers, viz sadrus-sadur and the diwan-i-qaza

The Commander of the royal army, next after the sultan, the crown prince, and the six or seven dignitaries constituted the nucleus of the council of advisers, called majilis-i-am of majilis-i-khas , which comprised the most trusted and the highest officers of the state.

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The wazir , also styled as vakil was the prime minister and his department was called the diwan-i-wizarat. He was the head of the finance department and usually held overall charge of the entire administrative set up.

The head of the army establishment or the ministry of defence was the diwan-i-arz. He was responsible for the organization and the maintenance of the royal army and excercised disciplinary control over it.

The department of correspondence and records of the royal court was called diwan-i-insha; it was held under the charge of a central minister, variously known as the dabir-i-mamlik, dabir-i-khas or amir munshi

The diwan-i-risalat consistuted the fourth pillar of the imperial administration of the sultnate. Under the period of slave dynasty, the head of the department was sadar-us-sadur, who was primarily a minister for ecclesiastical affairs.

Barid-i-mamlik(intelligence and information);Vakil-i-barbak(royal household); Amir-i-majlis(celebrations & meetings); Amir-i-Shikar(royal hunts);Kotwals(Qazi of metropolis) etc were other important officials of the time.

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1. Modern India Stories of India's wealth from travellers and other sources tempted the European nations to discover the sea route to India for trade. The Portuguese were the pioneers in this effort. In 1498, Vasco de Gama discovered the sea route to India and reached Calicut(now Kolkata). His discovery made the Portuguese to be the first among the European nations to trade with India and found settlements along the coasts. Following them were the Dutch, the English, the Danes and the French. Eventually the English and the French were left in the field to contend for the Indian Trade. Not content with trade only their ambitions took a turn to achieve political power and the conditions that followed the decline of Mughal Empire offered them a golden opportunity to fish in the troubled waters.

1.1 Advent of European CommerceThe Portuguese

Vasco-da-Gama Discovers Sea Route to India : India had commerical relations with the countries of the west from time immemorial. But from the seventh century AD, her sea borne trade passed into the hands of the Arabs, who began to dominate the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. It was from then that the enterprising merchants of Venice and Genos purchased Indian Goods. The geographical discoveries of the last quarter of the fifteenth century deeply affectd the commerical relations of the different countries of the world and produced far-reaching consequences in their history. Bartholomew Diaz doubled the Cape of Good Hope, or the Stormy Cape, as he called it, in 1487; and Vasco de Gama found out a new route to India and reached the famous port of Calicut on the 17th May, 1498.

      On his arrival at Calicat, Vasco de Gama was received by its Hindu ruler, known by the title of Zamorin. The arrival of Vasco de Gama led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicat.

Portuguese Chronology

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1498 Vasco de Gama found a new roue to India and reached the port of Calicut.

1502 Vasco de Gama established a factory at Cochin

1505 Francis co de Almeida became the first Portuguese governor in India

1510 Albuquerque succeeded Almeida as governor. Defeat of the combined fleet of Gujarat, Egypt and Zamorin at the hands of Almeida

1530 Governor Nino da Cunha transferred his capital from Cochin to Goa.

1534 Diu and Bassein were acquired from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.

1535 Subjugation of Diu

1542 Martin Alfonso de Souza became new governor during his governorship. The famous Jesuit Saint Franciso Xaveir arrived in India

1559 Subjugation of Diu

1612 Loss of Surat to the English

1631 Loss of Hugli to Qasim Khan, a Mughal role

1661 Portuguese King presents Bombay to his Son-in-law

1739 Salsethte and Bassein are lost to the Marathas

Vasco-de-Gama estblished a factory at Cochin in 1502. He was followed by Alfonso de Albuquerque in 1503. In 1505, th portuguese decided to appoint a governor to look after their Indian affairs. Franicsco de Almeida became the first governor. Albuquerque succeeded him in 1509. Albuquerque was the real founder of the Portuguese empire in the east.

THE DUTCH

The lucrative trade which prospered the Portuguese merchants compelled the jealous Dutch to get direct access to the spice markets in South-East Asia. After undertaking a series of voyages since 1596, they set up a small commerical organisation, named the United East India Company in 1602

      The main feature of the Dutch trade in India and South East Asia was their conflict with the Portuguese and the English merchants. Their rivalry with the English was influenced by two motives, first, to take advantage agaianst the Portuguese who were the allies of the Spain, the

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enemy of the Portuguese, their first object was fulfilled and their second objective brought them in continued hositility with the English.

Highlights of the Dutch activities in India as as follows :-

Formation of the Company :The Dutch East India Company was formed with powers to make wars, conclude treaties, acquire territories and build fortesses in March, 1602, by a Charter of the Dutch Parliament.

Establishment of Factories :The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat(1616), Bimilipatam (1641), K.Arikal (1645), Chinura (1653), Kasimbazar, Barangore, Patna, Balasore, Negapatam (all in 1658) and Cochin (1663)

The Dutch replaced the Portuguese as the most dominat power in European trade with the East, including india.

Pulicat was their main centre in India till 1690, after which Negapatam replaced it. The Dutch conceded to English after their defeat in the Battle of Bedera in 1759.

Cases of the Decline of Portuguese and Dutch Companies

A. Portuguese

1. Inefficient successor of Albuquerque 2. Corruption in Portuguese administration 3. Religious intolerance of the Portugueses 4. Rise of Dutch, French and the British

B. Dutch

1. Increasing Anglo- French rivalry 2. Growing interference from the Dutch governement in the internal affairs of the company 3. Dutch government's stress on maintaining its primacy over the affairs of the company

raher than focussing on carrying trade. 4. Unsatisfactory behaviour of the Dutch.

THE FRENCH In the middle of the seventeenth century Louis XIV's finance minister Colbert formed a French East India Company named Compagnie des Indes Orientales in 1664. Louis XIV provided the Company with an interest-free loan of 3 million livre. The Company was thus, created and financed by the State. After initial attempts made to colonise Madagascar had proved a failure, the Company undertook a fresh expedition in 1667 under the command of Francis Caron accompanied by Marcara, a native of Ispahan reached India and set up the first French factory at Surat in 1668. The second factory was set up at Masulipatnam in 1669. A factory was also developed at Chandernagar (Bengal) between 1690 and 1692. Two major French trading posts in India were Pondicherry, established in 1674 by Francis martin, and Chandernagar.

In 1693, the newly built French factory at Pondicherry was captured by the Dutch but by the Treaty of Ryswick between the European powers, there was restoration of mutual conquests and the Dutch

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returned Ponidcherry to the French in 1697.

During the first quarter of the eighteenth century, however, the French Company suffered serious setback for lack of resources and the factories at Surat, Masulipatam and Bantam had to be abandoned. This condition of the French Company continued till 1720.

From after 1742, when Dupleix become Governor of Pondicherry, there was a change in the character and objective of the French Company motive of imperial expansion replaced their former commerical motive. This naturally opened a new chapter in the Anglo-French conflict in India.

THE ENGLISH

Before the East India Company established trade in India, John Mildenhall, a merchant adventurer, was the first Englishment who arrived in India in 1599 by the over land route, ostensibly for purpose of trade with Indian merchants.

     On 31st December, 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted a Charter to the Company named 'The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading in the East Indies' the right to carry on trade with all countries of the East. This company is commonly known as the English East India Company.

Chronology of English East India Company

1600 Establishment of English East India Company

1608 Captain William Hawkins visited the Mughal Court of Jehangir.

1609 Emperor Jehangir issued farman permitting the English to establish a factory at Surat.

1613 The English East India Company's factory was set up at Surat.

1615 Sir Thomas Roe was successful in obtaining two farmans from the Mughal Court confirming free trade with exemption from inland toll.

1616 The East India Company established its branch factory at Masulipatnam.

1632 The English obtained the Golden Farman with the right to trade in the kingdom of Golkunda for a fixed customs duty, from the Sultan of Golkunda.

1633 The eastern branch factory of East India Company was established in Hariharpur, Balasore.

1639 The local king of Madras(Now Chennai) granted the Company a lease.

1651 Nawab Shuja-ud-din of Bengal granted the English, the right to carry on their trade on payment of a fixed duty.

1662 King Charles II of England was given Bombay (Now Mumbai) as dowry after marrying the Portuguese princess

1667 The English obtained the royal farman to trade in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.

1687 The English East India Company replaced its headquarters from Surat to Bombay.

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1691 The Governor of Bengal gave the English Company Dastaks (Free trade passes) on the payment of a fixed duty.

1717 English obtained a number of trade concessions from the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar after the Emperor was cured of a painful disease by the English Surgeon William Hamilton.

For a few years, the English East India Company confined its activities to the spice trade with Java, Sumatra and the Moluccas. But in 1608 Captain William Hawkins came to the court of Jehangir with a letter from James I, king of England, requesting permission for the English merchants to establish in India. But due to vehement opposition of the Portuguese and the Surat merchants, Emperor Jehangir had to change his mind and Hawkin's mission failed. Next year, Jehangir issued a farman permitting the English to establish a factory permanently at Surat. In 1615, a British mission under Sir Thomas Roe succeeded in obtaining farmans from the Mughal Court confirming free trade without liability to pay inland toll. In 1632 the English obtained from the Sultan of Golconda the Golden farman granting them the right to trade throughout the kingdom of Golconda on payment of a fixed customs duty of 500 pagodas per year. This farman was renewed in 1634.

    The Company obtained from the Nawab Shaja-ud-din a farman in 1651 granting the English the right to carry on their trade on payment of a fixed duty of Rs. 3000 per year.

     In 1714, an Englishman John Surman was sent to Delhi Court for securing trading facilities for the company. He succeeded in obtaining from Emperor Farukhsiyar a farman in 1717, by which the Company was permitted to carry on trade in Bengal, Bombay and Madras free of customs duty. The Company was also permitted to mint its own coins. The Nawabs of Bengal, however, showed scant regard for the imperial farman .

EAST INDIA COMPANY AND BENGAL NAWABS

Siraj-ud-Daula (1756-57)

He seiged the English factory at Kasim bazar on 20th June 1756. Fort William surrendered but Robert Clive recovered Calcutta

On 2nd January 1757, Treaty of Alinagar was signed, whereby Siraj conceded practically all the demands. British then captured Chandernagore, the French settlement, on March 1757.

Battle of Plassey was fought on 23 June 1757, Owing to the conspiracy, the Nawab was defeated.

The following betrayed the Nawab :

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Mir Jafar - Mir Bakshi Manikchand - Officer in charge of Calcutta Aminchand - Rich Sikh merchant Jagat Seth - Biggest banker of Bengal Khandim Khan - Commanded a large number of Nawab's Troops

"Black hole Tragedy" is associated in the Sirajudaulah

Mir Jafar (1757-60)

The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa. It received the Zamindari of 24 Parganas. Mir Jafar, however, fell into arrears and was forced to abdicate in favour of his son-in-law Mir Qasim

Mir Qasim (1760-64)

Mir Qasim ceded Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong. He shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Monghyr.

Mir Qasim soon revolted as he was angry with the British for misusing the dastaks (free duty passes.) However, having been defeated by the British, he fled to Awadh, where he formed a confederacy with Shuja-ud-daulah and Shah Alam.

Battle of Bauxer (1764) Shauja-u-Daulah, Shah Alam and Mir Qasim were defeated by Munro.

Mir Jafar (1763) was again placed on the throne.

Nizam-ud-Daulah (1765-72)

On Mir Jafar's death, his son Nizam-ud-daulah was placed on the throne and signed a treaty on 20th Feburary, 1765 by which the Nawab was to disband most of his army and to administer Bengal through a Deputy Subahdar nominated by the Company.

Clive concluded two seperate treaties of Allahabad with Shuja-ud-daula and Shah Alam II

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Dual system of government started in Bengal. The Company acquired both Diwani and Nizamat rights from Najam-ud-Daula (1765-66), the new nawab of Bengal. But the Company did not take over direct administration and revenue collection. Warren Hastings ended the Dual system of Government in 1772.

1.2 British Expansion in India

ANNEXATION POLICIES OF THE COMPANY

Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie devised a Doctrine of Lapse, according to which if a ruler of the protected state died without have a natural heir, his adopted son was not allowed to rule. His state was to be annexed by the British.

Subsidiary Alliance: It was used by Lord Wellesley. Under the Subsidiary Alliance, a king was provided with military security. The Princely states used to remain independent so far as internal matters were concerned but it was not possible to have any outside interference. The British Company's Resident was kept in the court of the Indian king and the Princely states had to pay an annual amount. The Indian ruler could not employ any European to his service without prior approval of the British nor could be negotiate with any other Indian ruler without consulting the governor-general.

Acquisitions of Indian States in British Empire

Under Subsidiary Alliance: Hyderabad(1798), Mysore(1799), Awadh(1801), Peshwa(1802), Bhonsle and Scindia(1803), Udaipur, Jodhpur and Jaipur(1818)

Under Doctrine of Lapse: Satara(1848), Jhansi, Sambhalpur of Orrisa(1849), Baghat(1850), Jaipur of Bundelkhand(1849),Udaipur in Rajputana(1852), Jhansi(1853) and Nagpur(1854)

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A) Anglo French Rivalry

The trading company's rivalry ousted the Dutch and the Portuguese from the Indian scene. Now, only the English and French were left to compete with each other for the Indian markets. Between 1740-1760 European wars in which France and England were opponents brought them into conflict in India as well. The political disorders and the decline of imperial authority facilitate their ambition. This was more true for the South India. The Coromandal Coast and its hinterland which was referred to as Carnatic by the European became the scene of a long drawn contest between the French and the English.

Taking advantage of the mutual discords and selfish motives among the Indian rulers, the English successfully adopted all types of fraudulent means to achieve victory over India. But before it the French and the English were locked in a struggle for economic and political fortune in India, which unfolded in the form of three Carnatic was between 1740 and 1763 in Southern India.

First Carnatic War : The hostilities between the English and the French began in the late 18th century. The first Carnatic War was the fallout of the Austrian war of succession, in which France and England were in opposite camps. The English navy under Barnett captured a few French ships. The French Governor, Dupleix, besieged Madras, in 1746 both by land and sea.

Treaty of AIX-LA-CHAPELLE

In 1748, the general war between the England and French ended and, as a part of the peace settlement, Madras was restored to the English by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 which ended the Austrian war of succession. Under the terms of Treaty Madras was handed back to English much to the disgust of Dupleix. Though the First Carnatic war ended, the rivalry in trade and over the possessions in India continued and had to be decided one way or the other.

Second Carnatic War : The Second Carnatic War was closely linked with the dispute of succession in the Nizam Hyderabad and over the Nawabship of Carnatic. The establishment of Chanda Sahib, ally of the French, on the throne of Carnatic was bound to have adverse effect on English trade since the hinterland of Madras would be in the hands of their enemies. Clive was sent with 200 Europeans and 300 Indian soldiers. The timely arrival of Muran Rao, a Maratha chief, enabled Clive to defeat Raja Sahib. Then, Chanda Sahib was forced to raise the seige of Trichinopoly. He fled away and was put to death by the Raja Tanjore. Thus, Muhammad Ali became the Nawab of Carnatic. Dupleix tried to recover his position but could not do anything. He was recalled in 1754. His successor, Godheau, began to negotiate for peaceful relations with the English and ended warfare with them in 1754 A.D and he signed the Treaty of Pondicherry.

Treaty of Pondicherry, 1754

The treaty of Pondicherry which brought an end to the Second Carnatic War had the following provisions.

Promise of the English and the French companies not to interfere in the internal affairs of Indian rulers

Acceptance to stay of the French army under Bussy at Hyderabad

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Return by the English and the French companies of the conquered parts of each other Treaty to be finalised only after the approval of the respective governments of the two

companies at home

Third Carnatic War : The treaty of Pondicherry proved to be very short-lived. In 1756, there broke out the well-known Seven Years' War in Europe and before long the two nations began to fight in India also. Thus, the Third Carnatic War was merely an echo of the Seven Years' War in Europe. The French Government sent a powerful army under the command of Count-de-Lally to mitigate the influence of the British in India. In January 1760, the English General, Sir Eyre Coote, defeated the French army under Lally in the Battle of Wandiwash. The English captured Pondicherry and Mahe, badly defeating the French.The war ended in 1763 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. The third Anglo French conflict proved to be decisive. Although French factories in India were restored, they could no longer be fortified or even adequately garrisoned with troops.

Reasons for the English Success

1. Naval superiority of the British, facilitating swift movement of the English to and from India

2. Comparatively secure geographical position of England 3. Home government's complete approval to the policies and programmes of the English;

little interest of the French government in Indian affairs 4. Stronger financial position of the British 5. Establishment of the English control over Bengal, one of the richest and most prosperous

regions of India 6. English control over Bombay and Madras 7. Lack of coordination between the policy of Dupleix and the French government 8. Recall of Bussy from Hyderabad

B) British Conquest of Bengal

The East India Company secured valuable privileges in 1717 under a royal farman by the Mughal Emperor, which had granted the Company the freedom to export and import their goods in Bengal without paying taxes and right to issue passes or dastaks for the movements of such goods. The Company servants were also permitted to trade but were not covered by this farman. They were required to pay the same taxes as Indian merchants. This farman was a perpetual source of conflict between the Company and the Nawabs of Bengal. All the Nawabs of Bengal from Mushid Quli Khan to Alivardi Khan, had objected to the English interpretation of the farman of 1717. They had compelled the Company to pay lumps sums to their treasury, and firmly suppressed the misuse of dastaks.

Situation was worsened in 1756, when the yound and quick tempered Siraj-ud-Daulah succeeded his grandfather, Alivardi Khan.

When the Nawab ordered the English to demolish their fortifications at Calcutta, the British

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refused to do so. English joined a conspiracy organised by the enemies of the yound Nawab to place Mir Jafar on the throne of Bengal, they presented Siraj-ud-Daulah with an impossible set of demands. Both sides realised that a war to the finish would have to be fought between them. The met for the battle on the field of Plassey, 20 miles from Murshidabad, on 23rd June 1757.

Black Hole Tragedy, 1756

It is said that 146 English prisoners, held by the Mughals, were crowded into a small chamber that had a single, small window on a June night in 1756. Several of prisoners died of suffocation and wounds. This aroused the indignation of Englishmen in India. However, historians treat this tragedy as a myth rather than reality.

1) BATTLE OF PLASSEY

The Battle of Plassey was a battle only in name. The major part of the Nawab's army led by the traitors Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh, took no part in the fighting. The Nawab was forced to flee and was captured and put to death by Mir Jafar's son Miran. The English proclaimed Mir Jafar, the Nawab of Bengal and set out to gather the reward. The company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa. It also received the zamindari of the 24 Parghanas near Calcutta. Mir Jafar paid a sum of Rs. 1,77,00,000 as compensation for the attack on Calcutta to the Company and the traders of the city.

Mir Jafar's treasury was soon emptied by the demands of the Company's officials for presents and bribes. When Mir Jafar hesitated to fulfill their all expectations they forced him in October 1760 to leave the throne in favour of his son-in-law, Mir Qasim, who rewarded his benefactors by granting the Company the Zamindari of districts of Burdwan, Midnapur and Chittagong and giving handsome presents, totalling 29 Lakh of rupees to the high English officials.

Those Who Betrayed Siraj-ud-Daula

Jagat Seth a rich banker

Khadim Khan a powerful noble

Manik Chand officer in charge of Calcutta

Mir Jaffar Commander-in-Chief

Amin Chand a famous merchant of Calcutta

Rai Durlabh Treasurer of Nawab

Qhasiti Begum His matinal aunt

2) BATTLE OF BUXAR

Mir Qasim belied English hopes and soon emerged as a threat to their position and designs in Bengal. Mir Qasim was defeated in series of battles in 1763 and fled to Avadh, where he formed an alliance with Shuja-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Avadh, and Shah Alam, the fugitive ruler of Mughal Empire. The three allies crashed with the English army under Major Munro at Buxar on 22nd October, 1764 and were thoroughly defeated.

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Company became the real master of Bengal at least from 1765. Its army was in sole control of its defence and the supreme political power was in its hands. The Nawab depended for his internal and external security on the British. As the Diwan, the East India Company directly collected its (Bengal, Bihar, Orrisa) revenues, while through the right to nominate the Deputy Subedar, it controlled the Nizamat or the police and judicial powers.

In May 1765, Robert Clive became the Governor of Bengal for the first time.

Political Implications of the Battle of Buxar: The Battle of Buxar proved to be decisive resulting in the establishment of British sovereignity in Bengal. This battle brought out the political weaknesses and military shortcomings of the Indians and the hollowness of the Mughal Empire.

3) TREATY OF ALLAHABAD

The Treaty of Allahabad was concluded by Clive with Shuja-ud-Daula and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, according to which the British got the right of free trade in Awadh and they were allowed to keep a British Army at the expense of the Nawab of Awadh. Shah Alam II got the districts of Kora and Allahabad and was also given an annual pension of Rs. 26 Lakh. In return of his favour, Shah Alam gave the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa to the British. The company, by another treaty, also agreed to pay a sum of 53 Lakh rupees per annum in lieu of the right of Nizamat to the mirror Nawab. Thus, the company acquired both the Diwani as well as Nizamat rights over Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa.

Robert Clive

Robert Clive began his career in Madras on an annual salary of 5 pounds per annum. His presence in the successful siege of Arcot gained his adulation and his involvement in the conquest of Bengal made him a cynosure of the British public. He was made the Governor of Bengal twice - from 1757-1760 and 1765-1767. As the Governor of Bengal, he made huge fortunes. He established a Dual system of Government for the Bengal Province.

Dual System of Administration in Bengal (1765-1772) Under this system, the administration was divided between the Company and the Nawab but the whole power was actually concentrated in the hands of the Company. This complex system remained in practice during the period from 1765 to 1772. Under this system, Clive gave the responsibility of collecting Diwani to the Indians and appointed two deputy diwans (Mohammad Raza Khan for Bengal and Raja Shitab Roy for Bihar.) For Nizamat functions (police and judicial) the British gave the additional responsibility of deputy Nazim to Mohammad Raza Khan. The deputy Nazim could not be remove without the consent of the company. Thus, although the responsibility for administration - Diwani as well as Nizamat - was exercised through Indian agencies, the company acquired real power. Under dual system, the administration was theoretically divided between the company and the Nawab but the whole power was actually concentrated in the hands of the company. Thus the system was very advantageous for the company: it had power without responsibility

In 1772, Warren Hastings put an end to this Dual System.

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C) Anglo Maratha Rivalry

The third Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao could not withstand the shock of the defeat of the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat and died on June 23, 1761. He was succeeded by his son Madhav Rao. He kept in check the ambition of his brother Raghunath Rao, maintained unity among the Maratha chiefs and nobles and very soon recovered the power and prestige of the Marathas which they had lost in the Third Battle of Panipat. The English became conscious of the growing power of the Marathas and wanted to crush their re-establishment. They got this opportunity very soon after the death of Madhav Rao in 1772.

The First Anglo Maratha War (1775-1782) : The primary cause of the first Maratha war was the interference of the English in the internal affairs of the Marathas. Peshwa Madhav Rao was succeeded by his younger brother, Narain Rao. His uncle, Raghunath Rao, wanted to become the Peshwa and got him murdered. The great Maratha chiefs took up the cause of Madhav Rao Narain, the posthumous son of Narain Rao, Raghunath Rao, approached the English for help.

Raghunath Rao or Raghoba concluded with the Bombay council, the Treaty of Surat in March 1775. Under this treaty Raghoba promised to hand over Bassein and Salsette and a few islands near Bombay to the British. This treaty was not approved by the Calcutta Council and a new treaty - Treaty of Purandar - was signed in 1776. This treaty accepted Madhav Rao II as new Peshwa. This was followed by the Treaty of Salbai (1782) and the Treaty of Bassein

Treaty of Salbai: This treaty was signed between Warren Hastings and Majadji Scinida. Under this treaty Salsette and Bassein were given to the British. Raghunath Rao was pensioned off. The treaty established the British influence on Indian politics.

Treaty of Bassein: is regarded as a very important step towards the establishment of the English dominance over India. This treaty was made between the last Peshwa of the Marathas, Baji Rao II and the English on December 31, 1802. The main provisions of this Treaty were the recognition of Peshwa's claim in Poona, acceptance of Subsidiary Alliance by Baji Rao II and relinquishing of all rights to Surat by Baji Rao to the British.

The Second Anglo Maratha War (1803-1805): For Marathas, Treaty of Bassein was nothing short of surrender of national honour. Holkar and Scindia stopped fighting. Scindia and Bhonsle combined but Holkar and Gaikwad remained aloof. Scindia and Bhonsle were asked by the English to withdraw their troops to the north of the Naramada River but they refused. It led to war. Both Scindia and Peshwa had accepted the sovereignty of the English. The Scindia and the Bhonsle entered into the subsidiary alliance by concluding the Treaty of Surje-Arjangaon and the Treaty of Deogaon respectively. Now Holkar alone was left in the field who still avoided their supremacy. Wellesley, now turned his attention towards Holkar, but Yeshwant Rao Holkar proved more than a match for the British. The company made peace with Holkar in January 1806 by the Treaty of Rajgat giving back to the latter the greater part of his territories.

The Third Anglo Maratha War (1817-1818): Marathas made a desperate last attempt to regain their independence and old prestige in 1817. This led in organising a united front of the Maratha chiefs and was taken over by the Peshwa who was smarting under the rigid control exercised by

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the British Resident. However, once again the Marathas failed to evolve a concerted and well-though out plan of action. The Maratha confederacy was altogether destroyed. Now the British Government became the supreme and paramount authority in India.

Anglo Maratha Treaties At a Glance

Treaty of Surat,1775was signed by Raghunath Rao wherein he promised to hand over Bassein and Salsette and a few islands near Bombay to the British.

Treaty of Purandhar,1776

was signed by Madhav Rao II. The company got a huge was indemnity and retained Salsette.

Treaty of Salbai,1782was signed by Mahadji Scindia whereby the British influence in Indian politics and mutual conflicts increased amongst the Marathas.

Treaty of Bassein,1802was signed between Baji Rao II. This treaty gave effective control of not only Maratha but also Deccan regions to the Company.

Treaty of Deogaon,1803 by Bhonsle assured British supremacy over the Maratha Kingdom.

Treaty of Surji-Arjangaon,1803

by Daulat Rao Scindia assured the same.

D) Conquest of Mysore

The First Anglo-Mysore War (1766-1769) : The English were Conscious of Hyder Ali's increasing power in the south. Therefore, they joined hands with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas, who were also jealous of Hyder's growing strength. The English forces attacked Mysore simultaneously from Bombay and Madras. But they were defeated by Hyder and forced to sign the Treaty of Madras in 1769. Under this treaty, both sides restored each other's conquest and promised mutual help in case of attack by a third party. When Hyder Ali was attacked by the Marathas in 1771, the English, according to the promise they had made, did not come to former's help. This led Hyder Ali to distrust and dislike them.

The Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784) : In 1778, English in India seized the French settlements including Mahe, a port which was very useful to Hyder Ali for the entry of supplies. He promoted Hyder Ali to declare war. He inflicted a severe defeat on the English forces compelling them to flee Madras with French assistance. The port of Kadnoor was captured.

Luckily for the English, Hyder Ali died in December 1782. He was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan who carried on the war and captured the Fort of Badnur in 1783. The second Anglo-Mysore war, in which the English forces were led by Sir Eyre Coote, ended inconclusively with the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784. Under this treaty both parties agreed to return the conquered land of each other.

Highlights of the Reigns of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan

Hyder Ali

1. Hyder become the Sultan of Mysore after the death of Nanjaraj, who had usurped power reducing its king Chikka Krishna Raj (belonging to the Wodeyar dynasty)

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2. He took steps to train his army on European lines and preferred infantry to equestrian troops.

3. He set up a modern artillery. 4. He won Sera, Hoskote, Dod, Bellapur, Nandidurg, Gudi and Sunda

Tipu Sultan

1. Introduction of a new system of coinage, new scales of weights and measures. 2. Improvisations in the fields of agriculture, trade and commerce. 3. Abandonment of the custom of giving jagirs and reduction in the hereditary possessions of

the poligars. 4. Missions to France and Constantinople to manage some aid for the state but without

success. 5. Organisations and training to army on European line; Arming the infantry with rifles. 6. Attempt to establish a navy on modern line for which two dockyards were established. 7. Check on the jagirdars and poligars by reducing the jagirs 8. Collection of many books on diverse subjects and setting up a big library 9. Support to the French soldiers in setting up a Jacobin club in Serinagpatnam in 1797. 10. Setting up of a Board of Admiralty 11. Grant of funds for the repair of Sringeri Temple and installations of the image of Goddess

Sharda.

The Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789-1792) : War between the two again began in 1789 and ended with Tipu's defeat in 1792. Even though, Tipu fought with exemplary bravery, Lord Cornwallis, the then Governor General, had succeeded through shrewd diplomacy in isolating him by winning over the Marathas, the Nizam, and the rulers of Travancore and Coorg.

The Third Mysore War came to an end by the Treaty of Srirangapatam in March, 1792. Tipu Sultan had lost half of his territory as a result of Third Mysore War and was burning with revenge. He wanted to get back his territory and, to achieve that objective, he carried on negotiations with the French and Zanuam Shah of Kabul.

The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) : After making Subsidiary Alliance with the Nizam, Wellesley asked Tipu Sultan to accept the same but he refused. This led to war, Mysore was attacked from two sides. The main army under General Harris supported by Nizam's subsidiary force under Arthur Wellesley attacked Mysore from the east, while another army advanced from Bombay. Tipu died defending Serinagpattam in 1799, making the English the master of Mysore. As a matter of formality, prince Krishna, a boy of the Wodeyar family, was placed on the throne and a subsidiary alliance was imposed.

Treaties signed by Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan

Treaty of Madras, 1769, restored the conquered territories to their respective owners Treaty of Manglore, 1784, restored the conquered territories mutually and liberated war

prisoners. Treaty of Srirangapatanam, 1792, was signed by Tipu Sultan by which he had to cede

half of his territory to the Company and paid a huge war reparation.

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E) Annexation of Punjab

Ranjit Singh, the chief of the Sukarchakiya misl (one of the 12 misls or confederations of Punjab,) conquered in 1799. In 1805, he also snatched Amritsar from Bhangi Misl. He attacked the areas across the river Sutlej and brought many sikh chieftains under his suzerainty. Soon Ranjit Singh took over Multan, Kashmir and Peshwa also. However, he signed the Treaty of Amritsar, also called the Treaty of Perpetual Friendship, in 1809 under which he accepted the East India Company's greater right over the cis-Sutlej territories.

Highlights of Ranjit Singh's Administration

1. Training of army on European lines with the help of French officers Ventura and Allard 2. Setting up an artillery unit 3. Introduction of payment of monthly salary to the soldiers 4. Appointment of Fakir Aziz-ud-din, a Muslim, as Foreign Minister 5. Appointment of Dina Nath, a Hindu, as Finance Minister 6. Establishment of a special court at Lahore where Maharaja himself heard cases and passed

judgements 7. Establishments of a well organised state 8. Shelter to the Afghan King, Shah Shuja, who had been pushed out of his country (the

Afghan king gave Kohinoor diamond to Ranjit Singh.)

The death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in June 1839 was followed by political instability and rapid changed of government in the Punjab. Selfish and corrupt leaders came to the front. Ultimately, power fell into the hands of the brave and patriotic but utterly indisciplined army. This led the British to look greedily across the Sutlej upon the land on the five rivers even though they had signed a treaty in 1809.

The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846): The decisive battle was fought at Sobraon on February 10, 1846 and the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh Majithia were routed. The English then crossed the Sutlej on February 13 and captured the capital of Lahore on February 20. The Sikhs were defeated due to treachery and half heartedness of their leaders. The war came to an end by the Treaty of Lahore which was signed on 9th March, 1846. This treaty left the Sikhs with no capacity for resisting the English. Another treaty was made with the Sikhs on 16th December, 1846, this treaty is known as Second Treaty of Lahore or the Treaty of Bhairowal

The Treaty of Lahore (1846)

1. The territories lying to the south of the river Sutlej were given to the company 2. The Sikh committed to pay 1.5 crore rupees to the company as war indemnity 3. The company was given control over the mountainous areas between the Beas and the

Indus river which included Kashmir and Hazarah 4. Rani Jindan Kaur was made the Regent of the State and Lal Singh as the Wazir of

the Maharaja. Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed as the Resident of Lahore.

The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849): The second Anglo-Sikh war began in 1848 as the Sikhs were feeling humiliated due to their defeat in the first Anglo Sikh war. However, the

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immediate cause was the rebellion of Mulraj, Governor of Multan, against the company. This provided the new Governor General Lord Dalhousie, a chance to interfere in the affairs of Punjab and annex Punjab in the British empire. The English and the Sikh forces fought at Ramnagar, Chillianwala and Gujarat. The battle at Gujarat under the command of Sir Charles Napier was decisive. Punjab was annexed to the British dominion in March 1849. Dalip Singh, the minor son of Ranjit Singh, and his mother, Rani Jindan, were pensioned off and sent to England.

F) Anglo Nepal Relations

The British acquired the districts of Gorakhpur and Basti from the Nawab of Awadh in 1801. This brought the boundary of Nepal, a powerful Gurkha state, to touch the British frontier. Several battles were fought between the British and the Gurkha in 1814. The Gurkhas were forced to sign the Treaty of Sagauli(1816). Under the Treaty, the Gurkhas gave up their claim over the Tarai region. They also agreed to keep a British Resident at Kathmandu and not to employ any other foreigner in their services other than the English.

Another treaty, the Treaty of Chogyal (1817) was signed between the English and Nepal. Governor-General Lord Hastings handed over the territory lying between the Tista and the Mechirivers to Nepal. This created an effective barrier between the British territories and Nepal. The treaty also ended the dominations of Nepal over Sikkim for the future.

G) Anglo Burma Relations

Two Anglo Burma Wars were fought in the first half of the 19th Century.

First Anglo Burmese War (1824-26): The Burmese subjugated Assam in 1821-22 and confronted the British all along their north-east frontier. In 1824, Lord Amherst declared war on Burma which lasted for two years. The peace was conclued in 1826, when the Burmese king ceded the provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim, withdrew from Assam and recognised the Independence of Manipur. The king also agreed to admit a British envoy at his court.

Second Anglo Burmese War (1824-26): The new Burmese king Tharrawaddy, who usurped the throne in 1837, adopted an unfriendly attitude towards the British and started violating the agreements reached after the first war. In 1852, British forces under the General Godwin, reached Rangoon before storming many cities. Dalhousie himself went to Rangoon later that year and occupied Pegu or Lower Burma. Hostilities ended with the accession of king Mindon in 1853. Burma opened herself to British trade and admitted a British Resident.

H) Annexation of Avadh

Anglo Afghan Wars:

First War (1839-42): Arose because the British (Lord Auckland wanted to replace Dost Muhammad with a puppet ruler, Shah Shuja)

The British faced a popular revolt but were able to re-occupy Kabul. However, they had to restore the throne to Dost Muhammad.

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Second War (1878-80): Afghan ruler, Sher Ali, was defeated by Lord Lytton and his son signed the Treaty of Gandamak. A British resident was kept in Kabul. After he was killed. British adopted the principle of non-interference (Lord Ripon)

The Nawab of Avadh had many heirs and could not therefore be covered by the Doctrine of Lapse. Some other pretext had to be found for depriving him of his dominions. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was accused of having misgoverned his state and of refusing to introduce reforms. His state was therefore annexed in 1856.