Rise of philosophies in ancient India

ASSISSTED BY:DR. PRIYADARSHINI

FACULTY OF HISTORY

Chanakya National Law University, Patna

Acknowledgement

I am highly elated to work on my project topic “RISE OF PHILOSOPHY IN ANCIENT

INDIA” under the guidelines of my history teacher. I am very grateful to her for her proper

guidance and help when so ever needed. I would like to enlighten my readers with my efforts and

just hope that I have tries my best for bringing luminosity to this topic.

I would also like to thank all my friends n my seniors and apart from all these I would like to

give special regard to the librarian of my university who made a relevant effort regarding to

provide the materials to my topic and also assisting me.

And finally and most importantly I would like to thank my parents for providing me financial

and mental support and providing me necessary and important tips whenever need so. I would

like to thank my brother for every little help of his.

THANKING YOU,

ARPAN KAMAL

2 | P a g e

CONTENTS:

INTRODUCTION PAGE NO. 4

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY PAGE NO. 5

OBJECTIVE PAGE NO. 5

SOURCE OF DATA PAGE NO. 5

CHAPTER: 1 PAGE NO. 6

CHAPTER: 2 PAGE NO. 9

CONCLUSION PAGE NO. 19

BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE NO. 20

3 | P a g e

INTRODUCTION

Hindu philosophy is the longest surviving philosophical tradition in India. We can recognize several historical stages. The earliest, from around 700 bc, was the proto-philosophical period, when karma and liberation theories arose, and the proto-scientific ontological lists in the Upaniṣads were compiled. Next came the classical period, spanning the first millennium ad, in which there was constant philosophical exchange between different Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina schools. During this period, some schools, such as Sāṅkhya, Yoga and Vaiśeṣika, fell into oblivion and others, such as Kashmir Saivism, emerged. Finally, after the classical period only two or three schools remained active. The political and economic disturbances caused by repeated Muslim invasions hampered intellectual growth. The schools that survived were the Logic school (Nyāya), especially New Logic (Navya-Nyāya), the grammarians and, above all, the Vedānta schools.

The central concerns of the Hindu philosophers were metaphysics, epistemological issues, philosophy of language, and moral philosophy. The different schools can be distinguished by their different approaches to reality, but all considered the Vedas (the sacred scriptures) authoritative, and all believed that there is a permanent individual self (ātman). They shared with their opponents (Buddhists and Jainas) a belief in the need for liberation. They used similar epistemic tools and methods of argument.

In contrast to their opponents, who were atheists, Hindu philosophers could be either theists or atheists. Actually we can observe an increased tendency towards theistic ideas near the end of the classical period, with the result that the strictly atheistic teachings, which were more philosophically rigorous and sound, fell into disuse. Hindu metaphysics saw ātman as part of a larger reality (Brahman).

Because these views of the world differed, they had to be proved and properly established. Accordingly, logical and epistemological tools were developed and fashioned according to the needs and beliefs of individual philosophers. Most agreed on two or three sources of knowledge: perception and inference, with verbal testimony as a possible third. In this quest for philosophical rigour, there was a need for precision of language, and there were important philosophical developments among the grammarians and the philosophers who explained the Vedas (the Mīmāṃsakas). A culmination of these linguistic efforts can be seen in the philosopher of language Bhartṛhari. One of his greatest accomplishments was the full articulation of the theory that a sentence as a whole is understood in a sudden act of comprehension.

It is customary to name six Hindu schools, of the more than a dozen that existed, thus lumping several into a single school. This is particularly the case with Vedānta. The six are listed in three pairs: Sāṅkhya–Yoga; Vedānta–Mīmāṃsā; Nyāya–Vaiśeṣika. This does not take account of the grammarians or Kashmir Saivism.

4 | P a g e

In their quest for freedom from rebirth, all the Hindu schools operated within the same framework. Their ultimate goal was liberation. How much they were truly engaged in the quest for liberation apart from their philosophical preoccupations is not always clear, yet they never doubted its real possibility.1

Research methodology

For the purpose of research the researcher has relied on secondary sources to look for information relating to the development of Philosophical Thought in Ancient India and the constituents of the philosophy. The researcher has done this keeping in mind the frequently asked questions rising out of this topic. The researcher has aimed at doctrinal method of research and will try to critically analyze and provide an un-biased account of contribution and advancement of philosophies of Ancient India.

Objective

The researcher’s prime objective is to validate the significance of the philosophies of ancient India. It aims to descriptively provide a vivid account of the philosophies which groomed during this period. The researcher is going to limit its scope to the philosophies which rose during this period of India and the basic constituents of it. It will also aim to critically analyze the Hindu philosophy and will try to present a clearer picture of it.

SOURCE OF DATA BOOKS MAGAZINES WEBSITES ARTICLES

Chapter: 1 1 CLEAR, EDELTRAUD HARZER (1998). Hindu philosophy. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved October 20, 2011, from http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/F002

5 | P a g e

Development of Philosophical Thought in Ancient India

Contrary to the popular perception that Indian civilization has been largely concerned with the affairs of the spirit and "after-life", India's historical record suggests that some of the greatest Indian minds were much more concerned with developing philosophical paradigms that were grounded in reality. The premise that Indian philosophy is founded solely on mysticism and renunciation emanates from a colonial and orientalist world view that seeks to obfuscate a rich tradition of scientific thought and analysis in India.

Much of the evidence for how India's ancient logicians and scientists developed their theories lies buried in polemical texts that are not normally thought of as scientific texts. While some of the treatises on mathematics, logic, grammar, and medicine have survived as such -- many philosophical texts enunciating a rational and scientific world view can only be constructed from extended references found in philosophical texts and commentaries by Buddhist and Jain monks or Hindu scholars (usually Brahmins).

Although these documents are usually considered to lie within the domain of religious studies, it should be pointed out that many of these are in the form of extended polemics that are quite unlike the holy books of Christianity or Islam. These texts attempt to debate the value of the real-world versus the spiritual-world. They attempt to counter the theories of the atheists and other skeptics. But in their attempts to prove the primacy of a mystical soul or "Atman" -- they often go to great lengths in describing competing rationalist and worldly philosophies rooted in a more realistic and more scientific perception of the world. Their extensive commentaries illustrate the popular methods of debate, of developing a hypothesis, of extending and elaborating theory, of furnishing proofs and counter-proofs.

It is also important to note that originally, the Buddhist world view was an essentially atheistic world view. The ancient Jains were agnostics, and within the broad stream of Hinduism -- there were several heterodox currents that asserted a predominantly atheistic view. In that sense, these were not religions as we think of today since the modern understanding of religion presumes faith or belief in a super-natural entity. That so many scholars from each of these philosophical schools felt the imperative to prove their extra-worldly theories using rationalist tools of deductive and inductive logic suggests that faith in a super-natural being could not have been taken for granted.

Similarly, there is other evidence that suggests that amongst the intellectuals of ancient India, atheism and skepticism must have been very powerful currents that required repeated and vigorous attempts at persuasion and change. Nevertheless, over centuries, the intellectual discords between the believers and non-believers became more and more muted. The advocates of mystic idealism prevailed over the skeptics, so that eventually, (at the popular level) each of these philosophies functioned as traditional religions with their pantheon of gods and goddesses enticing and lulling most into an intellectual stupor. But at no point were the advocates of "pure

6 | P a g e

faith" ever powerful enough to completely extinguish the rationalist current that had so imbued Indian philosophy.

The Age of Science and Reason But even amongst those Indian philosophers who accepted the separation of mind and body and argued for the existence of the soul, there was considerable dedication to the scientific method and to developing the principles of deductive and inductive logic. From 1000 B.C to the 4th C A.D (also described as India's rationalistic period) treatises in astronomy, mathematics, logic, medicine and linguistics were produced. The philosophers of the Samkhya School, the Nyaya-Vaisesika schools and early Jain and Buddhist scholars made substantial contributions to the growth of science and learning. Advances in the applied sciences like metallurgy, textile production and dyeing were also made.

As keen observers of nature and the human body, India's early scientist/philosophers studied human sensory organs, analyzed dreams, memory and consciousness. The best of them understood dialectics in nature -- they understood change, both in quantitative and qualitative terms -- they even posited a proto-type of the modern atomic theory. It was this rational foundation that led to the flowering of Indian civilization.

This is borne out by the testaments of important Greek scientists and philosophers of that period. Pythagoras -- the Greek mathematician and philosopher who lived in the 6th C B.C was familiar with the Upanishads and learnt his basic geometry from the Sulva Sutras. (The famous Pythagoras theorem is actually a restatement of a result already known and proven by earlier Indian mathematicians). Later, Herodotus (father of Greek history) was to write that the Indians were the greatest nation of the age. Megasthenes -- who travelled extensively through India in the 4th C. B.C also left extensive accounts that paint India in highly favorable light (for that period).

Intellectual contacts between ancient Greece and India were not insignificant. Scientific exchanges between Greece and India were mutually beneficial and helped in the development of the sciences in both nations. By the 6th C. A.D, with the help of ancient Greek and Indian texts, and through their own ingenuity, Indian astronomers were to become the first to describe the earth as a sphere and prove that it was the earth that rotated around the sun. They were also the first to correctly model both solar and lunar eclipses.

Because astronomy required extremely complicated mathematical equations, ancient Indians also made significant advances in mathematics. Differential equations -- the basis of modern calculus were in all likelihood an Indian invention; (something essential in modelling planetary motions). Indian mathematicians were also the first to invent the concept of abstract infinite numbers -- numbers that can only be represented through abstract mathematical formulations such as infinite series -- geometric or arithmetic. They also seemed to be familiar with polynomial equations (again essential in advanced astronomy) and were the inventors of the modern numeral system (incorrectly referred to as the Arabic numeral system in Europe).

7 | P a g e

The science of Ayurveda -- (the ancient Indian system of healing) blossomed in this period. Medical practitioners took up the dissection of corpses, practiced surgery, developed popular nutritional guides, and wrote out codes for medical procedures and patient care and diagnosis. Chemical processes associated with the dying of textiles and extraction of metals were studied and documented. The use of mordant (in dyeing) and catalysts (in metal-extraction/purification) was discovered.

The scientific ethos also had its impact on the arts and literature. Painting and sculpture flourished even as there were advances in social infrastructure. Universities were set up with dormitories and meeting halls. In addition, according to the Chinese traveler, Hieun Tsang, roads were built with well-marked signposts. Shade trees were planted. Inns and hospitals dotted national highways so as to facilitate travel and trade.

India's rational age was thus a period of tremendous intellectual ferment and vitality. It was a period of scientific discovery and technological innovation. Accompanied by challenges to caste discrimination and rigidity and religious obscurantism -- it was also a period of great social upheaval that eventually led to society becoming more democratic, allowing greater social interaction between members of different castes and expanding opportunities for social mobility amongst the population. Social ethics drew considerable attention in this period. Rules of engagement during war were constructed so as to eliminate non-military casualties and destruction of pasture-land, crop-land or orchards. The notion of chivalry in war was popularized -- it meant not attacking fleeing or injured soldiers. It also required warring armies to provide safe passage to women, children, and the elderly and other non-combatants. 2

Chapter: 2

PHILOSOPHIES OF ANCIENT INDIA2 “Kumar,Vinod.“Development of PhilosophicalThought and Scientific Method in Ancient India”

8 | P a g e

India has a rich and diverse philosophical tradition dating back to ancient times. According to Radhakrishnan, the earlier Upanisads constitute "...the earliest philosophical compositions of the world."3 Traditionally, ‘Darshanas’ or schools of Indian philosophy are identified as astika ie. Orthodox or ‘nastika’ ie. Non-orthodox, depending on whether they regard the Veda as an infallible source of knowledge.4 There are six schools of orthodox Hindu philosophy and three heterodox schools. The orthodox are ‘Nyaya’, ‘Vaisesika’, ‘Samkhya’, ‘Yoga’, ‘Purva mimamsa’ and ‘Vedanta’. The Heterodox are Jain, Buddhist and materialist (Cārvāka).

Despite their diversity of opinion all schools are united in their belief in a ‘Dharma’ or universal law and ‘Rta’ or order according to which human life must be lived for the well-being of the individual and society. Similarly, nearly all the schools are concerned with religious and metaphysical questions and express views on the precise nature of liberation depending on the philosophical presuppositions of each school. The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalized chiefly between 1000 BC to the early centuries AD. Subsequent centuries produced commentaries and reformulations continuing up to as late as the 20th century by Aurobindo and Prabhupada among others.

One of the characteristics of Indian philosophy is its plurality and inclusiveness. Philosophers from different schools can still have a rich and meaningful conversation agreeing on many points while differing on subtle points of difference. Competition and integration between the various schools was intense during their formative years, especially between 800 BC and 200 AD. Some like the Jain, Buddhist, Shaiva and Advaita schools survived, while others like Samkhya and Ajivika did not, either being assimilated or going extinct. The Sanskrit term for philosopher is ‘dārśanika’, one who is familiar with the systems of philosophy, or ‘darśanas’.

The Indian thinkers of antiquity (very much like those of the post-Socratic Greek philosophical schools) viewed philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life can best be led. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of philosophical works how it serves human ends or ‘puruṣārtha’. Brahmin thinkers centered philosophy on an assumption that there is a unitary underlying order or ‘rta’ in the universe 5 which is all pervasive and omniscient. The efforts by various schools were concentrated on explaining this order and the metaphysical entity at its source i.e. ‘Brahman’. The concept of Dharma provided a basis for understanding questions of how life on earth should be lived. The sages urged humans to discern this order and to live their lives in accordance with it.

In modern times, the most important school of Hindu philosophy is ‘vedanta’, which is further divided into three ways of understanding the same truth as ‘dvaita’, ‘visisthadvaita’ and ‘advaita’. While these concepts might seem different and sometimes contradictory, they represent the three stages of the development of the human consciousness.

3 Radhakrishnan ,“The Principal Upanisads”, Harper Collins, 1994,p224 Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, p. 2595 Flood, (1996) pp. 45, 47

9 | P a g e

Many Hindu intellectual traditions were classified during the medieval period of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism into a standard list of six orthodox (astika) schools (darshanas), the "Six Philosophies" or ‘ṣad-darśana’, all of which cite Vedic authority as their source: ‘Nyaya’, the school of logic; ‘Vaisheshika’, the atomist school; ‘Samkhya’, the enumeration school; ‘Yoga’, the school of Patanjali (which provisionally asserts the metaphysics of Samkhya); ‘Purva Mimamsa’ (or simply Mimamsa), the tradition of Vedic exegesis, with emphasis on Vedic ritual, and ‘Vedanta’ (also called Uttara Mimamsa), the Upanishadic tradition, with emphasis on Vedic philosophy.

These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: ‘Nyaya-Vaishesika’, ‘Samkhya-Yoga’, and ‘Mimamsa-Vedanta’. The Vedanta school is further divided into six sub-schools: ‘Advaita’ (monism/nondualism), also includes the concept of ‘Ajativada’, ‘Visishtadvaita’ (monism of the qualified whole), ‘Dvaita’ (dualism), ‘Dvaitadvaita’ (dualism-nondualism), ‘Suddhadvaita’, and ‘Achintya Bheda Abheda’ schools.

The six systems mentioned here are not the only orthodox systems, they are the chief ones, and there are other orthodox schools such as the "Grammarian" school.[7] These six systems, accept the authority of Vedas and are regarded as ‘astika’ schools of Hindu philosophy; besides these, schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are categorized by Brahmins as unorthodox or ‘nastika’ systems. Chief among the latter category being Buddhism, Jainism and Carvakas.

Āstika ("it (heaven) exists") and Nāstika ("it doesn't exist") are technical terms in Hinduism used to classify philosophical schools and persons, according to whether they accept the authority of the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, or not, respectively.6 By this definition, ‘Nyāyá’, ‘Vaiśeṣika’, ‘Sāṃkhya’, ‘Yoga’, ‘Mimāṃsā’ and ‘Vedānta’ are classified as āstika schools; and some schools like Cārvāka, Jainism and Buddhism are considered ‘nāstika’. The distinction is similar to the orthodox/heterodox distinction in the West.

In non-technical usage, the term ‘āstika’ is sometimes loosely translated as theist while ‘nāstika’ is translated as atheist. However this interpretation is distinct from the use of the term in Hindu philosophy. Notably even among the ‘āstika’ schools, ‘Sāṃkhya’ and the early ‘Mimāṃsā’ school do not accept a God while accepting the authority of the Vedas; they thus are "atheistic āstika schools". ‘Āstika’ is a Sanskrit adjective (and noun) that is derived from ‘asti’ (it is or exists) meaning believing or pious; or "one who believes in the existence." ‘Nāstika’ (na (not) + āstika) is its negative, literally meaning "not believing" or "not pious". As used in Hindu philosophy the differentiation between ‘āstika’ and ‘nāstika’ refers to belief in Vedic authority, not belief or lack of belief in theism. As N. N. Bhattacharyya writes:

The followers of ‘Tantra’ are often branded as ‘Nāstika’ by the upholders of the Vedic tradition. The term ‘Nāstika’ does not denote an atheist. It is applied only to those who do not believe in the Vedas. The ‘Sāṃkhyas’ and ‘Mīmāṃsakas’ do not believe in God, but they believe in the

6 Flood 1996, pp. 82, 224–49

10 | P a g e

Vedas and hence they are not ‘Nāstikas’. The Buddhists, Jains, and Cārvākas do not believe in the Vedas; hence they are ‘Nāstikas’.

The different usages of these terms are explained by Chatterjee and Datta as follows:

“In modern Indian languages, ‘āstika’ and ‘nāstika’ generally mean theist and atheist, respectively. But in Sanskrit philosophical literature, ‘āstika’ means "one who believes in the authority of the Vedas" or "one who believes in life after death". (‘Nāstika’ means the opposite of these). The word is used here in the first sense. In the second sense, even the Jain and Buddha schools are ‘āstika’, as they believe in life after death. The six orthodox schools are ‘āstika’, and the Cārvāka is ‘nāstika’ in both the senses.”7

The use of the term ‘nāstika’ to describe Buddhism and Jainism in India is explained by Gavin Flood as follows:

At an early period, during the formation of the ‘Upaniṣads’ and the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, we must envisage a common heritage of meditation and mental discipline practiced by renouncers with varying affiliations to non-orthodox (Veda-rejecting) and orthodox (Veda-accepting) traditions.... These schools [such as Buddhism and Jainism] are understandably regarded as heterodox (nāstika) by orthodox (āstika) Brahmanism.8

Classification of schools:Many Indian intellectual traditions were codified during the medieval period into a standard list of six orthodox systems or ‘ṣaḍdarśana’’s, all of which cite Vedic authority as their source:[9] ‘Nyaya’, ‘Vaisheshika’, ‘Samkhya’, ‘Yoga’, ‘Mimā ṃ sā ’ and ‘Vedanta’ are classified as āstika schools; and some schools like Cārvāka, Jainism and Buddhism

1. Nyāyá, the school of justice2. Vaiśeṣika, the atomist school3. Sāṃkhya, the enumeration school4. Yoga, the school of Patañjali (which assumes the metaphysics of Sāṃkhya)5. Mimāṃsā, the tradition of Vedic exegesis6. Vedanta or Uttara Mimāṃsā, the Upani ṣ adic tradition.

These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: Nyāyá-Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya-Yoga, and Mimāṃsā-Vedanta.

Nyaya7 Monier-Williams, Monier (2006), Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Nataraj Books8 Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

11 | P a g e

Nyāya (Sanskrit ni-āyá, literally "recursion", used in the sense of "syllogism, inference") is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic. The Nyaya School of philosophical speculation is based on texts known as the Nyaya Sutras, which were written by Aksapada Gautama from around the 2nd century.9

The most important contribution made by the Nyaya School to modern Hindu thought is its methodology to prove existence of God, based on the Vedas. This methodology is based on a system of logic that, subsequently, has been adopted by the majority of the other Indian schools, orthodox or not. This is comparable to how Western science and philosophy can be said to be largely based on Aristotelian logic. However, Nyaya differs from Aristotelian logic in that it is more than logic in its own right. Its followers believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release from suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to distinguish these from mere false opinions. Nyaya is thus a form of epistemology in addition to logic.

According to the Nyaya School, there are exactly four sources of knowledge or ‘Pramanas’: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these can, of course, still be either valid or invalid. As a result, Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to identify, in each case, what it took to make knowledge valid, in the process creating a number of explanatory schemes. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to contemporary analytic philosophy.

VaisheshikaVaisheshika or Vaiśeṣika is one of the six Hindu schools of philosophy (orthodox Vedic systems) of India. Historically, it has been closely associated with the Hindu school of logic, ‘Nyaya’. Vaisheshika espouses a form of atomism and postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms. Originally proposed by the sage ‘Kaṇāda’ (or Kana-bhuk, literally, atom-eater) around the 2nd century BC.10

Although the Vaisheshika system developed independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika School differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only perception and inference. Although not among Kanada's original philosophies,11 later Vaishesika atomism also differs from the atomic theory of modern science by claiming the functioning of atoms(or their characterization because of which they function in their way) was guided or directed by the will of the Supreme Being. This is therefore a theistic form of atomism. An alternative view would qualify the above in that the holism evident in the ancient texts mandate the identification of six separate traditional environments of philosophy, consisting of three sets of two pairs. The earliest 9 Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass10 Oliver Leaman, Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. Routledge, 1999 , page 269.11 Kevin Burns: "Eastern Philospohy", Enchanted Lion Books, 2006

12 | P a g e

systematic exposition of the Vaisheshika is found in the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of Kaṇāda (or Kaṇabhaksha). This treatise is divided into ten books. The two commentaries on the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, ‘Rāvaṇabhāṣya’ and ‘Bhāradvājavṛtti’ are no more extant. Praśastapāda’s ‘Padārthadharmasaṁgraha’ (c. 4th century) is the next important work of this school.

SamkhyaSamkhya, also Sankhya, Sāṃkhya, or Sāṅkhya is one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy and classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered as the founder of the Samkhya School, although no historical verification is possible. It is regarded as one of the oldest philosophical systems in India.12

Samkhya is one of the six orthodox systems (‘Āstika’, those systems that recognize Vedic authority) of Hindu philosophy. The major text of this Vedic school is the extant Samkhya Karika circa 200 CE. This text (in karika 70) identifies Samkhya as a Tantra and its philosophy was one of the main influences both on the rise of the Tantras as a body of literature, as well as Tantra sadhana.13 There are no purely Samkhya schools existing today in Hinduism, but its influence is felt in the Yoga and Vedanta schools.

Samkhya is an enumerationist philosophy that is strongly dualist. Samkhya denies the existence of ‘Ishvara’ (God) or any other exterior influence. Samkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities: ‘Purusha’ (consciousness) and ‘Prakriti’ (phenomenal realm of matter). They are the experiencer and the experienced, not unlike the res cogitans and res extensa of René Descartes. ‘Prakriti’ further bifurcates into animate and inanimate realms. On the other hand, ‘Purusha’ separates out into countless ‘Jivas’ or individual units of consciousness as souls which fuse into the mind and body of the animate branch of ‘Prakriti’.

There are differences between Samkhya and Western forms of dualism. In the West, the fundamental distinction is between mind and body. In Samkhya, however, it is between the self (as ‘Puruṣa’) and matter (‘Prakriti’).

YogaYoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility. The word is associated with meditative practices in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.

12 Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.14913 P.C. Bagchi, Evolution of the Tantras, Studies on the Tantras, Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Kolkata, 1989, pp.10

13 | P a g e

Within Hindu philosophy, the word yoga is used to refer to one of the six orthodox or āstika schools of Hindu philosophy. Yoga in this sense is based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and is also known as ‘Rāja Yoga’ to distinguish it from later schools.14 Patanjali's system is discussed and elaborated upon in many classical Hindu texts, and has also been influential in Buddhism and Jainism. The Bhagavad Gita introduces distinctions such as ‘Jnana Yoga’ ("yoga based on knowledge") vs. ‘Karma Yoga’ ("yoga based on action").

Other systems of philosophy introduced in Hinduism during the medieval period are ‘bhakti yoga’, and ‘hatha yoga’.

The Sanskrit word ‘yoga’ has the literal meaning of "yoke", from a root yuj meaning to join, to unite, or to attach. As a term for a system of abstract meditation or mental abstraction it was introduced by Patañjali in the 2nd century BC. Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a ‘yogi’ or ‘yogini’.

The goals of yoga are varied and range from improving health to achieving ‘moksha’. Within the Hindu monist schools of ‘Advaita Vedanta’, Shaivism and Jainism, the goal of yoga takes the form of moksha, which is liberation from all worldly suffering and the cycle of birth and death or ‘samsara’, at which point there is a realization of identity with the Supreme Brahman. In the Mahabharata, the goal of yoga is variously described as entering the world of Brahma, as Brahman, or as perceiving the Brahman or ‘Ātman’ that pervades all things. For the bhakti schools of ‘Vaishnavism’, bhakti or service to ‘Svayam Bhagavan’ itself may be the ultimate goal of the yoga process, where the goal is to enjoy an eternal relationship with Vishnu.

MimāṃsāMīmāṃsā, a Sanskrit word meaning "investigation", is the name of an astika ("orthodox") school of Hindu philosophy whose primary enquiry is into the nature of dharma based on close hermeneutics of the Vedas. The nature of dharma is not accessible to reason or observation, and must be inferred from the authority of the revelation contained in the Vedas, which are considered eternal, authorless or ‘apaurusheyatva’, and infallible.15 The school of ‘Mimamsa’ consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines and is not deeply considered in the existence of God, rather in the character of dharma.16 Mimamsa is also known as ‘Pūrva Mīmāṃsā’ ("prior" inquiry, also Karma-Mīmāṃsā), in contrast to ‘Uttara Mīmāṃsā’ ("posterior" inquiry, also Brahma-Mīmāṃsā) is the opposing school of ‘Vedanta’. This division is based on the notion of a dichotomy of the Vedic texts into a ‘karmakāṇḍa’, the department of the Veda treating of 14 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, pp. 19–20.15 Encyclopedia Britannica (2007)16 Worthington, Vivian (1982). A history of yoga. Routledge. p. 66.

14 | P a g e

sacrificial rites (Samhitas and Brahmanas), and the ‘jñānakāṇḍa’ dealing with the knowledge of Brahman (the Upanishads).

Mimamsa strongly concerned with textual exegesis, and consequently gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language. Its notion of ‘shabda’ or speech as indivisible unity of sound and meaning (signifier and signified) is due to ‘Bhartrhari’ (7th century).17

VedantaVedānta was originally a word used in Hindu philosophy as a synonym for that part of the Veda texts known also as the Upanishads. The name is a morph phonological form of Veda-anta = "Veda-end" = "the appendix to the Vedic hymns." It is also speculated that ‘Vedānta’ means "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas."18 By the 8th century CE, the word also came to be used to describe a group of philosophical traditions concerned with the self-realisation by which one understands the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman). Vedanta can also be used as a noun to describe one who has mastered all four of the original Vedas. Vedānta is also called ‘Uttarā Mīmāṃsā’, or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mīmāṃsā, the 'former enquiry'. ‘Pūrva Mimamsa’, usually simply called ‘Mimamsa’, deals with explanations of the fire-sacrifices of the Vedic ‘mantras’ (in the ‘Samhita’ portion of the Vedas) and Brahmanas, while Vedanta explicates the esoteric teachings of the ‘Āraṇyakas’ (the "forest scriptures"), and the Upanishads, composed from ca. the 9th century BCE, until modern times.

Vedanta is not restricted or confined to one book and there is no sole source for Vedāntic philosophy.19

CārvākaCārvāka, also known as Lokāyata, is a system of Indian philosophy that assumes various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. It seems named after Cārvāka, the probable author of the ‘Bārhaspatya-sūtras’ and probably a follower of Brihaspati, who founded the Lokāyata philosophy.

In overviews of Indian philosophy, Cārvāka is classified as a "faithless" (nāstika) system, the same classification as is given to Buddhism and Jainism. It is characterized as a materialistic and atheistic school of thought. While this branch of Indian philosophy is not considered to be part of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, some describe evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.

17 Peter M. Scharf, The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy (1996)18 Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History of Religions at the Union Theological Seminary, wrote in Random House's The American College Dictionary (1966)19 Brodd, Jefferey (2003), World Religions, Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press

15 | P a g e

JainismJainism is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of Supreme Being is called a jina the conqueror or the victor. The ultimate status of these perfect souls is called ‘siddha’. Jainism is also referred to as ‘shramana dharma’ (self-reliant) or the "path of the niganthas" (those without attachments or aversions) by ancient texts.

Jain doctrine teaches that Jainism has always existed and will always exist, although historians date the foundation of organized or the present form of Jainism to sometime between the 9th and the 6th century BCE.20

It has been hypothesized that, like several traditions in Hinduism, Jainism may have had its roots in the Indus Valley Civilization, reflecting native spirituality prior to the Indo-Aryan migration into India.21 Other scholars suggested the ‘shramana’ traditions were separate and contemporaneous to Indo-Aryan religious practices of the historical Vedic religion.

In the modern world, Jainism is a small but influential religious minority with as many as 4.2 million followers in India, and successful growing immigrant communities in North America, Western Europe, the Far East, Australia and elsewhere. Jains have significantly influenced and contributed to ethical, political and economic spheres in India. Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship and have the highest degree of literacy for a religious community in India and Jain libraries are the oldest in the country.

BuddhismBuddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha (Pāli/Sanskrit "the awakened one"). The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.22 He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end ignorance or ‘avidyā’ of dependent origination, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth.

Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure

20 Helmuth von Glasenapp,Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.2421 Dundas, Paul. 2002. The Jains. P.1722 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback 12th edition, p. 227.

16 | P a g e

Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, Tiantai (Tendai) and Shinnyo-en. In some classifications Vajrayana—as practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia —is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana. The are other categorisations of these 3 Vehicles or Yanas.

While Buddhism remains most popular within Asia, both branches are now found throughout the world. Estimates of Buddhists worldwide vary significantly depending on the way Buddhist adherence is defined. Lower estimates are between 350–500 million.

Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices.23 The cardinal doctrine of dependent origination is the only doctrine that is common to all Buddhist teachings from Theravada to Dzogchen to the extinct schools. The foundations of Buddhist tradition and practice are the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma (the teachings), and the Sangha (the community). Taking "refuge in the triple gem" has traditionally been a declaration and commitment to being on the Buddhist path and in general distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-Buddhist. Other practices may include following ethical precepts, support of the monastic community, renouncing conventional living and becoming a monastic, the development of mindfulness and practice of meditation, cultivation of higher wisdom and discernment, study of scriptures, devotional practices, ceremonies, and in the Mahayana tradition, invocation of Buddha’s and bodhisattvas.

tantraTantra, anglicised tantricism or tantrism or tantram, is the name scholars give to an inter-religious spiritual movement that arose in ancient india, expressed in scriptures (called "Tantras").

An important characteristic of this movement was that it is a radically positive, world-embracing vision of the whole of reality as an expression of a joyous Divine Consciousness (for example, as the divine play of Shakti and Shiva.). Tantric spiritual practices and rituals aim to bring about an inner realization of this truth, bringing freedom from ignorance and rebirth in the process. [1] Though not the case with most Tantric practices, in some schools of "left-handed" Tantra or ‘Vamachara’, ritual sexual practice is employed as a way of entering into the underlying processes and structure of the universe. 24

23 Ibdi p.24924 Cavendish, Richard. The Great Religions. New York: Arco Publishing, 1980.

17 | P a g e

CONCLUSION Philosophy, logic, theology are areas which have become typecast with India. To a person from outside India, this culture has nothing to offer other than the knowledge about these areas. As far as material culture goes, India had nothing to contribute, is the popular impression among people from the rest of our globe today as also among most Indians. The foregone chapters have thrown light on the advancement and the constituents of the philosophies of ancient India.

Through Buddhism and Hinduism Indian values such as non-violence (Ahimsa), renunciation (Tyaga), piety (Shraddha), charity (Dana and Dakshina) influenced other cultures especially early Christianity. Indian religions,(Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) are replete with philosophies that advocate renunciation. The Hindu Philosophy of Advaita-Vedanta looks upon the visible material world as an illusion (Maya) and considers the supreme reality (Brahmam) to lie beyond it, not visible to humans.

Thus, at the end of this research paper, the researcher is left to wonder how significant was these philosophies for Indian philosophical thought and for cultural heritage. Despite their diversity of opinion all schools are united in their belief in a ‘Dharma’ or universal law and ‘Rta’ or order according to which human life must be lived for the well-being of the individual and society. Similarly, nearly all the schools are concerned with religious and metaphysical questions and express views on the precise nature of liberation depending on the philosophical presuppositions of each school. The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalized chiefly between 1000

18 | P a g e

BC to the early centuries and these are still very significant and can be very well be traced in the foot-prints of sands of time.

The rational period thus saw progress on several fronts. Not only did it create an enduring foundation for India's civilization to develop and mature -- it has also had its impact on the growth of other civilizations. In fact, India's rational period served as a vital link in the long and varied chain of human progress. Although colonial history has attempted to usurp this collective heritage of the planet and make it exclusively euro-centric, it is important to note that fundamental and important discoveries in science and innovations in technology have come from many different parts of the globe, albeit at different times and stages of world civilization. If India is to fully recover from the degradations of colonial rule, it is imperative that we don't forget the contributions of this inspiring epoch.

19 | P a g e

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

ARTICLES:

1. Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass2. Kevin Burns: "Eastern Philospohy", Enchanted Lion Books, 20063. Cavendish, Richard. The Great Religions. New York: Arco Publishing, 1980.

BOOKS:

1. Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 20062. Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975). A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, Delhi: Motilal

Banarsidass3. Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy.

Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback 12th edition4. Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press

WEBSITES:

1. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy2. www.positiveatheism.org/india/science.htm

20 | P a g e