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How effective are GIS in practice? A case study ofBritish local governmentHeather Campbell aa Department of Town and Regional Planning, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN,England, U.K.Published online: 24 Oct 2007.

To cite this article: Heather Campbell (1994): How effective are GIS in practice? A case study of British local government,International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 8:3, 309-325

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Research Article

How effective are GIS in practice? A case study of British local government

HEATHER CAMPBELL Department of Town and Regional Planning, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN. England, U.K.

(Received 23 July 1993; accepted 10 November 1993)

Abstract. GIs have received increasing attention in recent years, particularly in local government. Despite the claims in the literature about the potential of the technology, to date there is still little information on the impact GIs applications are having on the organizations in which they are being implemented. With these considerations in mind this paper presents an evaluation of the findings of twelve case studies which were undertaken in a variety of British local government contexts during 1991 and 1992.

The evaluation of the findings of the case studies is divided into two parts. The first pan indicates the limited impact GIS has had on the local authorities investigated even after at least two years experience. Given these findings the second part seeks to identify the issues which appear to be responsible for inhibiting the effective implementation of GIs in British local government. Overall it is suggested that some organizational cultures are inherently receptive and able to sustain the development of innovations such as GIs. However, whilst very few organizations are inherently innovative it was possible to identify four factors which appeared to enhance the chances of success. These are simple applications producing information which is fundamental to the work of potential users, user directed implementation involving the participation of all the stakeholders in the project, an awareness of the limitations of the organization with respect to the range of available resources. and a high degree of stability with respect to the general organizational environment, or alternatively an ability to cope with change. As a result the evaluation indicates that if GIs are to be effectively implemented much greater consideration must be given to the impact of organizational issues.

1. Introduction The potential of geographical information technologies to display, manipulate and

analyse spatial data has long been recognized. However, very little is known about the actual impact this computer based technology is having in practice. The introduction of geographic information systems (CIS) into organizations offers opportunities to improve decision making and lead to more effective and less wasteful administration (Bromley and Coulson 1991, Bromley and Selman 1992, Dangermond 1989, Gault and Peutherer 1989, Grimshaw 1988). But to what extent are these benefits being realized in practice. Considerable attention has so far been concentrated on enhancing technical know-how in handling geographical information. However, the effective utilization of GIS depends not only on the development of the necessary technology but on relating it to the organizational contexts into which it is to be implemented (Barrett 1992, Batty 1992, Campbell 1991, Department of the Environment 1987, John and Lopez 1992, Masser and Onsmd 1993, Van Buren 1991). Studies of the introduction of computer

0269-3798194 $10.00 0 1994 Taylor & Fmncis Ltd.

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based systems into organizations have shown that marginal gains, unforeseen problems or even complete failure is far more common than success (Eason 1988 and 1993, Hirschheim 1985, Lyytinen and Hirschheim 1987, Lucas 1975, Moore 1993, Mowshowitz 1976). In such circumstances there is seldom anything technically wrong with the information system.

A comprehensive telephone survey of the take-up of GIs in British local government undertaken in 1991 indicated that one in six authorities had purchased some form of GIs software (Campbell and Masser 1992), with a partial up-date in 1992 suggesting this figure to have risen to one in five (Campbell et al. 1993). However, these figures give no indications as to the extent to which the technology is being routinely utilized by staff within these organizations. Furthermore, research examining the diffusion of technological innovations in general indicates that there is no necessary connection between the technical merits of the innovation and its widespread implementation (Bijker er al. 1987, Goodman et a/ . 1990). With these considerations in mind the research project went on to investigate the experiences of twelve case study authorities in implementing GIs . These findings provide the first systematic evaluation of the impact of GIs on organizations. The study focused on implementation as i t is this process which is responsible for converting a specialist innovation into a taken for granted technology. In terms of the research, implementation is regarded as starting sometime before the equipment arrives in the organization and continuing as an on-going process involving repeated cycles of learning, development and utilization, with each of these cycles building on the lessons of the past.

An evaluation of the longer term impacts of GIS must take account of the diversity of GIs applications which range from routine automated mapping facilities to systems designed to support managerial and strategic decision making. It is likely each of these application fields will develop their own characteristics. As a result local government is a good environment in which to study the practical consequences of CIS as i t is one of the few organizational contexts in which there is potentially significant interest in the full range of applications fields as well as being one of the most important users of GIs.

This paper aims to explore the extent to which CIS have been absorbed into the activities of the organizations into which they have been introduced and, secondly, what factors appear to increase the chances of successful implementation. The discussion is therefore divided into two parts with the first examining the level of utilization of CIS in the twelve case studies and the second the reasons which appear to account for the differing experiences of the authorities. However, before reviewing the main findings of the case study research the next section briefly outlines the key features of British local government and the research methodology.

2. Background 2.1. The structure of British local government

There is no common system of local government throughout the United Kingdom; rather England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have each developed distinctive structures. In Northern Ireland, local government has largely been taken under the control of central government, owing to the special circumstances in tht Province, and was therefore omitted from the research.

A dual system of local government operates in England and Wales, with a differentiation between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas. For the metropolitan

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How effective are CIS in practice? 31 1

areas, which comprise the six large conurbations and London, there are 36 metropolitan districts and 32 London boroughs, subsequently all referred to as metropolitan districts. Since the abolition of the higher-tier metropolitan counties in 1986 these multi-purpose unitary authorities have worked alongside a range of ad-hoc bodies which were - - introduced at that time to coordinate metropolitan-wide activities such as passenger transport and the police and fire services. In contrast, in the non-metropolitan areas there is a two-tier structure consisting of 333 districts and 47 counties. These authorities are often referred to as shire districts and shire counties. The Scottish system in contrast, makes no distinction between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas, having a two-tier structure of 53 districts and 9 regions. There are, however, three unitary authorities for the island communities which depart from this general structure.

In terms of the division of functions, districts largely take responsibility for local-scale services such as housing, public health, refuse collection and local land-use planning. In England and Wales the high-level county authorities have responsibility for the provision of services such as education, roads and transport, strategic land-use planning, the emergency services and social services, while in Scotland the regions have a rather broader role, including such activities as water supply. As a result of this division of responsibilities and the difference in size, the counties and regions command much larger budgets than the shire and Scottish districts.

The limited range of tasks undertaken by British local government distinguishes it from many other countries (Batley and Stoker 1991). For example, provision of most facilities for health care, energy-related services and in England and Wales, water supply are the responsibility of either unelected regional bodies or privatized companies. Furthermore, there is no tradition of maintaining a cadastre in Great Britain. As a result cadastre or utilities type functions are not administered by local authorities in Great Britain.

A second distinctive feature of the British local government system is the size of the basic unit of authorities. The average populations of the Scottish shire and metropolitan districts are respectively 95 100, 96600 and 259800. Norton (1991) in his comparative study, notes that reorganization in West Germany and Scandinavia resulted in the populations of the basic unit of local government rising to 8, 10, 12 or 20 thousand. It is clear that these authorities in no way approach the size of the much larger units which have evolved in Great Britain. Teesdale, the smallest shire district, had in 1990 a population of 24 800. The size of these authorities reflects concern at the time of that reform of local government in the 1970s with achieving economies of scale andefficiency in the provision of services (Redcliffe-Maud and Wood 1974). In contrast to the districts the populations of counties and regions are smaller than the highest level sub-national government in many countries, with average populations in 1990 of respectively 684000 and 559000. This in many ways reflects the lack of regional government in Great Britain. (For a more detailed comparative analysis of local government, see Batley and Stoker 1991.)

2.2. Research methodology The research project from which the findings presented in this paper form part, has

adopted a combination of methods, including a comprehensive telephone survey of all 5 14 local authorities in Great Britain and twelve case studies. This combination enables an overview of the general state of the art in GIs development in Britain to be supplemented by a detailed evaluation of the process of GIs implementation in a

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312 H. Campbell

number of key authorities. There has been much discussion as to the most appropriate research methods with which to investigate the implementation of computer based systems including G I s (see, for instance, Boland and Hirschheim 1987, Campbell 1990b. Kling 1987, Kling and Scacchi 1982, Mumford er al. 1985, Onsmd and Pinto 1991, Pettigrew 1988, Van de Ven and Rogers 1988). Much of this debate concentrates on the merits of different approaches to case studies. Kling (1987) in a useful overview of the various research strategies argues that it is important that case studies are structured in such a manner that the researcher gets behind the formal appearance of the activities of the organization and the individuals of which they consist. As a result he distinguishes between the discrete-entity approach which focuses on those most directly involved with the technology and formal statements of intent, and the web model which attempts to examine the social and political network within which computer based systems are located. Consequently, in conducting a web type approach it is important to define the boundaries of the case study broadly and thereby interview a wide range of individuals including those not directly involved in the project such as senior management and potential users.

This paper concentrates on an evaluation of the findings of the case studies which were undertaken during 1991 and 1992. The twelve case studies which were conducted, represent around 12 per cent of the total number of systems present within British local government in 1991. The findings of the comprehensive survey formed the basis for the selection of case studies with the criteria for selection based on including a range of local authority types, departmental as well as shared systems, a range of hardware and software platforms and the presence of the system within the authority for at least two years prior to June 1991. This final condition enabled the research to concentrate on the consequences of the implementation process rather than the initial technical problems which are associated with the introduction of most computer based systems. As a result four of the systems are located in shire districts, two in metropolitan districts with a further two in a similar type of urban authority based in Scotland and the remaining four in shire countries. In terms of the organizational approach to implementation three are departmentally based while the remaining nine projects involve between three and seven departments. The researchers received the full cooperation of the authorities selected. The initial contact which was made as a result of the telephone survey appeared to facilitate this process. A summary of the main features of the case studies is presented in table 1.

In many ways all local authority contexts are unique, however, given the complete database of G I s adoption in British local government already compiled at Sheffield it was possible to ensure that a broadly representative range of environments and systems were included in the investigations. Furthermore, such breadth compares favourably with much of the anecdotal evidence which currently exists concerning G I s implementation. It must also be acknowledged that system implementation is a long and highly dynamic process and that any analysis based at one point in time risks over emphasizing certain issues which may change later. Given these circumstances it is worth noting that researchers at Sheffield have been working with two of the authorities since 1987. The longitudinal view gained from this study complements the more limited one-off evaluations.

The manner in which the case studies were conducted closely followed the web model (see Kling 1987, Kling and Scacchi 1982). The length of time taken to complete each of the case studies varied from a day to two weeks depending on the size and complexity of the organizations and the G I s being developed. A key feature of the

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How efJective are CIS in practice? 313

Table 1. Characteristics of the case studies.

Size Date of GIS Location (in terms purchase Style of

Type of local authority (NorthISouth) of population) (year) implementation

Shire District Shire District Shire District Shire District Metropolitan District Metropolitan District Scottish District Scottish District Shire County Shire County Shire County Shire County

Medium Small Small Small

Medium Medium

Large Large Large Large Large Large

Shared Shared Shared Shared Shared Shared Shared

Departmental Shared Shared

Departmental Departmental

approach adopted towards the case studies was that interviews were undertaken with those involved both directly and indirectly with the GIs including potential users, senior managers, mapping and computer specialists. An element of participant observation was also involved in this process. It is important that such an approach is adopted if a full understanding is to be gained of the process of GIs implementation, rather than limiting the investigations to the views of those most directly involved with system development.

The limitations of case study research have been well documented elsewhere (see Yin 1982). However, given the manner in which the case studies were undertaken, the findings presented in this paper indicate that the insights gained far outweigh any uncertainties about the generalizability of the results.

3. The extent of GIs utilization The findings of the research indicate that the vast majority of GIs applications

being developed aim to assist with operational activities, regardless of whether more sophisticated facilities are available within the software. Furthermore, despite the common use of the same GIs software by several departments in nine of the case studies, most of the applications concentrate on the needs of no more than one department. The main departments involved with the development of GIs applications are the technical service type activities such as planning, highways, estates, architecture and surveying, assisted in some cases by the central computing department of the authority (see table 2). Active interest in GIs has not yet permeated the often large community service type departments of housing, education and social services. This is probably a reflection of the considerable administrative pressures that these departments have faced due in part to frequent legislative changes by central government as well as limited resources for additional activities such as new data handling initiatives.

The key area of application for most authorities has been the development of automated mapping facilities based on the digital data available from the Ordnance Survey (see table 3). The emphasis given to this application probably explains the significant role played by planning departments, as they have traditionally had responsibility for meeting the cartographic needs of authorities. In addition to automated mapping, the other main areas of application include grounds and highways

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Table 2. Departments with attribute data on a GIS in the case studies.

Type of dlepartment

PlanningSurveyors/engineers/highwaysEnvironmental healthParks/recreation/amenitiesLegal/land chargesProperty/estatesHousingCleansingPlanning and estatesEducationEnvironmental health and housingBuilding controlBuilding and works

Number of departmentswith attribute data on aGIS in the case studies

88433221I1111

Table 3. Applications being developed in the case studies.

Applications Number of case studies

OS map productionHighways managementGeneral data base developmentGrounds maintenanceAnalysis of land-use dataPlanning applications processingProperty managementLand and property managementLand chargesEnvironment Protection Legislation-litter zonesCouncil house salesTendering document for cleansing

732222I11111

maintenance and estate management. There is very little current or planned use ofcomplex spatial analysis techniques, with most local authorities only perceiving a needfor basic display and query facilities. The case study findings indicate the tendency forGIS technology to be employed differently even in apparently similar environmentsdeveloping similar applications. As a result although automated mapping systems, forinstance, were being developed in several of the case studies, the nature and extent ofeven this relatively simple application varied considerably.

A striking finding of the research is the limited impact GIS has had on most of theauthorities even after a minimum of two years experience (see table 4). Only three ofthe case studies had reached the stage where at least one application was being employedby end users at the time of the research. A further seven were either still developingthe system or had achieved an operational application but it was not being utilized.These results indicate the lead time to the development of a working application is oftenconsiderable due in part to the time consuming activities of customization and datacapture as well as the organizational complexities of introducing a system such as GIS.Very few of the authorities already had complete data sets or their existing information

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How effective are GIS in practice?

Table 4. Overview of the utilization of GIS in the case studies.

Result Number of case studies

315

At least one application operationalwith one user

Still developing the system or an applicationoperational but not being used

System abandoned, review of the futureof GIS underway

3

7

2

in a suitable format for input. This means that the implementation of GIS must besustained over several budgetary cycles. The remaining two case studies had abandonedthe development of the software they had originally purchased due to its failure todeliver any results and were reconsidering whether GIS facilities could provide themwith any real benefits.

These findings indicate the problematic nature ofGIS implementation. This processappears to be very much more than a technical exercise as in some cases users werenot employing the systems even though the GIS were technically operational.Determining the nature of success and failure in terms of the implementation ofcomputer based systems is extremely difficult. However, given these findings use wasadopted as the key criteria for the research. This is simply defined on the basis of thepresence of users, regardless of such issues as whether the development had been costeffective, the system had been elegantly designed or the project had met its initial goals.With these considerations in mind the next section will explore which factors appearto influence whether the process of implementation results in utilization.

4. The impact of organlzational issues on GIS implementationA critical issue for the future diffusion of any innovation is whether it can be

successfully transferred from the laboratory to the demands of the organizationalcontexts in which it is expected to operate. It is therefore important to identify whichfactors appear either to facilitate or hinder this process (Klein and Hirschheim 1989,Innes and Simpson 1993). In terms of the basic features of the GIS being implementedin the case studies there were no similarities between the more and less successful withrespect to technical characteristics such as software and hardware or the organizationalstructures adopted, including such features as the numbers of departments involved.Furthermore the technological problems faced by the less successful authorities seemedto be no greater than the other contexts. Previous work in this area suggests that thereare three sets of conditions which are likely to make a significant contribution towardsthe effective implementation of GIS (Campbell 1990a, Masser 1992, Masser andCampbell 1991). These are:

(1) An information management strategy which identifies the needs of users andtakes account of the resources at the disposal of the organization.

(2) Commitment to and participation in the implementation of any form ofinformation technology by individuals at all levels of the organization.

(3) A high degree of organizational and environmental stability.

This framework was used as the basis for exploring the experiences of the case studies.It is inappropriate in this paper to examine the detailed findings of the case studies.However, in an effort to provide a flavour of these findings, a selection of the key issues

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raised is presented below. This will be followed by a brief evaluation of the wider implications of the research. (For a discussion of the detailed finding- of the case studies see Campbell and Masser in press.)

4.1. Informarion management strategies The preparation of an information management strategy is regarded as an important

pre-requisite for the effective implementation and thereby utilization of any form of computer based system as it provides a framework and direction. The emphasis of such a strategy is on identifying the information priorities of the organization and as a consequence communicating to staff how and to what extent they are expected to make use of these resources in their work. Once the information needs of the organization have been established it follows that decisions can be made about the most appropriate methods of storing and handling this information. It is important that a realistic assessment is made of the available resources including equipment, skills, personnel and funding in deciding the content of the strategy. Consideration of the technology therefore follows from the identification of the information priorities of the organization with the information management strategy designed to provide the robust framework necessary to guide the development of computer based systems. A technically elegant system is of little value if it produces information nobody wants, at the wrong time or in an inappropriate format. The breadth of vision and scope of responsibility which is necessary to produce and implement a strategy of this type implies the close if not central involvement of senior management particularly from user departments. It is likely resources will be wasted and systems will become redundant without a widely accepted sense of the information needs of both the organization as a whole and individual members of staff.

The development of an information management strategy has therefore been identified as an important component in ensuring the effective implementation of any form of computer technology. In the case of GIS it has generally been assumed that such a strategy will highlight the latent demand both within and between organizations for data sharing, and by implication the existence of corporate spatial data sets. The following discussion illustrates some of the key findings with respect to information management strategies in general and user needs in particular.

Table 5 indicates the types of documentation produced by the case studies. As can be seen only two had produced any form of information management strategy while they all had some form of information technology strategy. Furthermore, very few individuals in the authorities or the departments studied had identified the key data sets which underpin effective service delivery and related such requirements to the resources at the disposal of the organization. The contexts which had developed information management strategies demonstrated that their value is largely dependent upon identifying the information sets which are essential to the operation of the organization rather than simply 'nice to have'. It is also necessary for staff throughout the

Table 5. Strategies produced by the case study.

Type of strategy Yes No

Information Management Strategies 2 10 Information Technology Strategies 12 0 GIS Strategies 7 5

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How effective are CIS in practice? 317

organization to share and accept the priorities which have been developed. As a result emphasis tended to be placed on the technology divorced from the value of the information to be generated or the service which such facilities will provide.

The case study findings suggest there was little evidence of a latent demand for sharing spatial data. Despite the use of the same software in some cases, the vast majority of the information being input into G I s is not of great enough interest to be accessed outside the original holding department. The only spatial data sets for which there was sufficiently widespread demand to justify corporate provision were the Ordnance Survey's automated maps and the census. However, even for these data sets there were very great differences in priorities between users in terms of the underlying methodology for its collection. As a result generators of information tend to fear misinterpretation while general users consider information without the professional opinion as to its merits to be of limited value. Information also embodies social and political meaning which makes some data holders cautious about allowing general availability.

The findings suggest consideration of user needs should not be limited to the characteristics of the technology but must also include an assessment of the type of service required by users and the form of technology they will be able to support. Any G I s is in effect providing a service to users. It is therefore vital that the process of supplying the needs of users does not get in the way of the provision of the information. Important issues in this respect include the length of time required to respond to a request for information, the form of information provision (map, graph, tabular, etc.) and the level of accessibility to G I s facilities both in terms of physical availability as well as being demonstratively easy to use. As a result while the advantage of G I s must be self-evident to users the complexity and sophistication of the technology must be virtually invisible.

The implementation of G I s tends to be a highly resource intensive activity. The experiences of the case studies indicate that regardless of the balance between in-house and external development, the financial costs, staff time and variety of skills required are considerable if utilization is to be achieved. The skills needed to implement a G I s extend beyond technical capabilities to include managerial and datahapping skills. Similarly training must provide users with sufficient knowledge to be able to handle geographic information as well as the computer technology. In addition two less tangible resources appeared to make a significant contribution to the process of implementation. These were the level of experience in handling spatial data and the ability of the organization and by implication the staff within the organization to cope with change. This important issue will be returned to in $5.

4.2. Commitmenr and participation It has been argued that successful implementation of anv form of information -

technology requires the commitment of staff throughout the organization to the project. Securing commitment is very difficult if staff feel excluded from the decision making - - processes which will shape future developments. As a result it is vital that mechanisms which facilitate widespread participation in the implementation of a particular system are devised. Such mechanisms provide the means through which the needs of users can be identified. There seems few reasons for believing that the need for commitment and full staff involvement are any less critical in the case of G I s than any other form of information technology.

Traditionally the introduction of computer based systems has been regarded as a

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3 18 H. Campbell

purely technical activity. As a result there has been a tendency to separate design from use, with computer specialists taking responsibility for the de"elopment of the systems which once operational, users are expected toemploy in their work. However, numerous . .

examples indicate the potential frailty of such an approach with the chances of a mismatch between user needs and the facilities provided extremely high (see Campbell 1990b. Eason 1993). It is therefore important that all the stakeholders are involved in the project from the initial decision to purchase a G I s to the final recommendation to abandon the project. The term stakeholder is used to imply all those groups and individuals which perceive they have an interest in the system (Eason 1988). This includes individuals who are likely to have no direct involvement with the technology but perceive the G I s to threaten their existing standing within the organization. The process of implementing a G I s must therefore include users, senior management, elected members and computer specialists. G I s are often seen as a multi-purpose technology which can satisfy the needs of a variety of users. As a result commitment and participation must be achieved both vertically in terms of a variety of skills and also horizontally with respect of what in local government is often a heterogeneous set of users.

Commitment to and participation in the implementation of any form of information technology is therefore important. In the case of G I s it was important to explore the extent to which there was a tradition ofjoint working in general within the authorities as well as with respect to the specific G I s project. The contribution of mechanisms such as the presence of champions and the role of working groups and pilot projects to increasing the chances of securing widespread commitment, were also considered (Beath 1991).

Only one of the case study authorities exhibited any indication of corporate working in the general way in which service delivery was organized. Even in the smaller authorities there was a tendency for 'family squabbles' to develop between departments. This context provides an unlikely setting for successful horizontal integration between departments in relation to GIs . Departments were keen to maintain their independence and tended to be sceptical about any project which appeared to compromise their existing position. Furthermore, few departments were prepared to be net inputters into the system. As a result in order to maintain commitment in a G I s project involving several departments the benefits and need for the system must be sufficiently self-evident that any hassles and frustrations which are encountered, such as the need for compromise over the specification of the spatial referencing system, will not threaten the integrity of the project.

The findings of the case studies also indicate that achieving commitment and consensus can be as difficult at a departmental scale as authority-wide. There are often rivalries between the individual sections within departments with individuals rarely having a full appreciation of the workload and pressures of staff beyond their immediate section. The presence of four gazetteers in one planning department highlights the independent patterns of working which often develop. As a result none of the departmental G I s applications were fully integrated into the work of the host department. Knowledge about the G I s was generally confined to a tightly knit group.

Collaboration between users, senior management, elected members and computer specialists was found to be essential for successful G I s implementation whether at an authority-wide or departmental scale. However, effective cooperation between these groups was found to be rare, with the relationship between users and the technical specialists particularly problematic and in some cases potentially destructive. Many

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How effective are CIS in practice? 319

of the tensions between users and computer specialists result from widely varying motivations and underlying philosophies. In some circumstances there was a complete failure to communicate. For instance, the technological specialists generally had little understanding of the nature of the information required by users, simply perceiving it to be units of data. However, in instances where a dialogue between the various groups had developed the findings of the case studies suggest that if utilization is to be achieved the interests of users must be paramount. Where responsibility for implementation rested with the computer specialists there seemed to be a high probability that the CIS would be technically operational without being used. Users in these circumstances commented that the applications being developed did not meet their central needs and as a result were only of marginal value to their work.

The presence of a champion has been heralded as one of the keys to success. The term champion is applied to the individual who is regarded as having been mainly responsible for gaining approval for the adoption and development of the CIS. Such individuals are often envisaged as charismatic figures. The findings of the case studies indicate that the presence of a champion does not necessarily guarantee success nor their absence failure. The more successful environments were noted for having a collection of highly able individuals who possess the full range of skills which are necessary to implement a CIS rather than being distinguished by the presence of a so-called champion.

Two further mechanisms are often cited as ways of achieving widespread participation in projects which involve multiple interests. These are working groups and pilot projects. With the exception of the departmental systems two-thirds of the remaining case studies had established working groups on CIS. The function of such groups was very much seen as coordinating implementation and raising awareness amongst users. However, there was widespread criticism amongst those involved that they tend to degenerate in to 'talking shops' which slow down rather than facilitate development. The provision of a forum for debate is not in itself sufficient reason for condemning the formation of working groups on CIS as such activities can be constructive and enhance commitment. However, in practice these meetings tend to be largely cosmetic, failing to provide a real opportunity for the varied interests to participate. It is often users that feel most alienated in these circumstances as technical issues are discussed which mean little to them, while at the same time decisions are being made which will affect their work.

In contrast to working groups which most of the case studies had established, very few had undertaken pilot projects. Several respondents could not see the value of such exercises as the particular applications being developed would still not be operational, while many of the important considerations for G I s development concern the scale of the projects being implemented. In two cases including one of the more successful implementations it was emphasized that elected members would not support pilots as they regarded it as 'playing'. As a result there is no clear indication from the case studies that either working groups or pilot projects, at least as conceived in these authorities, increase the probability of successfully implementing a CIS.

An assessment of the various organizational mechanisms adopted by the case studies suggests there are not quick fixes to achieving commitment and participation. However, in a small minority of the organizations studied there was a more enduring and less tangible quality, namely an innate ability to innovate. The commitment and willingness to participate in new and therefore risky projects by individuals within such organizational cultures was far higher than in other apparently similar contexts. The

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implications of this organizational quality for the implementation of G I s will be examined in $5.

4.3. Insrabiliry The relationship between instability and the effective implementation of computer

based systems such as G I s is both complex and highly significant. A change in circumstances such as the appointment of a new Chief Executive for instance can be responsible for creating the conditions necessary to stimulate the adoption of G I s technology. Moreover the introduction of new facilities itself implies alterations to existing work practices. T o achieve successful implementation therefore, the organization must be able to accommodate change. However, once the introduction of the G I s has been instigated any changes to the underlying assumptions and goals on which the process of implementation had been based is likely to threaten the success of the project. For instance, if the priorities of users become substantially different or the assumed level of resources is reduced, it is likely the nature of the system will have to be significantly modified or perhaps even the programme aborted. As a result, while change can at times be a creative force, it also has the potential to destruct and even destroy chances of successful implementation.

The findings of the case studies highlight the high level of uncertainty currently faced by local authorities as well as the organizational instability the implementation of G I s itself tends to induce. In particular Central Government's current review of the whole nature of local government in terms of the number and type of authorities, the most appropriate internal management structure and the method of finance is causing a sense of instability in this sector. In many ways the uncertainty engendered by this process is more damaging to the development of G I s than the changes themselves as they foster an environment of short term thinking in many authorities. The introduction of compulsory competitive tendering (CCT) for the right to provide professional as well as manual local government services had led the vast majority of the case studies to reorganize their existing internal management structures, into cost centres or business units. These partly self-sufficient units are considered better able to compete in an increasingly market oriented public sector than large unwieldy departments. This market concept is being extended to the provision of information with units providing information arguing that they should receive a return from any section wishing to make use of their information commensurate with the cost of production or added value. In a climate of intra as well as inter-departmental charging for information it is extremely difficult to sustain an authority-wide GIs .

In addition to these s t ~ c t u r d changes in local government the introduction of GIS technology itself creates instability. The case studies demonstrated the reluctance amongst many individuals as well as particular organizational contexts to embrace this change unless the benefits are self-evident. More practically, all the case studies experienced a mixture of anticipated and unforeseen difficulties with the software they purchased. The problems encountered included a lack of compatibility between software, inability to undertake relatively simple tasks and extremely cumbersome commands. These technological problems create instability and uncertainty for those responsible for G I s implementation. A situation which is not quickly resolved given the long customization period most G I s require. Furthermore, the impact of the recession on the electronics sector has been profound and can in turn be seen in G I s industry. Very few of the case studies have escaped changes in the individuals or even companies providing the software product they have purchased. Company mergers,

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take-overs and other changes have for instance left some of the case studies with unsupported products and therefore have had to make a substantial further investment.

Change, instability and uncertainty are endemic to any organizational environment and to be successful a project with a long lead time such as GIs must be able to withstand these conditions. It was evident that whether change induced by the CIS itself was being considered or in the general context in which the GIs was located, some organizations were much more able to cope than others. In most cases there was a tendency to view change as a threat, while in a very few instances such circumstances were viewed much more constructively; perhaps even as an opportunity to do old things better or to explore new areas. As a result the more successful environments were either fortunate in being more stable than the rest or they had an inherent capacity to absorb change.

5. Evaluation The analysis of the main case study findings indicates that while the successful -

implementation of CIS is not necessarily impossible it is extremely difficult. Overall the research demonstrates that the process involved in achieving the utilization of CIS - technology is as much social and political in nature as technical. Technical problems tend to reinforce existing organizational difficulties rather than be responsible for the failure of the process of implementation. One of the most significant findings of the research concerns the impact of the inherent characteristics of organizational cultures on the ability of the environments studied to sustain the development of innovations such as GIs (Handy 1985, Kanter 1983, Pfeffer 1981). Far more research is required but it is possible at this point to make a number of tentative comments derived from the existing work.

Out of the twelve case studies, two appeared to have the capacity to take on the organizational changes implied by the introduction of CIS and sustain the process in the presently highly dynamic context of British local government. It was evident that the skill levels and expertize amongst the staff in both these authorities was higher than in other similar environments. However, whilst the all-round expertise of these individuals was undoubtedly important, the existing culture was in many ways responsible for gathering these individuals into its service. As a result, it appears that innovative environments attract innovative individuals and presumably the reverse is also the case. In both these authorities it was evident that there was a long tradition of being at the forefront of new innovations in the local government sector, which included a wide range of policy areas as well as information processing. The outward characteristics of the projects in the two authorities were very different, but both demonstrated a fundamental capacity to treat change as an opportunity. In both cases, mistakes had been made, but rather than this outcome tending to thwart initiative, it seemed to be regarded as a process of education from which the authority would move forward. It therefore appears probable that the long-term utilization of CIS seems most likely to be sustained in such environments.

However, whilst very few organizations are inherently innovative, the case study findings suggest that there are four factors which enhance the chances of achieving successful implementation. These are:

1. Simple applications producing information which is fundamental to the work of potential users.

2. An awareness of the limitations of the organization in terms of the range of available resources.

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3. User-directed implementation which involves the participation and commitment of all the stakeholders in the project.

4. A large measure of stability with respect to the general oganizational context and personnel, or alternatively, an ability to, cope with change.

These four factors refine the three conditions which were used as the framework for analysis. They demonstrate the importance of devising an information management strategy which identifies the core information needs of the users and the types of service -. - - they require, as well as considering the resources at the disposal of the organization. The form of this initiative, that is to say, whether it has been formally ratified or not, appears to be largely irrelevant. Of far more importance is that the process has been undertaken. Commitment and participation by staff throughout the organization is crucial and must be set within a user-centred framework (see for instance Eason 1988). The relationship between stability and utilization is perhaps the most complex with the impact of such forces appearing to depend on the capacity of the organization to withstand change. Inevitably these features overlap to a considerable degree. For instance, it is unlikely that the key needs of users will be identified without the users themselves taking a leading role in system implementation.

It is evident from the case studies that short term success can be achieved for a relatively small project, based on the expertise and political skills of an enterprising individual, sometimes referred to as a 'champion'. The critical issue in this case is whether the organization can take the innovation and sustain it. Experience suggests that this is often doubtful as even the most expert individual cannot ensure successful implementation in a vacuum. It is also possible that organizations will achieve technical success without fulfilling the four factors. In other words, operational G I s applications are developed but they do not become a routine part of the work of users. The analysis of the case studies suggest that this is most likely to occur in situations where system development is controlled by the computer specialists. A further factor which may thwart development is instability, as changing circumstances alter priorities, with organizations which have set goals which are marginal to the needs of users likely to see the system rejected. These findings are not just limited to authority-wide applications the findings suggest departmental systems can fail as easily as any of the various forms of corporate development, however, by involving several departments it is likely the number of variables will increase.

6. CIS at the crossroads: future research priorities The findings of this first systematic study to examine the potential of G I s in practice

suggest that the process of transferring the technology from the laboratory to real world organizations is complex and problematic. It appears likely that for many organizations successful G I s implementation may well be extremely difficult unless far greater consideration is given to the organizational and human dimensions of implementation. The findings in many ways mirror the more spectacular failures to implement information technology such as the London Ambulance Service system and the TAURUS project in the Stock Exchange which have recently received considerable publicity in Great Britain. These notable examples as well as the results of studies conducted in a variety of environments (see for example, Danziger et al. 1982, Danziger and Kraemer 1986, Eason 1988, Frissen 1989, Leonard-Barton 1988, Mowshowitz 1976, Markus and Robey 1988) suggest that the findings of this research project based in local government and focusing on G I s technology are by no means unique. It is

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estimated that around 20 per cent of systems fail entirely, while a further 60 per cent produce some benefits and some more negative results while only 20 per cent are completely successful (Dunlop and Kling 1991, Eason 1988, Mowshowitz 1976). It is also evident that for more complex applications such as decision support systems the chances of success are less likely than for relatively simple systems such as word processing. As a result there is a need for greater theoretical and p;actical understanding of the process of implementation if resources are not to be wasted. Furthermore, such an analysis is not surprising given the current relatively early stage of development of GIs. This process of learning in turn represents a challenge. It is likely that if the response is to ignore such issues the limited success and even complete failures of many more G I s is inevitable.

One of the most important findings of the case studies was the suggestion that there are inherently innovative organizational cultures. This prompts many further questions. For instance:

- Is it possible to identify organizational cultures? - What makes an organization innovative? - Is it possible to create an innovative environment and if so how?

Alongside these general theoretical issues are a number of more specific questions concerning the impact of organizational issues on the successful utilization of GIs . These include:

- Do all contexts exhibit a lack of enthusiasm for data sharing? - What is the role of information in decision-making and as a result what are the

requirements of users in terms of the form of information needed and the type of service best equipped to meet these requirements?

- How do organizations cope with change and instability both induced through the introduction of G I s as well as from other sources?

Research into many of these issues have implications for the effective implementation of a wide variety of forms of information technology. However, given the current prominence of GIs , it is vital further research is undertaken in these areas if G I s is to avoid becoming yet another technology which failed in practice to live up to its potential.

Acknowledgment We are grateful to the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and the

Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) for funding this project as part of the joint programme on Geographical Information Handling.

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