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HUMAN RESOURCE AUDIT AND IT’S IMPLICATIONS ON
ORGANIZATIONAL EFFICIENCY: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Dr. Usha Devi N.1
ABSTRACT
In this study, an effort is made to explore the implications of HR Audit on organizational efficiency and from the ground
research, it was found that there is High confusions and friction in values and approach. Therefore, HR practitioners need to
strengthen their partnership and credibility with their stakeholders by involving them in policymaking and communicating
constantly.
KEYWORDS
Human Resource Audit (HRA), Organizational Efficiency (OE) etc.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Human Resource effectiveness tools such as HR audit are concerned with the examination and evaluation of the policies,
procedures and practices with reference to the human resource of the organization. It is a periodic review to measure the
efficiency and effectiveness of Human Resource Management. Although there is no legal obligation to conduct HR Audit, it is
considered important for improving the performance of human resource, controlling the cost of labour and meeting the challenges
of the trade union. It is clear that study in the HR Audit sector is very limited. Therefore, it is necessary to find out the
organizations that have HR Audit practices and study the perception of the employees about the practices of HR Audit.
Today the Human Resource department is playing its role towards organization as well as towards the society in which it operates.
For fulfilling these multidimensional responsibilities, it is necessary to evaluate the performance of Human Resource department
at regular intervals for measuring its effectiveness and efficiency for achieving the goals of organization. This evaluation of HR
department and its practices is done through the process of HR Audit, which tells the organization about its present standing and
condition.
HR audit is conducted in the organization to review and assess the quality of human resource practices and policies. The team of
HR audit consists of HR experts and consultants evaluate the activities of HR department in terms of effectiveness and efficiency.
They appraise the role of HR department in achieving the strategy of the organization through this audit. The major quantifiable
deliverables of HR audit are satisfaction of employees regarding the HR practices and policies, minimize the regulatory fines and
law suits, increase in efficiency and effectiveness, clarity and understanding of employees regarding the HR functions and
procedures, low turn-over rate and high retention of best employees.
A good number of CEO’s saw a hope in HR for most of their problems, issues and challenges. It is estimated that on an average,
establishing a new HR department with a small size of about five professionally trained staff costs about two million rupees per
annum in terms of salaries, another ten million in terms of budget (e.g., training budget, travel etc.) and probably about five to ten
times the amount in terms of managerial time costs and opportunity costs. This is because HR systems are people-intensive and
require a lot of managerial time.
In spite of these investments in a number of corporations, there is a widespread feeling that HR has not lived up to the
expectations of either the top management or the line managers. There are also examples of corporations where HR has taken the
driver’s seat and has given many benefits. In today’s competitive world, ‘people’ or employees can give a good degree of
competitive advantage to the company. To get the best out of the HR functions, there should be a good alignment of the function-
its strategies, structure systems, and styles – with business goals (e.g., financial and customer parameters). It should be aligned
with both the short-term goals and long-term strategies. If it is not aligned, the HR function can become a big liability to
corporations and they will have no alternative but to close their HR departments. Besides this alignment, the skills and styles of
the HR staff, line managers and top management should be in synergy with the HR goals and strategies. HR audit is an attempt to
assess these alignments and ensure that they take place.
HR audit is a comprehensive evaluation of the current HR strategies structure, systems, styles and skills in the context of the short
and long-term business plans of a company. It attempts to find out the future HR needs of the company after current HR activities
and inputs. In India, a methodology for auditing the HR function called HR audit, is implemented in many companies.
1Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, MLA First Grade College for Women, Karnataka, [email protected]
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NEED FOR THE STUDY
The main purpose of this paper is to evaluate the performance of HR department of chosen organization by appraising its practices
through HR audit and to find out the role of HR department in achieving the overall objectives of business. Florkowski, Gary W.,
Schuler, Randall S. (2004), explicates Human Resource Audit as a measure to take snapshot of the HR department’s current
performance for further improvement in its systems and procedures for enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of the
organization in general. Therefore, this paper analyzes the performance of HR department of chosen organization by assessing its
practices and policies and the role of this department in the overall growth of the organization.
MEANING OF HR AUDIT
HR auditing is a basic tool for the management of a company. Its objective is not only the control and quantifying of results, but
also the adoption of a wider perspective that will aid in defining future lines of action in the HRM field. Thus, HR auditing must
perform two basic functions [Brown, M. G. 2012]. First, it must be a management information system whose feedback provides
information about the situation in order to facilitate the development of managing processes or the development of HR. On the
other hand, it must be a way of controlling and evaluating the policies that are being applied, as well as the established processes.
HR audit is a comprehensive evaluation of the current HR systems and strategies, structure and competencies, culture, and impact
in the context of the short and long-term business plans of a company. It starts with the long-term and short-term plans of the
company and attempts to assess the competency requirements of employees to achieve these plans. In the context of these
competency requirements, an attempt is made to assess:
HR Competencies: HR audit attempts to assess the competence of various personnel through knowledge testing
attitude and values testing, 360 degrees assessment, HR function assessment, and assessment centers. This covers the
competency levels of the HR department, line managers, top management, union representatives, and the HR staff. It
also covers the professional preparation of the HR managers and the competency levels of the HR department as a
whole. The audit, therefore, helps discover the areas of strength as well as the development areas, thereby strengthening
the HR effectiveness in the organization.
HR Structure: While appropriate structure is required to manage the function given the importance and complexity,
common occurrence is indiscriminate expansion of the system due to lack of review and streamlining. The audit
attempts to evaluate the appropriateness of the structure, value addition in terms of competencies and role performed,
and the extent of support to the business strategy. HR structure is very vital to the organization and deals with task
structure, role relationship, manpower, competence, infrastructure facilities, and organizational processes. The HR audit
attempts to highlight the status, strengths, weakness, cost-effectiveness, and others vital elements of the HR structure,
and aligns it in accordance with the business goals of the organization.
HR Styles: The effectiveness of various HR systems and the extent to which they are likely to get the desired results
depend upon the style of the top management. Any HR audit has to take into consideration the styles of the top
management and whether or not they are congruent with the HR philosophy. Indian managers have been found to
exhibit three styles: benevolent, critical, and development. While the developmental style is most congruent with HR
philosophy, other styles may have to be used occasionally depending on the situation, person and nature of issue. While
a developmental and empowering philosophy should constitute the core of the styles, effective use of the other style
may be needed to run the system or its subsystems.
HR Culture and Values: The HR audit also attempts to study the extent to which the organization has OCTAPACE
values and culture, that is, a culture that fosters Openness, Collaboration, Trust, Authenticity, Pro-action, Autonomy,
Confrontation, and Experimentation. Only an enlightened top management can build such a culture and hence the audit
takes into consideration the styles of the top management and whether they are congruent with the HR philosophy or
not. In case of the lack of congruence, the audit should indicate the current dominant styles used by most managers and
their impact on the employees.
Therefore, practice of HR audit for improving the organizational efficiency has become need of the hour.
ORGANISATIONS IMPLEMENTED HUMAN RESOURCE AUDIT
INFOSYS
In the financial year 1995-96, Infosys Technologies (Infosys) became the first software company to value its human resources in
India. The company used the Lev & Schwartz Model (Refer Exhibit I) and valued its human resources assets at Rs 1.86 billion.
Infosys had always given utmost importance to the role of employees in contributing to the company's success. Analysts felt that
human resources accounting (HRA) was a step further in Infosys' focus on its employees. Narayana Murthy (Murthy), the then
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chair and managing director of Infosys, said: "Comparing this figure over the years will tell us whether the value of our human
resources is appreciating or not. For a knowledge intensive company like ours, that is vital information."
TVRLS: Leading HR Audit Consultant in India
TVRLS is one of the renowned companies known for its HR Audit services. Dr. T.V. Rao (Ex. Professor IIM-Ahmedabad & a
pioneer in the area of HRD/OB & OD) set up TVRLS in Ahmedabad in April 1996. TVRLS as a unique behaviour system
company extends its services to the corporate/organizations/social & educational institutions to help them realize their business
objectives through building competency of organizational associates. Over the past 13 years, 600 organizations & 30000
individuals have benefited by having gone through workshops/consultations/management development programs/ feedback/
coaching/ counselling sessions & conferences.
BMW Group
BMW is an internationally renowned manufacturer of prestigious cars; the company is recognized around the world. The BMW
Group manufactures automobiles and motorcycles, with a strong emphasis on outstanding quality for its three premium brands:
BMW, Rolls-Royce and MINI. The company was established in Germany in 1916. It has a presence in over 160 countries, with
21 manufacturing plants on four continents and global headquarters in Munich, Germany. It employs over 100,000 people
worldwide, 9,000 of them in the UK.
The function audit centers on "observing if the procedures applied are the adequate ones and if they function correctly. That is,
checking to see if the relationship between objectives and procedures is a satisfactory one and if this has been achieved in the most
cost effective manner.
HR audit is to study and analyze each one of the specific areas of HRM. The analysis should center on the planned measures, the
method of implementation, and the results obtained. In order to carry this out, the areas that are to be studied must first be
identified. Afterwards, a list of the indicators that will serve to analyze each of them must be made.
The qualifications, motivation and creativity of its employees are decisive for the BMW Group’s success. The almost 106,000
employees worldwide work in an environment that is defined by trust, esteem, mutual understanding, performance and reward.
The corporate culture that has evolved over the years is the reason for the employees’ great dedication and their strong
identification with the BMW Group. This is supported by the good cooperation between company management and works
council. Uniform human resources and social policy guidelines apply for all employees worldwide. The objective of the
Company’s value-oriented and values-based human resources policy is to constantly promote and develop its employees. Personal
development opportunities along with flexible work time arrangements make the BMW Group a successful, attractive employer
who is able to cope with social challenges, such as demographic change.
Companies assume responsibility for their economic success as well as for the environment and society. For only companies that
take account of the interests of people and the needs of the environment, i.e. that operate sustainably, can achieve long-term
economic success. For the BMW Group, sustainability management means using resources efficiently and sparingly, recognizing
and minimizing risks, acting in a socially responsible way and thus enhancing the Company’s reputation. In doing so, both the
management and employees constantly strive to improve on their achievements. Since sustainable actions provide the basis for
viable development, the BMW Group takes this responsibility.
Company knows how to deploy its strengths with an efficiency that is unmatched in the automotive industry. From research and
development to sales and marketing, BMW Group is committed to the very highest in quality for all its products and services. The
company’s phenomenal success is proof of this strategy’s correctness.
Cement Corporation of India
The corporation recognizes that human resources are of vital importance and significance to an enterprise and constitute a primary
segment of the total resources held. The CCI “gives utmost attention and priority to maintain the human assets in fettle”. The
concern has made good progress in the management of human resources. “In the absence of a clear-cut, well defined and
universally accepted model for evaluation of the economic worth of human assets of a company, an attempt has been made to
assess the same, by working out the present value of the anticipated future earnings of the employees, taking into account the
present pay scales and the promotion policies being followed.
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
BHEL recognizes that “in any organization, the value of its employees cannot be over-emphasized”. It has been valuing and
reporting human assets for the past 13 years. It has recorded impressive progress on this front. The human assets valuation is
carried out by following the Lev and Schwartz [5] model with the following assumptions:
Present pattern in employee compensation including direct and indirect benefits including the effect of wage revision;
Normal career growth as per the present policies, with vacancies filled from the level immediately below;
Weight age for changes in efficiency due to age, experience and skills;
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Application of a discount factor of 12 per cent per annum on the future earnings to arrive at the present value.
Ground Research
Author had informal interaction with ten HR practitioners and their perception about HR audit is mentioned below:
Lack of understanding and appreciation of the top management about the significance of HR audit and its linkages to
business, because of the following factors:
Top management was not happy with quality of the recruitment process and the candidates selected.
Career planning and Succession planning are not given the much needed attention
Induction programs were not well structured and properly aligned with the business objectives.
Training needs are not identified and implemented
The objectives of the performance appraisal system was not clearly stated, hence its implementation varied
from person to person.
Lack of competent HR staff and no effort is put to train HR staff in order to enhance their competencies.
High confusions and friction in values and approach
The HR practices are well aligned with the needs of the organization and supportive in achieving the goals of the
organization, which is shown by the company’s growth trend in terms of profit and the company as a whole. The
turnover rate of the HR, finance and marketing departments is very low and equal to 1% whereas other departments
have high turnover which is 10-20% due to the project based nature of the company. The company is on the way of
achieving its business strategy with the help of HR practices and policies.
SCHEME OF SUGGESTIONS
HR practitioners recommended the following actions to be taken to make the practice of HR audit effective:
HR managers need to recognize stakeholder’s expectations and understand the overall business and strategic context of
their function. As the expectations from HR function are changing, they are expected to perform more value-adding
functions and activities.
HR functions should focus on intellectual capital generation activities, and at the same time ensure a good return on
investment (ROI) on training and other interventions rather than merely facilitating in-house training activities.
HR practitioners need to equip themselves with the capacity and competencies needed to build the HR function as a
hands-on, proactive strategic partner with practical contributions to organizational goals and performance effectiveness.
HR practitioners need to strengthen their partnership and credibility with their stakeholders by involving them in
policymaking and communicating constantly.
A potential appraisal system should also be introduced.
Briefing sessions should be held by the HOD to ensure that the employees take the program seriously and make good
use of the opportunity.
IMPLICATIONS OF STUDY
The concept of HRA was not new in India. HRA was pioneered by public sector companies like Bharat Heavy Electronics Ltd.
(BHEL) and Steel Authority of India Ltd. (SAIL) way back in the 1970s. However, the concept did not gain much popularity and
acceptance during that time.
HRA enabled companies to understand whether the skill sets of their human capital was appreciating or not. R. Krishnaswamy, an
actuarial accountant, said, "The value can be used internally by an organization to make comparisons from unit to unit, from year
to year, as well as within its industry."
The benefits of adopting HRA were manifold. It helps an organization to take managerial decisions based on the availability and
the necessity of human resources. When the human resources were quantified, it gives the investors and other client’s true insights
into the organization and it is potential. Proper valuation of human resources helps organizations to eliminate the negative effects
of redundant labor.
In order to develop HR into its proper undertaking that of strategic business partner-it becomes important for organizations to
evaluate their components of HR in terms of alignment with business strategy and needs, and use this perspective to enhance and
further strengthen HR. This evaluation is what the HRC audit attempts to do.
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REFERENCES
1. Arthur, Jeffrey. (2004). Effects of Human Resource Systems on Manufacturing Performance and Turnover. Academy of
Management Journal, 37(4), 670-687.
2. Arthur, Jeffrey. (2000). Industrial Relations and Business Strategies in American Steel Minimills (Unpublished
Doctoral Dissertation). Cornell University.
3. Arthur, Jeffrey. (2002). The Link between Business Strategy and Industrial Relations Systems in American Steel
Minimills. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 45(4), 88-506.
4. Brown, M. G. (2012). Human Capitals Measure for Measure. The Journal for Quality & Participation, 22(5), 28-31.
5. Dolenko, M. (2000). Auditing human resources management. Altamonte Springs, pp. 12. Florida: The Institute of
Internal Auditors Research Foundation.
6. Curtice, Joan. (2014). The HR audit for legal compliance and safe business practices. Employment Relations Today, 31,
2; ABI/INFORM Global, pp. 55.
7. Florkowski, Gary W., Schuler, & Randall, S. (2004). Auditing Human Resource Management in the Global
Environment. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 5, 118-121.
8. Khandhwalla, Pradip N. (2012). Organizational Designs for Excellence. New Delhi: Tata McGraw–Hill.
9. Kaplan, R. S., & D., P. Nortan. (2013). The Balance Score Card. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School press.
10. Jomon, M. G. (2000). The Effectiveness of HRD Audit as an OD Intervention. Jamshedpur: XLRI.
11. Parrek, Udai, & T., V. Rao. (1992). HRD Audit of Indo-Gulf Fertilizers (Unpublished Thesis).
12. Udai, & T., V. Rao. (1994). HRD Audit Questionnaire. Ahmadabad: AHRD.
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NEW EDUCATION POLICY & IT’S TRANSFORMATION IN INDIAN EDUCATION
Dr. Rajkumar M. Kolhe2
ABSTRACT
In September 2015, member states of the United Nations adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as the basic
framework for improving the well-being of the planet's citizens. SDG4 proposes equal and inclusive education for all. It is an
ambitious goal, and its success is closely linked to the effective implementation of SDG16, which focuses on the promotion of
peaceful and inclusive societies and most relevantly, on building effective and accountable institutions at all levels. For these
goals to be realized, it is critical that all stakeholders, in particular, the students be made part of the process right from the
start.
INTRODUCTION
The desire to be a change-maker resonated deeply across the youth of the
nation, as our researchers discovered. To ensure that we solicited inputs from a
representative sample of India's youth, UNESCO MGIEP's research team met
with stakeholders from diverse fields, regions, and backgrounds with a focus on
higher education. While the online survey administered reached 6,017 young
people from every state, our team conducted 34 focus groups across five
regions of India involving 331 young people from a range of rural, semi-urban,
and urban centers.
Youth are concerned over teaching methods, infrastructure and attention from faculty members
As a majority of our programmes is centered on the youth - ages between 18 and 28 - and there seems to be a dearth in the
available research on higher education, particularly in this region, we felt that by focusing on this area of the NEP, we would be
able to make the most effective contribution. Fortunately, the decision to do so was met with enthusiasm from the participants of
the study, cutting across regional disparities. Whether it be in the form of speaking for longer than stipulated times at focus groups
or drafting notes beforehand for the sessions, the respondents displayed eagerness to be part of the exercise and explained how
vital it was their voices be heard. The story of a young woman from a village in the south is a case in point. Her biggest challenge
had been to fight for her right to attend college like her peers, but once she had enrolled, she realized her own potential to affect
change on a wider scale.
"I want to change the system itself; it is common opinion in society that women should be homemakers and protect their husband,
children… I want to change the system, that's why I want to educate myself," she said with determination.
Although almost all students unequivocally spoke of the positive impact of their decision to pursue higher education, they were
also quick to express their concerns over issues related to teaching methods, inclusion, infrastructure, and attention from faculty
members. Most were of the opinion that the voice of the students should be solicited by means of well-structured feedback
mechanisms. This, they felt, could be effective in addressing sensitive issues related to corruption, harassment, as well as
dissatisfaction with teaching quality.
To make the study more inclusive, UNESCO MGIEP held special focus groups with gender and sexual minorities, students with
disabilities, and students from rural areas and the northeast. This helped address the issues related to the marginalized groups
highlighted by the MHRD. A heart-warming pattern noticed across such sessions was that of students from outside of these
groups expressing solidarity with their peers. In addition, they took their demands for inclusivity a step further by highlighting the
acute need of infrastructure to support inclusion. While young female students raised safety concerns by demanding secure
facilities, visually impaired students pointed out the lack of accessible signboards and physically challenged students made a
strong case for ramps at the educational institutes.
Here too, students from the communities themselves did not always raise these concerns; an observation that reveals how much
importance students place on inclusive and diverse education systems.
Generally, students envision their learning institutes to be spaces conducive to exploration, free dialogue and development of
values and ethics. They want stronger support systems, fairer mechanisms for obtaining their rights, and more opportunities to
engage with faculty members on a personal level. Over 52 per cent of youths surveyed felt that the authorities did not hear their
2Founder President, Jahnvis Multi Fonundation, Vande Mataram Degree College of Arts, Commerce and Science, Kopar, Old
Dombivli-West, India, [email protected]
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suggestions for change. In addition, a more sobering result that highlights an urgent need for attention is that 60 per cent of
students felt that no action would be taken even if they were given the chance to submit their concerns and grievances. The fact
that over 6,000 students took a survey, which required over 20 minutes of their time, clearly suggests that higher education is
something India's youth value and care about deeply. This reaffirms our belief that as a nation, the authorities owe it to them to
create thoughtful, meaningful, positive interventions to improve colleges and universities.
On Good Governance Day, UNESCO MGIEP congratulates the MHRD for its bottom-up approach of inviting feedback for the
revision of the New Education Policy. We are convinced that the Indian higher education system has the potential to continue to
reach out to young people in deeper and more meaningful ways.
The full report and the executive summary will be released at MGIEP's Talking across Generations (TAG 2106) event on
February 15, 2016 at the India Habitat Centre, New Delhi. (Note: Dr. Mathangi Subramanian, Gauri Khanduja, Deepika Joon
and Piyali Sarkar, all of whom are staff members at UNESCO MGIEP conducted this study. The author would also like to thank
Joint Secretary, Mr Rakesh Ranjan and Officer on Special Duty, Dr Shakila Shamsu, for their ongoing support.)
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
From National to Super-National Policies
Until the early 1990s, structural higher education policies and trends were clearly national policies and developments.
International comparison was a powerful tool for understanding the national developments and for setting a framework in the
search for improvement, but different decisions was made within individual countries reflecting international views of the best
options, varied policy preferences as well as national contexts. The Sorbonne Declaration of 1998 and the Bologna Declaration of
1999 were visible starting points for supra-national action to make the patterns of the national higher education systems more
quite similar across Europe.
The Bologna Declaration seems to be based on the convictions that:
Higher education systems in Europe will move quickly toward quite similar patterns,
Levels of higher education programmes will be the clearly dominating structural characteristic of higher education as
compared to types of higher education institutions and programmes, ranks and profiles, etc.,
Structures of the higher education systems have an enormous impact on all key features of higher education.
At half time between the start of this policy and its declared target of implementation, i.e. the European Higher Education Area to
be realized in 2010, it is not easy to predict the extent to which these convictions eventually will be confirmed or challenged. We
note that the Bologna Process has triggered off enormous activities for higher education reforms and substantial efforts are
undertaken for structural reforms in terms of a convergent model. However, we note as well that:
The ideal of a quite similar structure seems to be watered down in the process of implementation,
Structural dimensions others than levels of programmes and degrees do not lose as much importance as one might have
suggested. For example, implementation of the Bologna Process goes specific routes in countries with several types of
higher education institutions. For other reasons, increasing attention is paid to ranking and profiles of individual higher
education institutions or their sub-units,
The reform “list” of Bologna Process broadens continuously – possibly one does not trust anymore the direct impact of
the structures as such but wants to implement convergent structures within a broad range of diverse higher education
reforms.
The results of the Bologna Process cannot predicted as well because many factors come into play which were not so clearly
visible at the beginning and which cannot be viewed as consistently supporting common European policies in tune with the
Bologna Declaration.
The Growing Complexity of Underlying Forces
From the 1950s to the 1990s structural developments and policies of national higher education systems in the economically
advanced countries were analysed in most cases by referring to a limited set of factors: growth of student enrolment, diversity of
talents and motives, the changing graduate labour market, compatibilities and tensions between the teaching and learning function
and the research function of higher education, and finally institutional policies between imitation and search for unique solutions
were referred to most frequently.
Certainly the following factors deserve special attention for explaining the current developments:
International cooperation and mobility,
Globalisation in terms of blurring the borders of national systems and increasing world-wide interconnectedness,
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New media,
The new steering and management system in higher education, and
Knowledge society (pressures for relevance, new patterns of competences).
In the framework of the UNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Research and Knowledge, experts from the Europe and North
America analysed recent structural developments on higher education, thereby paying attention to key forces reflected in
structural policies and actual structural developments. These analyses clearly indicate a growing complexity of the major
underlying forces. The role these five forces named above, finally, will be outlined briefly.
International Cooperation and Mobility
A structural convergence of national higher education systems is advocated in the Bologna Declaration of 1999, primarily for the
two purposes of:
Enhancing the attractiveness of higher education in – continental – European countries for students from other parts of
the world through the introduction of a stage system of programmes and degrees, and
Facilitating mobility of students within Europe.
The former aim calls for improved transparency, but is neutral as far as the extent of diversity within national higher education
system is concerned. The latter aim, however, implies that quality differences between higher education institutions in kept within
bounds. Because, mobility within Europe can be facilitated through convergent structures only, if trust is justified that the quality
of teaching and learning is similar at a stage of study across Europe. This indicates that opportunities for the recognition of study
abroad are not determined completely anymore by the overall composition of national trends and policies. Rather, national
policies are to certain extent shaped by common policies of various countries to stimulate student mobility by facilitating
recognition of study abroad.
Globalisation
In recent years, the term “globalisation” surpassed the “internationalisation” in the frequency employed in economically advanced
countries in characterizing cross-national changes of both contexts of higher education and higher education systems themselves.
The term “globalisation” suggests that increasing border-cross activities in higher education take along a blurring of borders,
while “internationalisation” is based on the assumption that national systems continue to play a role in the process of increasing
border-crossing activities. Moreover, the term “globalisation” is often put forward when claims are made that higher education is
bound to be more strongly affected by world-wide economic developments as well as by suggestions that the individual higher
education institutions, notably those wishing to place themselves in the first league of reputational hierarchy, have to compete
globally. “Globalisation” concepts of this type suggest that relatively steep vertical diversification of higher education is desirable
without advocating certain formal dimensions of vertical diversity and without taking a clear position whether vertical diversity is
accompanied by horizontal diversity. Often, pre-stabilized harmony seems to be too taken granted between quality and relevance
in the elite sector of higher education in the 21st century.
New Media
New technologies obviously to a closer world-wide interconnectedness of higher education. Most obviously, academic
information is more easily and more rapidly spread across the world. Undoubtedly, reinforcements of existing reputational
hierarchies are often the initial visible result of the spread of use of new media. However, there are reasons to assume that the new
technologies and media do not necessarily strengthen steep vertical diversification of higher education.
First, rapid spread of information might challenge the traditional rationales of physical concentration of excellence. Elite
universities and centres of excellences might be substituted by “network of excellence” across institutions.
Second, diversity within higher education might be less steep, if all institution have almost equal opportunity as far as access to
top quality information is concerned.
For example, high-quality teaching and learning might be more easily realized without being directly embedded in high-quality
research.
NEW STEERING AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
New mechanisms of steering and management might have substantial impact on the structures of the higher education system.
Obviously, higher education in Europe in increasingly shaped by mechanisms of incentives and sanctions.
It is generally assumed that these mechanisms help increase the efficiency of higher education. The most ardent advocates of these
new mechanisms often claim that both an increasing vertical and horizontal diversification is the most likely results of growing
competition for success. But this is by no means the only possible result.
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For example, institutions and academics neither trusting their top position nor resigning at the bottom might be most strongly
challenged, thus leading to a smaller gab between the previous top and the previous middle-level institutions. Competition might
reinforce imitation drifts rather than stimulating diversity.
A strong emphasis placed on rewards and sanction might undermine intrinsic motivation; a strong managerial emphasis in higher
education might to substantial tensions between management and academia; both might elicit uncontrolled changes of the higher
education system a whole. The increasing power of evaluation and accreditation mechanisms does not necessarily reinforce
horizontal diversity. Our current knowledge base is shaky as far as the impact of new steering and managements systems on the
structure of the higher education systems are concerned.
CHANGING STRUCTURES ON THE WAY TOWARDS THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY
Most experts agree that the concept of “knowledge society” is one of most appropriate future scenario of society when considering
the challenges higher education is facing and the opportunities ahead. Consensus prevails that knowledge will determine
economic growth and societal well-being to a growing extent. A close glance at the public debates and the expert literature
suggests that “knowledge society” is not concept suitable to predict the future structure of higher education systems. On the one
hand, we observe elitist notions of “knowledge society”: the intellectual elite will determine the development of the knowledge
society, and those who succeed in breeding and attracting the highest academic talents will be the rulers of the knowledge society.
On the other hand, we note egalitarian nations of “knowledge society”: it will depend on large numbers of individual with in-
depth knowledge and understanding able to take decisions decent rally.
GROWING COMPLEXITY OF UNDERLYING FORCES, DECREASING PREDICTABILITY OF RESULTS
As long as we assumed that a limited number of underlying forces determine the structural development of higher education, we
were in the position to develop relatively bold concepts about the causes and the consequences of certain patterns of the higher
education systems. The more we become aware of a growing complexity of underlying forces, the less we can trust in simple
concepts of causes and effects. We need more in-depth analysis in order to gain evidence of the role these underlying forces
actually play. The current vivid process of higher education reforms has reinforced high hopes and substantial controversies as
regards desirable and actual structural developments of higher education. We are just at beginning of a search for evidence.
CONCLUSION
The government of India is ahead of the curve. The
ministry of human resources and development
(MHRD) initiated the New Education Policy (NEP)
at the beginning of 2015 and unlike previous such
exercises, a bottom-up approach were formulated. A
combination of an online portal supported by on-site
focus discussions was implemented in an attempt to
reach out to as many stakeholders as possible.
The UNESCO Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development (MGIEP) provided support to the
MHRD through a dedicated reaching-out programme to the youth of India. The results offer revealing insights into how the
country's youth view education and their suggestions to improve it.
REFERENCES
1. Gaudino, Robert L. (1965). The Indian University. Bombay: Popular Prakashan.
2. Government of India. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://www.education.nic.in/.
3. (2001, March 17). Home away from home: Elite residential schools. India Tribune, 42, 24-25.
4. Joshi, Murli, M. (1998, October). Higher Education in India: Vision and Action. In UNESCO World Conference on
Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century, Paris. Retrieved from
http://www.education.nic.in/htmlweb/unhighedu.htm/.
5. Sharma, Neerja. (1997). Evaluating Children in Primary Education. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
6. Tiwari, Satish (ed.). (2000). Education: Development and Planning. Encyclopedia of Indian Government Series. New
Delhi: Anmol Publications.
*****
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EDUCATION POLICY: 20th & 21st CENTURY
Dr. Rajkumar M. Kolhe3
ABSTRACT
The higher education system in India at present is at a transition stage. A stage where changes have taken place for good and
more transformations in thoughts and processes are desired. Higher education system in any nation today seeks a relook. The
world is being slowly but steadily turned into a global village. Synchronization and harmony among the global universities
across the globe can create sync throughout, wherein the nurturing of the young minds may be accustomed to the changes
desired. Another aspect, which is very important today, is the concept of blended learning. It is just the next step to the
previous idea of creating a harmonization of higher education across the globe. Students from all over the world will be
benefitted from the expertise of the renowned academicians. The harmony may create a balance in learning and research
thereafter.
INTRODUCTION
The National Policy on Education was framed in 1986 and modified in
1992. Since then several changes have taken place that calls for a
revision of the Policy. The Government of India would like to bring out a
National Education Policy to meet the changing dynamics of the
population’s requirement about quality education, innovation and
research, aiming to make India a knowledge superpower by equipping its
students with the necessary skills and knowledge and to eliminate the
shortage of manpower in science, technology, academics and industry.
For the first time, the Government of India is embarking on a time-bound
grassroots consultative process, which will enable the Ministry of HRD
to reach out to individuals across the country through over 2.75 lakh
direct consultations while also taking input from citizens online.
We encourage citizens to actively participate in the discussions to influence the New Education Policy.
HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA
India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, next to the United States and China. The main governing body at
the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission, which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate
between the centre and the state. Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions established by
the University Grants Commission.
Indian higher education system has expanded at a fast pace by adding nearly 20,000 colleges and more than 8 million students in a
decade from 2000-01 to 2010-11. As of 2011, India has 42 central universities, 275 state universities, 130deemed universities,
90 private universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the State Act, and 33 Institutes of National Importance.
Other institutions include 33,000 colleges as Government Degree Colleges and Private Degree Colleges, including 1800 exclusive
women's colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions as reported by the UGC in 2012. The emphasis in the
tertiary level of education lies on science and technology. Indian educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of
3Founder President, Jahnvis Multi Fonundation, Vande Mataram Degree College of Arts, Commerce and Science, Kopar, Old
Dombivli-West, India, [email protected]
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technology institutes. Distance learning and open education is also a feature of the Indian higher education system, and is looked
after by the Distance Education Council. Indira Gandhi National Open University is the largest university in the world by number
of students, having approximately 3.5 million students across the globe.
Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), National Institute of Technology (NITs), Indian
Institutes of Information Technology (IIITs), Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), International Institute of Information
Technology (IIIT-H), University of Mumbai and Jawaharlal Nehru University have been globally acclaimed for their standard of
education. The IITs enroll about 8000 students annually and the alumni have contributed to both the growth of the private sector
and the public sectors of India. However, India still lacks internationally prestigious universities such as Harvard, Cambridge,
and Oxford.
MODERN INDIAN EDUCATION: A HISTORICAL JOURNEY
Higher education starts after passing the higher secondary education, also called intermediate education. Depending upon the
stream (general, medical, engineering, legal, etc.), doing graduation takes three to five years. Post-graduate courses are generally
of two to three years duration. After completing post-graduation, scope for doing research in various educational institutes
remains open. For medium of instruction, three language formulas are followed during 5+3+2 years of schooling.
The origin of the present system of education in India can be traced to the beginning of the nineteenth century when a controversy
raged over the issue - whether oriental learning and science should be spread through the medium of Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian,
or Western sciences and literature be spread through English as the medium of instruction? Lord Macaulay was a central figure in
this language debate. However, both the groups - the Orientalists and the Anglicists - stuck to their respective stands, neither of
these groups wanted to suppress the local vernaculars, mother tongues of the people. In other words, both the groups agreed that
education would be conducted in the vernacular during the initial years of education. Macaulay's Minute, 1835 did finally pave the
way for the continuance of schools and colleges where indigenous learning was being imparted and for promotion of European
literature and science among the natives of India. That marked the real beginning of bilingualism in educational system of India.
Subsequently, Dispatch of the Court of Directors of the East India Company popularly known as Wood’s Education Dispatch of
July 19, 1854 formed the basis for creating a system of education, from the primary school to the University. Since then serious
efforts were made by the Government to promote education at all levels.
Nevertheless, it was not a simple and smooth journey for the government of India to establish and evolve a system that could
satisfy every section of the society. Dissatisfaction of the people started surfacing as and when the outcomes of educational and
development measures undertaken by the government did not seem to match their aspirations and expectations. As a result,
various measures for educational reconstruction followed, time and again, in the form of institution of commissions and
committees for examining/reviewing/reforming the existing system, and initiation of new policies, programmes, etc., vis-a-vis the
changing needs, problems and challenges of different sections of the society and the country as a whole. Some landmark
developments in the history of modern Indian education during the pre-independence period include the following:
Hunter Commission, officially known as Indian Education Commission (1882),
Indian Universities Commission (1902),
Government Resolution on Educational Policy (1913),
Calcutta University Commission (1917) also called Sadler Commission,
Hartog Committee (1929),
Sapru Committee (1934),
Abbot-Wood Report (1936-37),
Zakir Hussain Committee (1937),
Wardha Education Committee of the Central Advisory Board of Education (1939) also called B. G. Kher Committee,
Central Advisory Board of Education Report (1944) or Post-War Educational Development Report, popularly called the
Sargent Report (1944).
While some of these reports covered entire system of education, some others focused on its selected sectors or levels. Similarly,
the Government of independent India, in pursuance of the constitutional mandate, has also initiated several measures for social
and economic reconstruction of the country. As a result, measures for educational reconstruction had inevitably followed. Various
commissions and committees were appointed at different times to survey, study, review and recommend improvements in the
existing system, policies and programmes of education. Reserving the net effect of all these for later sections of this paper, it is
appropriate here to recall the chronology of some landmark commissions, committees, policies, programmes and frameworks.
University Education Commission (1948-49) popularly called Dr. Radhaksrishan Commission.
Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) popularly called Dr. Mudaliar Commission.
Committee on Higher Education for Rural Areas, Rural Institutions (1954) - Shri K. L. Shrimali Committee.
National Committee on Women's Education (1958) – Shrimati Durgabai Deshmukh Committee.
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University Grants Commission’s Review Committee on Education (1960) - Prof. K.G. Saiyidain Committee.
U. N. Dhebar Commission (1960).
Committee on Emotional Integration (1961) - Dr. Sampurnan and Committee.
Committee on Plan Projects: Study Team for Selected Educational Schemes (1961) – Shri B. N. Jha Committee.
Study Group on the Training of Elementary Teachers in India (1961).
Kothari Committee on Model Act for Universities (1961).
University Grants Commission’s Committee on Education as an Elective Subject at the Undergraduate Stage (1963) --
Mr. A. R. Wadia Committee.
Study Group on the Study of English in India (1964) – Prof. Gokak Committee.
Education Commission (1964-66), popularly called Dr. D. S. Kothari Commission.
Committee of Members of Parliament on Education (1967).
Three Delegations by University Grants Commission (1967-1971).
Steering Committee of Planning Group on Education (1968).
National Policy on Education (1968).
Review Committee on the Working of National Council of Educational Research and Training (1968) -- Dr. Nag
Chaudhuri Committee.
Study Group on the Development of Pre-school Child (1970) – Shrimati Mina Swaminathan Committee.
Gajendragadkar Committee on Governance of Universities and Colleges (1971).
National Committee on 10+2+3 Educational Structure (1972) -- Dr. Shukla Committee.
Committee on Secondary Teacher Education of NCTE (1973-77) -- Dr. Jha Committee.
Committee on Elementary Teacher Education of NCTE (1975) -- Dr. Malcolm S. Adiseshaiah Committee.
University Grants Commission’s Panel on Teacher Education During Fifth Plan Period (1974).
The Curriculum for Ten-Year School: A Framework (1975).
Standing Committee of National Council for Teacher Education (1975-76).
Review Committee on the Curriculum for Ten-Year School (1977) – Shri Ishwarbhai Patel Committee.
Working Group on Vocationalization of Education (1977-78) -- Dr. Malcolm S. Adiseshaiah Committee.
Draft National Policy on Education (1979).
Study Group on INSAT Television Utilization for Education and Development (1980) -- Shri S. Sathyam Committee.
National Commissions on Teachers – I & II: The Teacher and Society (1983-85) – Prof. Chattopadhyaya Commission.
Working Group to Review Teachers' Training Programme (In the Light of the Need for Value-Orientation) (1983).
Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective (1985).
National Curriculum for Primary and Secondary Education: A Framework (1985).
National Policy on Education (1986).
National Policy on Education: Programme of Action (1986).
National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education – A Framework (1988).
National Curriculum for Teacher Education: A Framework (1988).
Committee for Review of NPE 1986: Towards an Enlightened and Humane Society (1990) – Acharya Ramamurhty
Committee.
University Grants Commission’s Report of the Curriculum Development Centre in Education (1990).
NCTE Committee for Teacher Education Programme Through Distance Education Mode (1990).
Central Advisory Board of Education Committee on Distance Education (1992).
CABE Committee on Policy, 1992.
National Policy on Education 1986: Programme of Action 1992.
National Advisory Committee: Learning Without Burden (1992).
The National Council for Teacher Education Act, 1993.
Group to Examine the Feasibility of Implementation of the Recommendations of the National Advisory Committee
(1993) -- Prof. Yashpal Committee.
Committee on B.Ed. Correspondence (1993) -- Prof. Ramlal Parikh Committee.
University Grants Commission’s Committee on B.Ed. Correspondence, Distance Education Programme (1994).
Special Orientation Programme for School Teachers (SOPT) (1994-97).
Committee of National Council for Teacher Education on Different Modes of Education Used for Teacher Preparation
in India (1995).
University Grants Commission’s Committee on B.Ed. Through Correspondence for In-service Teachers (1995) -- Prof.
Takwale Committee.
Planning Commission’s Report on Teacher Education in Five Year Plans (1951-97).
NCTE Curriculum Framework for Quality Teacher Education (1998).
National Curriculum Framework for School Education (2000).
National Curriculum Framework (2005).
Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education (2006).
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National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education (2009).
Panel to Review the functioning of the University Grants Commission (UGC) and the All-India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE) (2008), later rechristened as The Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher
Education (2009) -- Prof. Yashpal Committee.
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009.
Sam Pitroda Commission. Here, it is important to note that the NKC, a high-level advisory body to the Prime Minister of India,
was set up with the objective of transforming India into a knowledge society. In its endeavor to transform the knowledge
landscape of the country, the NKC had reportedly submitted around 300 recommendations on 27 focus areas during its three and a
half year term (http://www.knowledgecommission.gov.in/). While the term of the NKC had ended, the implementation of NKC's
recommendations is currently underway at the Central and State levels. The report with so many recommendations itself speaks
volumes about the need for revamping the entire education system in India. The Report of NKC read with the latest Yashpal
Committee Report is likely to renovate, revamp and rejuvenate the existing system. A National Commission for Higher Education
and Research is expected to subsume as many as 13 existing professional councils and regulatory agencies including the
University Grants Commission (UGC) and the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE). It is in this context, this paper
attempts to moot a strong and clear proposal for consideration while revamping, renovating and rejuvenating Indian education
system with reference to school education in general and teacher education in particular.
CONCLUSION
Once a model comes into existence and becomes operational
throughout the country, it is not difficult to realize the goal of
not only UEE but also see citizens with universalized
secondary education. That would be the modern India with
strongly united feeling of one nation and with robust
education system providing for truly democratic, accessible
and equitable education paving the way for uniform standard,
recognition of parity, belongingness, concern and respect for
each other. However, basic problem is fulfilling one essential
condition that is, infusing empathy, willingness,
determination, commitment, sincerity, honesty and objective
action on the part of the state and all others at the helm of affairs to realize such a model. Once that happens, it will lead to
strongly integrated India with well-trained citizenry geared to all global challenges and opportunities. It will also set itself a
meaningful, acceptable and pragmatic model for other developing countries. One can only hope for such a model to come into
existence!
REFERENCES
1. Gaudino, Robert L. (1965). The Indian University. Bombay: Popular Prakashan.
2. Government of India. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://www.education.nic.in/.
3. (2001, March 17). Home away from home: Elite residential schools. India Tribune, 42, 24-25.
4. Joshi, Murli, M. (1998, October). Higher Education in India: Vision and Action. In UNESCO World Conference on
Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century, Paris. Retrieved from
http://www.education.nic.in/htmlweb/unhighedu.htm/.
5. (2000, November). The metaphysics of oppression: Human diversity and social hope. In the Second Diversity
Conference, University of South Carolina.
6. Sharma, Neerja. (1997). Evaluating Children in Primary Education. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
7. Tiwari, Satish (ed.). (2000). Education: Development and Planning. Encyclopedia of Indian Government Series. New
Delhi: Anmol Publications.
*****
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CHANGING ROLE OF HRM IN THE ERA OF GLOBALISATION
Dr. Rajesh Kumar Mahajan4
ABSTRACT
Globalization has brought a huge transformation in the methods of working of business houses in the conventional market
place. The role and functioning of HR manager has completely altered with the technological advancements. It has become
utmost essential for the department to give a new definition to its strategies, acting as a strategic partner by working on the
mission, vision and strategies of the organization, adjusting it with the HR functions. Human resources has turned out to be the
most prominent challenges in an organization with their management to be considered as the most formidable task. In order to
cope up with the dynamic scenario of the Human Resource Development, there is an urgent need on the part of the
management to make strenuous endeavors. It became the duty of HR department to keep pace with the wavering business
environment and subsequently systematize and edit the individual and organizational goals.
The present throws light upon the modifying dimensions of human resource management in the present era. Extreme changes
have been noticed in the dimensions of human resource management, from the personnel management to strategic human
resource management. The researchers have made suitable efforts to find various dimensions in the human resource
management functions.
KEYWORDS
Conventional, Technological, Prominent, Dimensions, Strenuous, Business Environment etc.
INTRODUCTION
Globalization is not a newfangled development. According to the analysts, the world economy was globalized even a century ago.
However, the term, has come into use since 1980’s, owing to the rapid advancements in technology, which has made the
international transaction both easy, and convenient petering to trading and financial flows. Globalization has emanated in 21st
century creating peculiar HRM challenges in businesses, significantly to the ones, which are based internationally and are
characterized by the free flow of human and financial resources. Therefore, the effective HR management needs to be established
to progress in the global market place in this cutthroat era of competition. With the augmenting globalization, the significance of
HRM development in the organization is also magnifying. This transformation has strengthened the HR system as a strategic
asset.
In the current scenario, the role of human Resource Development in the organizations is elevating drastically. This change has
also ended the days of personnel management department encompassing clerical duties such as record keeping, file maintenance
and paper keeping. Day by day HRM is being widely recognized as a critical strategic partner, performing multifarious and
exceptional roles and responsibilities. Therefore enhancing the quality of working professionals and building an efficient team in
an organization is not all possible without good human resources. The scholars have extensively defined HRM or Human
Resource Development as a strategic function that comprises of management of its critical human assets for attaining competitive
benefits in a widely changing business environment. Globally, business have acclaimed the concept of “human resource” as a
constructive and valuable asset that can act as a huge support system in the most complex situation and has truly been proved in
the recent times of economic disorder.
It has become imminent for the organizations to work over and emend the future strategies for the globalization of Indian
economy and metamorphosis is the only condition, which can lead to its sustenance and progress. Business organizations in India,
specifically the public enterprises, are undergoing huge transformation. The most challenging task for the HR function would be
to manage the intricacies of metamorphosis. In the current scenario, HR is playing a dominant role along with business functions
with great momentum and efficaciousness.
The talent of the individual is enhancing day by day and would continue to rise in the coming time as well mainly because of the
widening educational opportunities in emerging nations. The demand for such talented individual is also increasing
simultaneously, especially in the developing countries. It has been reported in the recent survey by the professionals of human
resource at multinational companies in rising markets such as India, Malaysia, Hungry and China, that extensive variations in
suitability is exhibited in the candidates of engineering and general management. Accordingly, to the McKinney Global Institute,
out of 33 million university graduates, only 13% to 19% deserve for working in multinational companies. The reasons being
inappropriate communication skills, declining quality of education system and lack of cultural fit.
4Principal, JC DAV College, Punjab, India, [email protected]
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The most formidable task for human resource departments of the global organization is to bewail a workforce, which is dissimilar
in language and culture, scattered in various parts of the country. The business creates awareness about the local ways of doing
business and comprehending the requirements of local consumers. It also enhances the global mindset of their employees.
Multinational organizations should look forward to assimilate the different value system and accept the global work values, to
develop a suitable working environment where the workers are motivated to work in a coordinated and professional atmosphere
and reach the highest level of excellence. Human resource department thus plays an indispensable role in outshining the
organization in this era of globalization.
CHANGING DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND THEIR ROLE IN TRANSFORMING
BUSSINESS ENVIRONMENT
The 21st century work force is globally connected, highly ambitions and technology-savvy. Its employees are goal-oriented,
enthusiast and endeavoring. There is dearth of critical new skills and with their non-uniform distribution worldwide, the
companies are striving to adopt new innovative methods, which can enhance the efficiency of the employees, find new skilled
labor and share expertise.
HR professionals need to play a significant role to deal with the transformation and to improve the efficaciousness in order to cope
up with these changes. This flexibility at the workplace should be increased as the future workplace, i.e. the virtual office would
be demanding a more flexible and creative arrangement in the organizations. In the coming time, the area of concentration would
be increased performance and results, than the number of working hours. The off-site employees constitute to be approximately
two-third of an organization. These will also add to the increase in performance. Very soon, there would be a trend where focus
will shift towards the decentralized model of HR. This will help the management in making specified work more collaborative and
a lot of cross-functional work will be managed at the same time.
It will become the responsibility of the HR managers to adjust the employees in their virtual work locations and look for some
suitable and efficient methods to augment socialization, employee orientation and corporate culture. To acquire competency in the
workforce and sustain it, it is essential for HR managers to shape the behavior of the employees and act as performance experts of
the organization, without meeting them frequently.
Another anticipated transformation in HR is the concept of “Global Business”. There has been a subsequent elevation in the
progress of world trade in the last few years and the growth of international business, especially small firms, which is expected to
rise in future as well. The reliance of organization of HR specialist is increasing, for the smooth functioning of work among
various cultures and across borders. Therefore, they must have complete knowledge about other culture, their language and
practices pertaining to business. It is incumbent of them to ensure proper management of international workforce; maintain
corporate policies for transportability to other culture; giving information to the management about costs, ignoring the
transnational issues and giving services at different locations all over the world.
The management about the recruitments taking place in the “global business” should adopt proper strategies. Owning to
globalization, HR Managers would be requiring new and creative skills with language competency. For the recruitments of the
employees from diversified culture, either HR Managers with have to train themselves in various foreign language or they will
have to appoint foreign speakers for the staff for the sake of effective and smooth communication among the people.
Coming from diversified language backgrounds, English has been chosen as the preferred language in most of the multinational
organizations. For the development of multinational management programs, the organization should take into consideration
various cultural differences that shape the attitude of the managers. For e.g. Autonomy and individual achievement are the prime
areas of concern for British managers whereas French managers motivate efficient supervision, fringe benefits, convenient
condition and security. Indian managers give utmost importance to culture and tradition.
It becomes essential for the HR managers to be well versed with the various cultural norms for the progression of the organization
to value cultural diversity and thus it will be employing the market that it serves. In order to attract and create a strong clientele a
multifarious workforce should be employed to cope up with the rising competition in this era of globalization. Employees from
disparate national backgrounds, enhance the comprehensibility of other cultures and their language skills while competing in an
international market. It will be duty of HR professionals to provide proper cultural sensitivity training for the employees and
managers, in the organization.
CONCLUSION
There are various factors, which are responsible for the pervasiveness of globalization including advancements in technology,
availability of cheap labour rising number of consumers in developing countries and lack of skilled and talented individuals in
developed countries. In spite of the increasing unemployment conditions and economic downturn, most of the developed countries
like America, Japan and Germany face lack of talented and skilled employees because of the ageing and retirement of baby
boomers. The number of workers retiring from their jobs is quite high than the people being employed, in these countries. By
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LOLO, in most of the developed countries, for every five workers who are retiring, there will only be four workers who will join
the labour force. The reduction of talent will be made up by the rising number of professional talent in the developing nations; still
it can fall short owing to its long-term demand. The imbalance between demand and supply of skilled labour is increasing
incessantly especially for highly skilled professionals, in both developed as well as developing nations.
Only those multinational enterprises will be able to develop and proceed with high performance of the employees, which will
modify their human resources practices in accordance to the transforming labour market conditions. Only such organizations can
look forward to survive and accomplish in the global competition. The prime motive of global human resources is to manage the
culturally diversified and geographically scattered work force. It is also eminent that the businesses not only create a global
mindset among their employees but also make them aware of the diverse methods of doing business enabling them to comprehend
the requirement of the local customers. Human resources play an exceptional and momentous role in the progression of the
organization towards openness to cultural diversity. It has become utmost important for the human resources to emphasize on long
term objectives and goal oriented planning. It needs to have an extensive and balanced approach rather than confining itself just to
internal human resources issues. The data collected by the HR departments of global organizations should be based on various
factors such as employees, hiring and attrition, compensation and advantages, ethnic gender, nationality and cultural distributions
and this data is loaded into data warehouses and data marts. The human resource professionals can thus have an enhanced and
broadened vision of business; can cope up with transformations in the market and can make wise decisions at strategic and
operational levels by applying progressive analytical techniques on the data. Through proper & strategic skills planning, the
human resource professionals can manage the existing shortages in the skilled professionals and can cope up with the future
requirements also Global organizations need to be open to culturally diversified work force encompassing highly skilled talent on
one hand, collaborative, and networked on the other hand.
REFERENCES
1. Challenges of Human resource management in the 21stcentury. Retrieved from www.ituarabic.org
2. Zorlu, Senyuce. (2009). Managing the human resource in the 21stcentury. Zorlu Senyuce & Ventus Publishing.
3. Terry Terhark. What is ahead. Retrieved from www.mightystudents.com
4. Retrieved from http://www.hrmars.com
5. Ibid, 4
6. Koushal, Swami. Potential Role of HR in 21st century.
7. Anderson, K. K., Cooper, B. K., & Zhu, C. J. (2007). The effect of SHRM practices on perceived financial performance:
some initial evidence from Australia. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 45.
8. Armstrong, M. (2001). A handbook of Human resource management practice (8th Edition). London: Kogan Page.
9. Barney, J. (1996). The resource based theory of the firm. Organizational Science, 7, 469.
10. Babbage, C. (1832). On the economy of machinery and manufacturers. London: Charles Knight.
11. Retrieved from http://www.articlesbase.com/human-resources-articles/challenges-faced-by-human-resource-managers-
in-...
12. Retrieved from http://www.citehr.com/10646-problems-challenges-facing-hr-manager-21st-cent.html
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TRANSFORMATIONAL SHIFT TO OUTCOME - BASED
MANAGEMENT EDUCATION IN INDIA
Dr. K. Subbaraman5 Shaila Subbaraman6 Madhumita Nayak7 Chandrashekhar Suryawanshi8
ABSTRACT
Management education has grown and matured in India. It has taken deep roots in Indian psyche. As of now, the emphasis of
management education is to provide basic knowledge to the students to arm themselves sufficiently to enter the corporate
world. The present day emphasis is more on classroom education with not much role for the actual practitioners from
corporate world. This has to change to give a meaningful substance to management education. This paper explores ways and
means of shifting the emphasis to outcome-based education with major emphasis on student-centric activities. An attempt is
also made to provide the relevant Rubric that could facilitate this shift.
KEYWORDS
Management Education, Outcome-Based Education, Student Centric, Rubric etc.
INTRODUCTION
History of Management Education in India
Management relates to each activity in our daily life. As such, though we can say that informal management education existed
since the dawn of humankind, the formal management education in India started about six decades ago. Initially, in 1953,
Management education was started at Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management by the Government of West
Bengal and Kolkata University. This was followed by major steps taken by Full-time management education at Delhi University
(1955), Madras University (1955), Bombay University (1955) and Andhra University (1957). [1]
A quantum leap was taken in providing excellent management education when the Government of India established Indian
Institutes of Management in Calcutta (1961) and in Ahmedabad (1962). Late Dr. Vikram Sarabhai played a stellar role in the
establishment of IIM (Ahmedabad). Today, there are 13 IIMs, all of which are considered as centers of excellence in management
education. From 1980’s saw rapid growth of management education with corporate sector picking persons with MBA degrees for
plum jobs. The real mushrooming of Business Schools took place in 90’s. Figures indicate that number of business schools in
India jumped from 1052 to 1940 in 2009-10 offering 3,60,000 seats.[2] Today the figure of business schools stands at about 4000.
While there has been quantitative increase in intake of MBA aspirants, it is not matched by improvement in quality. This is borne
out by the fact that campus placements have gone down. In a Zee News exclusive, it is mentioned that only 21% of the MBA
graduates are employable. [3]. In a similar study, ASSOCHAM has concluded that only 10% of MBAs are employable despite
robust demand. (3http:/www.business-standard.com/article/management/only-10-graduates-employable-despite-robust-mba-
demand-assocham-113013000223_1.html). In the same study, ASSOCHAM has mentioned that more than 180 business schools
have already closed down in 2012 in cities like Delhi-NCR, Mumbai, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Kolkata, Lucknow, and Dehradun
while another 160 are just managing to keep afloat. In short, supply outstrips demand. Also quite a high percentage MBAs are not
employable. This downturn in the employment of MBAs has led to the situation wherein lesser and lesser number of students opt
for admission to MBA in Tier-II and Tier-III Business Schools, whereas the aspirants for admission to Tier-I institutes like IIMs
far outstrip the available seats. Here fees are not a constraint but outcome.
Therefore, management education in India is in turmoil primarily because the present system, largely, is classroom intensive with
less emphasis on field activity and practical cases. Thus, the application part of theoretical knowledge is given much less
importance. This results in majority of MBA graduates being not functional and need some honing at the organizational level.
This puts financial burden on the corporate sector and clearly, there is delay in commissioning of these MBA recruits. This is a
great impediment in their recruitment. This is major lacuna in management education in India. This problem needs to be addressed
immediately by all the concerned so that management education becomes purposeful rather than mere classroom activity. If this is
not done, then there is a danger of management education in most of the Business Schools becoming redundant. This will result in
5 Former Director & Professor, Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University, Institute of Management and Rural Development
Administration, Maharashtra, India, [email protected] 6 Former Dean & Professor, Department of Electronics, Walchand College of Engineering, Maharashtra, India,
[email protected] 7 Associate Professor, Management Studies, Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University Institute of Management and Rural
Development Administration, Maharashtra, India, [email protected] 8 Associate Professor, Management Studies, Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University Institute of Management and Rural
Development Administration, Maharashtra, India, [email protected]
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most MBA institutes closing down and the investment made therein becoming “Non-Performing” or dead investment. This needs
to be avoided at any cost.
Outcome-Based-Education (OBE) perhaps could provide an answer to the problem faced by management education.
What is Outcome-Based-Education?
Outcome – Based - Education is that educational process, which emphasizes on what students should know, do and develop. It is
student-centric education. There is no definitive method of teaching methodology. Customized education process must be
developed so that that desired outcome will be the result.
The present management education is primarily output-based.
The basic difference lies in the fact that Outputs are end results of a process whereas Outcome is a level of performance or
achievement.[4] Outcome-based education involves development of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment techniques based on
what the outcome has to be. This can be termed as “Reverse Engineering” in education. In short, the product drives the process.
W. G. Spady defined Outcome-Based Education as follows [5]. “It is a way of designing, developing, delivering and documenting
instruction in terms of its intended goals and outcomes.” He also said, “Exit outcomes are critical factor, in designing the
curriculum.”
Speedy also suggested, “You develop the curriculum from the outcomes you want the students to demonstrate, rather than writing
objectives for the curriculum you already have”.
G. McNair has suggested that there is a strong link between outcome-based education and mastery learning. He also suggests that
“outcome-based education specifies the outcomes students should be able to demonstrate upon leaving the system” [6] so it clears
that in outcome-based education, following steps are followed: Clearly define and enunciate the outcomes that students need to
demonstrate upon leaving the course. Design and develop curriculum commensurate with outcomes targeted. Develop a band of
teachers who, upon proper training, would deliver. Develop an Assessment program that would evaluate the students for the
outcomes targeted.
Outcome-based Course Design
LEARNING OBJECTIVES>>>> COURSE ACTIVITIES & ASSESSMENTS>>> LEARNING OUTCOMES
- Education Development Centre carleton.ca / edc
PROGRAMME LEARNING OUTCOMES
Programs learning outcomes answer the following questions:
What is the purpose of this program?
What should the ideal graduate of this program be able to know, do or value upon completion?
Educational Development Centre – Carleton.ca/edc
A comparison of Assessment patterns the present educational system and that under outcome-based Education is presented below:
Present: In the present Assessment pattern, the students are passive learners. In fact, the emphasis is on teaching rather than on
learning. This makes the role of syllabi, textbook-driven classroom teaching play a very significant role. The teachers are taking it
upon themselves to educate the students rather than encourage students to learn. The marking pattern is heavily loaded in favor of
“Learning by Rote” and memorizing. Continuous evaluation is not given much importance. Instead of converting themselves into
self-starters, the students depend on the personality and mental make-up of the teacher for motivation. The teacher decides on
what the students have to achieve.
New Approach under Outcome-based Education
In outcome-based education, the primacy for deciding the process is given to the students. They become active participants and
active learners. The curriculum is designed and developed to lead to the targeted outcomes. Outcomes are decided upon taking
into account the needs of the society. The entire process of education is on the bedrock of outcomes. Students are clear as to what
is expected of them and the teachers are sure of what and how they have to go about discharging their duties to achieve the
targeted outcomes. Thinking, analyzing and evaluating on the part of students is given importance. In OBE, continuous
assessment gains great importance. Marking based on memorizing does not find a place in OBE. Flexible time-frame to match the
abilities of the students is adopted. Students are allowed to learn at their own pace.
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BENEFITS OF OUTCOME-BASED EDUCATION
Clarity: The course managers know what outcome is expected. Students and other stakeholders know what is expected
of them at the end of the course.
Flexibility: In OBE, the course is for the students and nor students for the courses. So time-flexibility and curriculum –
flexibility if provided to match the ability of the students.
Comparison: Intra-institutional and inter-institutional comparisons are possible. Students in institutions can compared
on what is the level of outcomes they have achieved as against the targeted outcomes. Institutions also can compare the
outcomes achieved by students of different institutions and initiate course-correction methods.
Involvement: OBE is a system in which student involvement is an essential ingredient. This will greatly help in
improving on the curriculum with active involvement of the students.
DRAWBACKS OF OBE
OBE has some drawbacks like subjectivity in outcome finalization and assessment procedures. If the parents’ involvement is
beyond a certain limit, it can have the effect of preventing the system form evolving to higher-level activity.
Moving from input-output based management education to Outcome – Based management education in India.
The present management education in India is majorly input-cum-output based. It is largely confined to classroom activity that is
tightly controlled by curriculum that is broken into subjects. Textbooks dictate the course of management education and learning
by rote is the order of the day. The philosophy of “one-hat fits all” is adhered to. This is primarily applicable to Tier-II and Tier III
business schools. In certain cases, up-gradation of syllabi takes inordinately long time. Sometimes the delay is so much that the
proposed up-gradation itself becomes outdated. On the other hand, the IIMs and some other top business schools like Indian
School of Business, Hyderabad, have a curriculum that is tailor-made to meet the needs of the stakeholders. This is the reason why
they perform better than other business schools. In the remaining part of this paper, an effort is being made to suggest ways and
means of shifting to outcome-based education that could pave way for better performance of Tier-II and Tier-III Business
Schools. Outcomes that are expected of an MBA Graduate on the completion of the course: a) Communication Skills, b)
Presentation Skills, c) Foreign Language Skills, d) Global View of Business, e) Analytical Skills, f) Managerial Skills, and g)
Leadership Skills.
When an MBA acquires a high level of the above outcomes, he is bound to gain in confidence and become not only employable
upon completing the course but also build and lead his own business team.
ASSESSMENT
Present: Passive learners; Exam-driven; Rote-learning; Syllabus is content-based and broken into subjects; text-book bound and
teacher centered; Syllabus is rigid and non-negotiable; teachers responsible for learning; Motivation dependent on personality of
lecturer; Emphasis on what teacher hopes to achieve; Content placed into rigid time-frame; Curriculum development process not
open to public comment;
New Approach: Active learners; Learners are assessed on an on-going basis; Critical thinking, reasoning, reflection and action;
an integration of knowledge, learning relevant and connected to real-life situations; Learner-centered. Lecturer is a facilitator.
Lecturer uses group work and teamwork; Curricula seen as guides that allow lecturers to be innovative and creative; Learners take
responsibility for their learning. Pupils motivated by constant feedback and affirmation; Emphasis on outcomes – what the learner
becomes and understands; Flexible time-frames allow learners to work at their own pace; Comment and input from wider
community is encouraged; Outcomes will be assessed in different ways and on on-going basis; assessment is an integral part of
the whole system; Students will not get marked just for remembering subject content; Different aspects of learner’s abilities, such
as creativity and critical thinking will also be assessed.(Academics.sun.ac.za/theology/netact/ASSESSMENT.OBE.pdf)
Bloom’s Taxonomy can be effectively used to determine the level of cognitive skills the students of MBA are expected to achieve
at the end of the course. This will form the basis for determining the curriculum aspects, including the evaluation pattern.
Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Benjamin Bloom and his group of educators have devised a taxonomy that finds wide application in determining various levels of
cognitive complexities that the course designers can aim for. This has three taxonomies are as given below:
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Table-1: Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for Knowledge-Based Goals [7]
Level of Expertise Description of Level
Knowledge Recall, or recognition of terms, ideas, procedure, theories, etc.
Comprehension Translate, interpret, extrapolate, but not see full implications or transfer to other situations, closer to
literal translation.
Application Apply abstractions, general principles, or methods to specific concrete situations.
Analysis Separation of a complex idea into its constituent parts and an understanding of organization and
relationship between the parts. Includes realizing the distinction between hypothesis and fact as well
as between relevant and extraneous variables.
Synthesis Creative, mental construction of ideas and concepts from multiple sources to form complex ideas into
a new, integrated, and meaningful pattern subject to given Constraints.
Evaluation To make a judgment of ideas or methods using external evidence or self-selected criteria substantiated
by observations or informed rationalizations.
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-2: Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for Skills-Based Goals [7]
Level of Expertise Description of Level
Perception Uses sensory cues to guide Actions.
Set Demonstrates a readiness to take action to perform the task or objective.
Guided Response Knows steps required to complete the task or objective.
Mechanism Performs task or objective in a somewhat confident, proficient, and habitual manner.
Complex Overt
Response
Performs task or objective in a confident, proficient, and habitual manner.
Adaptation Performs task or objective as above, but can also modify actions to account for new or problematic
situations.
Organization Creates new tasks or objectives incorporating learned ones.
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-3: Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for Affective Goals [7]
Level of Expertise Description of Level
Receiving Demonstrates a willingness to participate in the activity.
Responding Shows interest in the objects, phenomena, or activity by seeking it out or pursuing it for pleasure.
Valuing Internalizes an appreciation for (values) the objectives, phenomena, or activity.
Organization Begins to compare different values, and resolves conflicts between them to form an internally
consistent system of values.
Characterization
by a Value or
Value Complex
Adopts a long-term value system that is "pervasive, consistent, and predictable
Sources: Authors Compilation
Rubric for Presentation Skills
Rubric for categorising various levels presentation skills has been developed by the authors and given below:
Presentation Rubric
Table-4
Preliminary Basic Advanced Excellent
Objectives Unclear Clouded Clear Visionary
Language skills Unsure Grammar Basic sentence
formation
Good vocabulary Perfect usage of words
and sentences
Presentation Tool No knowledge No clear understanding Good knowledge Data and information
maneuvering skills
Subject Knowledge Very unsure about
the subject
Rudimentary
knowledge
Well read Good subject analysis
Diction Stammering Unclear
Pronunciation
Clear Pronunciation Good pronunciation with
clear intonation
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Organization Jumbled Majorly
Unsure
Almost Perfect Very well, sequenced,
organized and
emphasized.
Graphical / Pictorial
Representation
No pictorial usage Minimal Usage of
Graphical and
pictorial representations
Liberal Usage of
Graphical and pictorial
representation
Effective usage of
graphical and pictorial
representations.
Delivery Confused With unnecessary
pauses
Free flow of delivery Free flow of delivery
with good body gestures.
Sources: Authors Compilation
Along the lines of the above, Rubrics for other managerial skills can be developed. In this way a design for total quality control
norms for management, education can be drafted to give students, their parents and other stakeholders the level of skills that are
expected of the students when they complete the course.
CONCLUSION
The present status of Management education in India is alarming. This calls for drastic and concerted effort to bring about
transformational changes to make it purposeful, acceptable and sustainable. It is a Herculean task but not impossible. Major
institutes engaged in imparting management education must be convinced, through well-designed discourses, that if we have to
make our management education effective that certain surgical operations will have to be carried out. This has to be a national
endeavor, which has to be supported by the corporate world to bring about these transformational changes in management
education.
REFERENCES
1. (2014, November 26). Business Standard.
2. Retrieved from http://zeenews.india.com/exclusive/only-21-mbas-are-employable-in-india-study_5209.html
3. Spady, W. G. (1988, October). Organizing for Results; the basis of authentic restructuring and reform. Educational
Leadership, pp. 4-8.
4. McNair, G. (1993). Outcomes-based education: Tools for Restructuring. Oregon School Study Council Bulletin.
Eugene: Oregon School Study Council.
5. Retrieved from
www.teaching.uncc.edu/learning-resources/articles-books/bestpactice/goals-objectives/blooms-educational-objectives
6. Retrieved from http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/archive/cl1/flag/start/primer3.html
7. Retrieved from http://teaching.uncc.edu/sites/teaching.uncc.edu/files/media/files/file/GoalsAndObjectives/Bloom.pdf
8. Retrieved from http://refugeeroadmap.org/questions/what-is-the-purpose-of-the-tanf-temporary-assistance-for-needy-f...
9. Retrieved from http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/1529/03chapter2.pdf
10. Retrieved from http://www.nda.agric.za/docs/landcarepage/The%20new%20Curriculum.htm
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RETENTION AND APPLICATION OF TRAINING INPUTS INCLUDING JOB SKILLS
AND RULES BY EMPLOYEES OF SOUTHERN RAILWAYS
Dr. D. Joseph Anbarasu9 Dr. Victor Lazarus10
ABSTRACT
Job skills of the trainees are tested on three occasions namely, Pre-training period, Post-training period and in the field. The
population of the study has been the total number of employees being trained in the Zonal Railway Training Institute of
Southern Railways at Tiruchirappalli over two years. About 1500 probationers were trained during the study period of which
236 trainee employees were interviewed at three stages like pre-training period, post-training period and in the field. The field
results have been obtained approximately six months after the training. The new methods adopted in training for the front line
staff of Indian railways have made the staff to learn and suit themselves to the latest technological advancements. The
consensus analysis indicates an impact of training. The findings also indicate long-term impact on employees in remembering
the skills learnt and the tendency to apply such skills when demanded. It is found that various skills imparted have impact on
trainees with various levels, which have been revealed by the CNS analysis.
KEYWORDS
Training Inputs, Consensus Measure (CNS), Retention, Application etc.
INTRODUCTION
Southern Railways is one of the biggest railways in the world. Indian Railways is the largest transportation network operational
under a single management that has a work force of nearly 1.4 million employees. Nearly 20 million people or roughly 2 percent
of the Indian population travels on Indian railways every day. It is difficult to visualise conglomeration of nearly 600 crore
passengers per year attached, dependent and patronized by a single system of transportation. Indian railways also transports more
than one third of India’s total freight traffic. More than 1.4 million employees are on the job. In Indian Budget, it is proposed that
about 100000 more employees are to be hired in 2012-2013. Thus the role played by the employees of Indian railways in the
economic development of the country is very vital. Therefore the main concern should be to harness and exploit the mental and
physical capacity of the employees and put it in right direction for achieving organisational objectives. Several training modules
are designed to meet the requirement of respective group. Do these training programs bring about desirable results from the
trainees? That is the research question of this study.
There are several components constituting the module of the training program of Zonal Railway Training Institute. Learning rules,
independently handling their jobs, dealing with complex issues on the job, application of their learnt skills in the field, ability to
correlate theory with actual work, satisfaction in handling complex issues independently, ability in retaining rules and regulation,
impact of job rotation on the learned skills, rating the theory imparted, ability in updating the rules learnt are focus areas of the
training program. Therefore, this study is an attempt to describe systematically the status of learnt skills at the pre, post period and
after fairly long period, problem of imparting the skills, phenomenon influencing the skills, programme contents, or providing
information about, say, job condition of a trained employees and describes attitudes of them towards an issue. Thus, it is a
descriptive study or survey.
The Strength of Consensus Measure
Group decision-making dynamics is called the Consensus measure, is also called the Measure of agreement. The more each
member within one group can agree that they performed well, the higher the consensus. Consensus is a term used to describe a
group’s shared feelings toward a particular Issue. It is a simulated set of four groups of employees, each group composed of
employees ranging from fifty to seventy. Hence the Consensus scale was applied.
The mean value can “float” the entire length of the Likert scale, from strongly agree to strongly disagree depending on the values
of pi. One has to assess each group of employees based on the individual employee’s perception of the overall quality of their
group as described by the set of questions each employee must answer. Thus, for each employee there is an individual Likert scale
for each question. It is possible that the average perception for the employee to be any value between SA and SD, the extreme
points on a Likert scale, and each group can have a different mean value. This Complexity essentially prevents us from comparing
the groups. One has to calculate a measure based on the same focal point, i.e., a generally accepted central value from which the
consensus can be measured. It is arbitrarily decided to use strongly agree as the focal point, and it is also insisted that each Likert
scale question be written in a positive tone. It is expected that each employee in each group would ideally like to strongly agree
9Associate Professor (Commerce), Bishop Hebe College, Tamil Nadu, India, [email protected] 10Assistant Professor, Department of Management Studies, Bishop Heber College, Tamil Nadu, India, [email protected]
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with each question. Thus, given a statement “The team worked well together,” it is most desirable to have the entire team
membership check the strongly agree bubble. If that does occur, then all members are in 100% consensus on that particular item.
Realistically, the team members can select any combination of Likert scale values.
By assigning the mean value to a focal point such as strongly agree, the consensus value is focused with respect to that point.
Thus, instead of a meandering weighted mean value as currently exists, the original consensus measure, the focal point is required
to always be strongly agree and assigned a value of 1. Thus, SA = 1, A = 2, N = 3, D = 4, and SD = 5. If the weighted mean was
calculated, as in the regular consensus measure, the value would be contained in the range 1 to 5 with very little opportunity being
given to either extreme value. As the employees record their perceptions of the team activity, the data can be tallied to determine
an overall team score. Essentially, using the consensus measure, the SA, A, etc. scores are replaced with a single real number that
captures the meaning of the Likert values. Thus, if the majority of the scores centre on neutral or disagree, the focal point (SA)
will be a greater distance from the category values and the resulting strength of consensus will be less (closer to 0). However, if
the majority of the employees are in strong agreement or agree, then the strength of consensus will be close to 1
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Since this study is basically a descriptive one, the starting point is from the studies in the area of training programs in general and
retention of training input in particular. Several studies have been made in this area erstwhile in the world. Similar studies in
Indian context are not much to be reviewed or cited. Therefore, studies in the global context have been cited as the reviews in this
study barring few studies in India. Judith Scully Callahan, et al (2003) expressed that training the older learner has been the topic
of considerable discussion but there is no consensus on which instructional methods are associated with higher observed training
performance. Wentland D (2003) made a theoretical framework incorporating both the need for employee training and the
organizational constraints restricting the amount of training available. Tan J A, Hall R J, Boyce C (2003) found that both affective
and cognitive/intentions correlated with the learning measures and the supervisor assessments of behavior. Aragon-Sanchez A,
Barbra-Aragon I, Sanz-Valle R (2003) concentrated on Kirkpatrick’s model of training evaluation – which analyses four aspects
of training, employees’ attitudes towards and satisfaction with the training, employees’ learning from the training, employees’
behaviour changes following training, and the effects of training on business results.
Byrnes (2002) noted that there are five essential steps for a company to develop an effective retention strategy related to values
and vission. Newstrom and Pierce (2002) agreed: “Companies are being stymied…often by their own structure. McKinsey studied
a company where the new product process required 223 separate committees to approve an idea before it could be put into
production”. Van der Klink MR, Streumer J. N (2002) pointed out that the majority of Dutch organizations frequently use on-the-
job training to train their staff. Reports research that assessed whether on-the-job training is effective and which asked if there are
characteristics among the trainees, workplace and the training that make it effective. Schalock (2001) defined effectiveness of
evaluation as the determination of the extent to which a program has met its stated performance goals and objectives.
Stufflebeam's (2001) noted that the definition of evaluation was used to assess the methods of evaluation found in this literature
review. Belfield, Hywell, Bullock, Eynon, and Wall (2001) considered the question of how to evaluate medical educational
interventions for effectiveness on healthcare outcomes using an adaptation of the Kirkpatrick Model with five levels. Kennedy
L.A (1994) conducted a study on HRD for the executives of BHEL (Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited) Tiruchirappalli. The study
aimed in identifying the training needs and the process of conducting performance review. About 50 respondents were selected
through systematic random sampling and the findings revealed that majority of the executives felt that training is an art of
conducting performance review.
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
They are:
To understand how well the employees of Southern Railway are using the skills in their jobs,
To identify whether the employees of Southern Railways are benefited out of the training programs by the Zonal
Training Centre,
To analyse the input imbibing mechanisms in the training programme with special reference to short and long-term
programme conducted,
To evaluate the longitudinal retention skills of the trained personnel during the work period, and
To suggest, if possible, the suitable ways to present the training programs in the context of longitudinal impact
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
Sample Design
About 1500 personnel have been trained during the period between 2009 and 2010 in the Zonal Railway Training Institute located
at Tiruchirappalli. The trainees were personnel from various levels across the organizational hierarchy of Southern Railways.
Thus, the type of the sampling technique used in the data collection was stratified random method. The respondents were mainly
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station masters, booking clerks (both current & advance booking) and ticket checking staff. These three groups were given
training separately and the selection of samples also became easy. They were selected at random from each group in equal
numbers. The groups have also further been divided on the basis of qualification the trainees, income level, gender and Marital
Status. The sample size was determined as 235, which would constitute approximately 15 per cent of the total respondents under
study. This has been justified in the context of time limitation of training period and the lapse of six months period soon after
training.
Tools Used
Consensus is a term used to describe a group’s shared feelings toward a particular issue. Currently, such an endeavour would be
difficult at best, for the measures available are inappropriate and incomplete for the most part. We approach this task by fixing the
mean value of the team members Likert scale evaluations to a predetermined focal point and then calculate the consensus.
Training inputs can be assessed with Likert scale. Likert scale generally consists of ratings strongly agree, agree, neural, disagree
and strongly agree. The new mathematical measure is tested and proved to be valid in arriving result from Likert scale. Using the
Shannon (1948) entropy:
The consensus measure is defined as:
)1()(log)()(1 2
n
i ii xpxpXH
Where x is the set of n categories under study, and pi is the probability of each xi, a new measure of dispersion has been
developed (Wierman and Tastle, 2005). However, this entropy measures do not rank x values in order. Therefore, every
permutation of values brings the same value, and that is the demerit of employing this entropy measure in assessing the Likert
scale. Therefore, the new measure is required by which ordinal scale data can be assessed with respect to its dispersion around an
average. The measure can be improved by fixing the mean value to a predetermined focal point and then calculating the measure.
Extending the consensus measure to analyse the ordinal data with respect to extreme (Jennifer M. Tastle, William J. Tastle, (2005)
has been introduced. According to them, the consensus measure is defined as:
)2(1log1)(1 2
n
ix
xi
id
XppXCns
Where X is the Likert scale, pi is the probability of each x, dx is the width of X, Xi is the particular Likert value, and mx is the
mean of X (Wierman and Tastle, 2005). The mean, mx is the expected value,
n
i iI xpXE1
)()(
The mean value, however, can “float” the entire length of the Likert scale, from strongly agree to strongly disagree depending on
the values of pi.
The strength of consensus is simply the variation of the consensus measure (Tastle and Wierman, 2005: Wierman and Tastle,
2005). It is obtained by increasing the system width dx, to 2(dx), an fixing ux to 1.
)3(2
11log1)(
1 2
n
ix
i
d
XpXsCns
The resulting equation permits us to calculate the strength of consensus, sCns. The original consensus measure failed when the
focus was either extreme.
SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
The aim of an evaluation is to determine whether or not the training achieved the desired objective. Since the objectives of the
study have been very precise, the results have been drawn with strong base. This brings about the results of assessing training
needs. This evaluation of training will help show how effective it was at meeting the objective. This study assures that objectives
of the training are met but then there are areas to be strengthened.
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ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Table-1: CNS of Pre-Test
Skills Tested CNS (%)
IA Relevancy of Rules, Regulation in Training 79.39
IB Presentation of rules 78.54
IC Trainer effectiveness 75.52
ID Training module and its impact on understanding 75.45
IE Facilities provided 76.75
IF Training schedule its appropriation 78.74
IG Knowledge gained, applicability in job 80.67
IIA Effect of training on rule retention skills 79.21
IIB Memory retention of rules taught and its applicability 75.76
IIC New skills taught, enhancement of proficiency 79.07
IID Long-term memory retention of skills, achieving set target it 76.32
IIE Overall training in improving productivity 78.43
IIIA Improvement on quality and performance 78.13
IIIB Benefit in improving application of rules and interpersonal communication 76.13
IIIC Good return on investment 74.00
IIID Work without personal loss 71.42
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-1 shows the percentage of consensus shown by the four categories of employees while answering the questions on the skills
expected by them before undergoing the training program. The rating shows the measure of agreement among the employees
since, the more each member within one group can agree well, the higher the consensus.
Table-2: Pre Test
Skills Tested CNS (%)
IIID Work without personal loss 71.42
IIIC Good return on investment 74.00
ID Training module and its impact on understanding 75.45
IC Trainer effectiveness 75.52
IIB Memory retention of rules taught and its applicability 75.76
IIIB Benefit in improving application of rules and interpersonal communication 76.13
IID Long-term memory retention of skills, achieving set target it 76.32
IE Facilities provided 76.75
IIIA Improvement on quality and performance 78.13
IIE Overall training in improving productivity 78.43
IB Presentation of rules 78.54
IF Training schedule its appropriation 78.74
IIC New skills taught, enhancement of proficiency 79.07
IIA Effect of training on rule retention skills 79.21
IA Relevancy of Rules, Regulation in Training 79.39
IG Knowledge gained, applicability in job 80.67
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-2 shows the pre-training test questions ranked from lowest to highest in percent showing the consensus among the
employees in rating the various training skills. The lowest skill, the employees are able to work flawlessly applying all the rules
meticulously without personal financial loss in terms of short collection of fare and freight while issuing current and advanced
tickets to the rail travel passengers and while collecting penal money from the irregular passengers by the ticket checking staff is
rated as 71.42%. The knowledge gained by the employees and its impact on applicability of the same in their daily work is rated at
80.67%.
Table-3: Cut off Rate of Pre-test
Maximum 80.67%
Minimum 71.42%
Range 9.24%
Mid-range 4.62%
Cut-off Rate 76.05%
Sources: Authors Compilation
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Table-3 evaluates the entire pretest training skills and depicts the minimum and maximum range of the skills taught during the
training sessions. The minimum is 71.42% and the maximum 80.67%. Based on the range and mid-range the cut-off rate is fixed
as 76.05%. The cut-off rate would help to segregate, analyze and effectively concentrate the training skills falling below it.
Graph-1: CNS based about the Skills - Pretest
Sources: Authors Compilation
Graph-2: CNS Based on the Rating
Sources: Authors Compilation
Graph-2 graphically represents the pre training skills. Of the sixteen training skills tested for its consensus, four skills needs
attention since it falls below the cut-off 76.05 percent. The skills like work without personal loss, good return on investment,
training module and its impact on training, trainer effectiveness and retention of skills taught for longer period of time needs
immediate attention as majority of the employees belonging to all the four categories taken for this study agree in consensus.
Table-4: CNS of Post-test I
Skills Tested CNS (%)
IA Relevancy of Rules, Regulation in Training 78.05
IB Presentation of rules 75.77
IC Trainer effectiveness 77.00
ID Training module and its impact on understanding 81.09
IE Facilities provided 73.18
IF Training schedule its appropriation 77.15
IG Knowledge gained ,applicability in job 80.53
IIA Effect of training on rule retention skills 77.47
IIB Memory retention of rules taught and its applicability 76.91
IIC New skills taught, enhancement of proficiency 77.95
IID Long-term memory retention of skills ,achieving set target it 76.17
IIE Overall training in improving productivity 78.23
IIIA Improvement on quality and performance 78.86
IIIB Benefit in improving application of rules and interpersonal communication 78.67
IIIC Good return on investment 74.88
IIID Work without personal loss 73.39
Sources: Authors Compilation
66.00%
68.00%
70.00%
72.00%
74.00%
76.00%
78.00%
80.00%
82.00%
IA IB IC ID IE IF IG IIA IIB IIC IID IIE IIIA IIIB IIIC IIID
66.00%
68.00%
70.00%
72.00%
74.00%
76.00%
78.00%
80.00%
82.00%
IG IA IIA IIC IF IB IIE IIIA IE IID IIIB IIB IC ID IIIC IIID
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Table-4 shows the percentage of consensus shown by the four categories of employees while answering the questions on the skills
expected out of them after undergoing the training program. The rating shows the measure of agreement among the employees
since, the more each member within one group can agree well, the higher the consensus.
Table-5: CNS of Post-test II
Skills Tested CNS (%)
IE Facilities provided 73.18
IIID Work without personal loss 73.39
IIIC Good return on investment 74.88
IB Presentation of rules 75.77
IID Long-term memory retention of skills ,achieving set target it 76.17
IIB Memory retention of rules taught and its applicability 76.91
IC Trainer effectiveness 77.00
IF Training schedule its appropriation 77.15
IIA Effect of training on rule retention skills 77.47
IIC New skills taught, enhancement of proficiency 77.95
IA Relevancy of Rules, Regulation in Training 78.05
IIE Overall training in improving productivity 78.23
IIIB Benefit in improving application of rules and interpersonal communication 78.67
IIIA Improvement on quality and performance 78.86
IG Knowledge gained ,applicability in job 80.53
ID Training module and its impact on understanding 81.09
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-5 shows the post- training test questions ranked from lowest to highest in percent showing the consensus among the
employees in rating the various training skills. All the four categories of employees namely, the current and advanced ticket
booking clerks, ticket checking staff and the stationmasters have rated the least for the facilities available in the training institute
as 73.18 percent. Among the skills tested for consensus, the training module and its impact on understanding has been rated the
maximum percentage of 81.09.
Table-6: Cut-off Rate of Post Test
Maximum 81.09%
Minimum 73.18%
Range 7.91%
Mid-range 3.96%
Cut-off Rate 77.14%
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-6 evaluates the entire post- test training skills and depicts the minimum and maximum range of the skills taught during the
training sessions. The minimum is 73.18% and the maximum 81.09%. Based on the range and mid-range the cut-off rate is fixed
as 77.14%. The cut-off rate would help to segregate, analyze and effectively concentrate the training skills falling below it.
Graph-3: CNS based about the Skills – Post Test
Sources: Authors Compilation
68.00%
70.00%
72.00%
74.00%
76.00%
78.00%
80.00%
82.00%
IA IB IC ID IE IF IG IIA IIB IIC IID IIE IIIA IIIB IIIC IIID
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From table 10, it is found that the various skills are evaluated based on the CNS algorithm. It is noticed that few items are falling
below the cut-off rate. In graph-4, the skills are arranged according to their rating arrived with the help of CNS algorithm. For
example, IA takes fifth place from the first places.
Graph-4: CNS Based on the Rating of Post Test
Sources: Authors Compilation
Graph-4 graphically represents the post training skills. Of the sixteen training skills tested for its consensus, seven skills needs
attention since it falls below the cut-off 77.14 percent. The skills like facilities provided in the center for training, work without
personal loss, good return on investment, classroom presentation of the rules by the trainers, trainer effectiveness and retention of
skills taught for longer period of time needs immediate attention as majority of the employees belonging to all the four categories
taken for this study agree in consensus.
Table-7: CNS of Field Test I
Questions CNS %
IVA Relevancy of rules taught and the applicability of the theory 44.31
IVB Training module, its applicability after training 59.37
IVC Retention of skills and applicability of rules 76.54
IVD Correlation of theory with actual work 65.04
IVE Improvement in quality and performance without external assistance 70.53
IVF Knowledge gained in training in facing day to day problems 65.29
IVG Application of rules, interpersonal communication and self-motivation 74.38
IVH Retention of rules in memory 65.79
IVI Updating of rules by remembering the basic training inputs 70.47
IVJ Return on investments on the efforts taken by the administration 58.23
IVK Facilities and exposure given 68.73
IVL Design of the module in updating and job-rotation 72.26
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-7 shows the percentage of consensus shown by the four categories of employees while answering the questions on the skills
experienced by them after undergoing the training program at their work spot. The rating shows the measure of agreement among
the employees. The more each member within one group can agree well, the higher the consensus.
Table-8: CNS of the Field Test II
Questions CNS %
IVA Relevancy of rules taught and the applicability of the theory 44.31
IVJ Return on investments on the efforts taken by the management 58.23
IVB Training module, its applicability after training 59.37
IVD Retention of skills and applicability of rules 65.04
IVF Knowledge gained in training in facing day to day Problems 65.29
IVH Retention of rules in memory 65.79
IVK Facilities and exposure given 68.73
IVI Updating of rules by remembering the basic training inputs 70.47
IVE Improvement in quality without external assistance 70.53
IVL Design of the module in updating and job-rotation 72.26
IVG Application of rules, interpersonal communication etc. 74.38
IVC Retention of skills and applicability of rules 76.54
Sources: Authors Compilation
68.00%
70.00%
72.00%
74.00%
76.00%
78.00%
80.00%
82.00%
ID IG IIIA IIIB IIE IA IIC IIA IF IC IIB IID IB IIIC IIID IE
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Table-8 shows the field (work spot) test questions ranked from lowest to highest in percent showing the consensus among the
employees in rating the various training skills. All the four categories of employees namely, the current and advanced ticket
booking clerks, ticket checking staff and the stationmasters have rated the least for the relevancy of rules taught in the training
institute and the practical applicability of the same in the work place as 44.31 percent. Among the skills tested for consensus, the
retention of skills taught and the applicability of the rules taught has been rated the maximum percentage of 76.54.
Table-9: Cut-off Rate of Field Test
Maximum 76.54%
Minimum 44.31%
Range 32.23%
Mid-range 16.12%
Cut-off Rate 60.43%
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-9, evaluates the entire field applicability skills at the working place of the employees and depicts the minimum and
maximum range of the skills taught during the training sessions and their real time applicability in their daily work.
The minimum is 44.31 percent and maximum 76.54 percent. Based on the range and mid-range the cut-off rate is fixed as 60.43
percent. The cut- off rate would help to segregate, analyze and effectively concentrate the training skills falling below it.
FIELD-TEST
Graph-5: CNS based about the Skills of Field Test
Sources: Authors Compilation
Graph-6: CNS base on the Ratings of Field Test
Sources: Authors Compilation
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
IVA IVB IVC IVD IVE IVF IVG IVH IVI IVJ IVK IVL
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
IVC IVG IVL IVE IVI IVK IVH IVF IVD IVB IVJ IVA
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Graph-6 represents the impact of the trained skills at the field. Of the twelve training skills tested for its consensus, three skills
needs attention since it falls below the cut-off 60.43 percent. The skills like relevancy of rules taught in the training program and
their practical applicability, good return on the investment made by the Railway administration and the impact of the training
module in its applicability after training in the field needs immediate attention as majority of the employees belonging to all the
four categories taken for this study agree in consensus.
Table-10: Pre-CNS below cut off
Questions CNS %
IIID Work without personal loss 71.42
IIIC Good return on investment 74.00
ID Training module and its impact on understanding 75.45
IC Trainer effectiveness 75.52
IIB Memory retention of rules taught and its applicability 75.76
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-10 explains the training skills likely to fall below the cut-off range of 76.05 percent. All the four categories of employees
chosen for the study are called as front line service staff as they directly serve the customers of Indian railway transportation
sector face to face. They have perceptions about the training program that they may not be in a position to work in their work spot
without personal financial loss as these categories of people are engaged in issue of tickets to the journey performing passengers
by collecting money in return. During the transaction of issue of tickets by the ticket booking clerks or the ticket checking staff,
they have to apply the appropriate rules learnt meticulously; otherwise, short collection of money would make the employee to
pay back to the organization either immediately or from their salary. Excess collection of fare may lead to public complaints from
the customers, which would lead the administration to punish the employees. Area like training module, its impact on the
individuals understanding, effectiveness of the training program and the long-term memory retention of the skills taught are the
skills expected by all the employees belonging to the four categories in their training at the institute.
Table-11: Pre-CNS above cut off Rate
Skills Tested CNS IN %
IIIB Benefit in improving application of rules and interpersonal communication 76.13
IID Long-term memory retention of skills ,achieving set target it 76.32
IE Facilities provided 76.75
IIIA Improvement on quality and performance 78.13
IIE Overall training in improving productivity 78.43
IB Presentation of rules 78.54
IF Training schedule its appropriation 78.74
IIC New skills taught, enhancement of proficiency 79.07
IIA Effect of training on rule retention skills 79.21
IA Relevancy of Rules, Regulation in Training 79.39
IG Knowledge gained ,applicability in job 80.67
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-12: Post-CNS below cut off Rate
Skills Tested CNS IN %
IE Facilities provided 73.18
IIID Work without personal loss 73.39
IIIC Good return on investment 74.88
IB Presentation of rules 75.77
IID Long-term memory retention of skills ,achieving set target it 76.17
IIB Memory retention of rules taught and its applicability 76.91
IC Trainer effectiveness 77.00
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table 11 explains about the skills falling below the cuf-off level of consensus. All the four categories of staff rated the facilities
available in the centre as inadequate and emphasises the need for its improvement. The rules taught required to be presented in a
better way,thrust should be given for improving the teaching methodologies which would inturn improve the trainer effectiveness.
The rules taught should have impact on the practical applicability in the field work.
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Table-13: Post-CNS above cut off
Skills Tested CNS in %
IF Training schedule its appropriation 77.15
IIA Effect of training on rule retention skills 77.47
IIC New skills taught, enhancement of proficiency 77.95
IA Relevancy of Rules, Regulation in Training 78.05
IIE Overall training in improving productivity 78.23
IIIB Benefit in improving application of rules and interpersonal communication 78.67
IIIA Improvement on quality and performance 78.86
IG Knowledge gained ,applicability in job 80.53
ID Training module and its impact on understanding 81.09
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-14: Field-Cns below cut off
Skills Tested CNS IN %
IVA Relevancy of rules taught and the applicability of the theory in field 44.31
IVJ Return on investments on the efforts taken by the administration 58.23
IVB Training module, its applicability after training 59.37
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table 14 explains the skills requiring immediate attention in the work spot of the field staff of Railways. There is not much
relevancy seen between the rules taught in the training center and its practical applicability in the field. There is also an immediate
requirement to revamp the training module to suit the employees to apply what they learn practically in the field. The railway
administration may not be able reap the return on investment made on training the staff and placing them to work in the front line
service area.
Table-15: Field-CNS above cut off
Skills Tested CNS IN %
IVD Retention of skills and applicability of rules 65.04
IVF Knowledge gained in training in facing day to day Problems 65.29
IVH Retention of rules in memory 65.79
IVK Facilities and exposure given 68.73
IVI Updating of rules by remembering the basic training inputs 70.47
IVE Improvement in quality and performance without external assistance 70.53
IVL Design of the module in updating and job-rotation 72.26
IVG Application of rules, interpersonal communication and self-motivation 74.38
IVC Retention of skills and applicability of rules 76.54
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-16: Point of Incidence in Pre and Post Tests
Skills Tested CNS %
IC Trainer effectiveness 75.52
IIB Memory retention of rules taught and its applicability 75.76
IIIC Good return on investment 74.00
IIID Work without personal loss 71.42
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table 15 shows the area requiring utmost attention with respect to the consensus test analysis between the pre and posttests four
hypotheses need improvement. Skills like teaching methodology, trainer effectiveness in inculcating the rules and regulations to
the employees needs further improvement.
Table-17: Point of Incidence in Pre Test only
Skills Tested CNS IN %
ID Training module and its impact on understanding 75.45
Sources: Authors Compilation
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In Table 17, it is found that in the test conducted prior to the training the four categories of employees chosen for this study
aspired that the training module should be appropriate enough to cater to the understanding capacity of the individual employees.
POST ONLY
Table-18: Point of Incidence in Post Test only
Skills Tested CNS IN %
IB Presentation of rules 78.54
IE Facilities provided 76.75
IID Long-term memory retention of skills ,achieving set target 76.32
Sources: Authors Compilation
In table-18, it is found that three hypotheses in the posttest required attention. The immediate concern should be for enhancing
presentation of rules in a simple way as to reach the employees more effectively. The facilities available in the training institute
have to be revamped to help various categories of employees to have a better stay. All the four categories of employees considered
for this study rated in consensus about the need for long-term retention of the skills learned at the training institute, which would
help in achieving the set target of the organization.
Table-19: Point of Incidence in Field Test only
Skills Tested CNS IN %
IVA Relevancy of rules taught and the applicability of the theory in field 44.31
IVB Training module, its applicability after training 59.37
IVJ Return on investments on the efforts taken by the administration 58.23
Sources: Authors Compilation
From Table-19, it is found that three hypotheses need to be addressed .All the four categories of employees agree that there is no
relevancy of rules taught and the applicability of the same in the field. The training module should be appropriately modified as to
suit to the real time applicability in the work place. The consensus test revealed the fact that only 58 percent employees there is
return on investments on the efforts taken by the Railway administration.
FINDINGS AND SUGGESTIONS
CNS of Pre-Test
The percentage of consensus is shown by the four categories of employees while answering the questions on the skills
expected by them before undergoing the training program. The rating shows the measure of agreement among the
employees since, the more each member within one group can agree well, the higher the consensus.
Pre Test Ranking
The knowledge gained by the employees and its impact on applicability of the same in their daily work is rated at 80.67
percent.
The minimum is 71.42 percent and the maximum 80.67 percent. Based on the range and mid-range the cut-off rate is
fixed as 76.05 percent.
Of the sixteen training skills tested for its consensus, four skills needs attention since it falls below the cut-off 76.05
percent. The skills like work without personal loss, good return on investment, training module and its impact on
training, trainer effectiveness and retention of skills taught for longer period of time needs immediate attention as
majority of the employees belonging to all the four categories taken for this study agree in consensus.
CNS of Post-test
The percentage of consensus shown by the four categories of employees while answering the questions on the skills
expected out of them after undergoing the training program. The rating shows the measure of agreement among the
employees since, the more each member within one group can agree well, the higher the consensus.
CNS of Post-test Ranking
All the categories of employees namely, the current and advanced ticket booking clerks, ticket checking staff and the
stationmasters have rated the least for the facilities available in the training institute as 73.18 percent. Among the skills
tested for consensus, the training module and its impact on understanding has been rated the maximum percentage of
81.09.
The minimum is 73.18 percent and the maximum 81.09 percent. Based on the range and Mid-range the cut-off rate is
fixed as 77.14 percent. The cut- off rate would help to segregate, analyze and effectively concentrate the training skills
falling below it.
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Of the sixteen training skills tested for its consensus, seven skills needs attention since it falls below the cut-off 77.14
percent. The skills like facilities provided in the center for training, work without personal loss, good return on
investment, classroom presentation of the rules by the trainers, trainer effectiveness and retention of skills taught for
longer period of time needs immediate attention as majority of the employees belonging to all the four categories taken
for this study agree in consensus
CNS of Field Test
The CNS algorithm shows the percentage of consensus shown by the four categories of employees while answering the
questions on the skills experienced by them after undergoing the training program at their work spot. The rating shows
the measure of agreement among the employees. The more each member within one group can agree well, the higher
the consensus
CNS of the Field Test Ranking
All the categories of employees namely, the current and advanced ticket booking clerks, ticket checking staff and the
stationmasters have rated the least for the relevancy of rules taught in the training institute and the practical applicability
of the same in the work place as 44.31 percent. Among the skills tested for consensus, the retention of skills taught and
the applicability of the rules taught has been rated the maximum percentage of 76.54.
The minimum is 44.31 percent and maximum 76.54 percent. Based on the range and Mid-range the cut-off rate is fixed
as 60.43 percent. The cut- off rate would help to segregate, analyze and effectively concentrate the training skills falling
below it.
Of the twelve training skills tested for its consensus, three skills needs attention since it falls below the cut-off 60.43
percent. The skills like relevancy of rules taught in the training program and their practical applicability, good return on
the investment made by the Railway administration and the impact of the training module in its applicability after
training in the field needs immediate attention as majority of the employees belonging to all the four categories taken for
this study agree in consensus.
Pre-CNS below cut off
The CNS algorithm explains the training skills likely to fall below the cut-off range of 76.05 percent. All categories of
employees chosen for the study are called as front line service staff as they directly serve the customers of Indian
railway transportation sector face to face. They have perceptions about the training program that they may not be in a
position to work in their work spot without personal financial loss as these categories of people are engaged in issue of
tickets to the journey performing passengers by collecting money in return.
Post-CNS below cut off Rate
The CNS algorithm explains about the skills falling below the cut-off level of consensus. All the four categories of staff
rated the facilities available in the center as inadequate and emphasize the need for its improvement. The rules taught
required to be presented in a better way, thrust should be given for improving the teaching methodologies, which would
in turn improve the trainer effectiveness. The rules taught should have impact on the practical applicability in the
fieldwork.
Field-CNS below cut off
The CNS algorithm explains the skills requiring immediate attention in the work spot of the field staff of Railways.
There is no relevancy found between the rules taught in the training center and its practical applicability in the field.
There is also an immediate requirement to revamp the training module to suit the employees to apply what they learn
practically in the field. The railway administration may not be able reap the return on investment made on training the
staff and placing them to work in the front line service area.
Point of Incidence in Pre and Post Tests
The CNS algorithm shows that the area requiring utmost attention with respect to the consensus test analysis between
the pre and posttests four hypotheses need improvement. Skills like teaching methodology, trainer effectiveness in
inculcating the rules and regulations to the employees need further improvement.
Point of Incidence in Pre Test only
It is found that in the test conducted prior to the training the four categories of employees chosen for this study aspired
that the training module should be appropriate enough to cater to the understanding capacity of the individual employees
Point of Incidence in Post Test only
It is found that three hypotheses in the posttest required attention. The immediate concern should be for enhancing
presentation of rules in a simple way as to reach the employees more effectively. The facilities available in the training
institute have to be revamped to help various categories of employees to have a better stay. All the four categories of
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employees considered for this study rated in consensus about the need for long-term retention of the skills learned at the
training institute, which would help in achieving the set target of the organization.
Point of Incidence in Field Test only
It is found that three hypotheses need to be addressed .All the four categories of employees agree that there is no
relevancy of rules taught and the applicability of the same in the field. The training module should be appropriately
modified as to suit to the real time applicability in the work place. The consensus test revealed the fact that only in 58
percent employees there is return on investments on the efforts taken by the Railway administration.
CONCLUSION
The analysis brought out the findings that there is impact of training on the employees. The results also proved that the training
has long-term impact on employees in remembering the skills learnt. The Consensus scale identified the areas to be strengthened
in the future programs. It concludes that though the training programs today achieved the results, few segments of employees are
not fully reached due to the influence of decay. The training may be given to each segment in separate centers to avoid decaying
impact.
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A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON ORGANIZATIONAL COMPETENCIES
AT SELECTED COMMERCIAL BANKS IN ETHIOPIA
Dr. Ponduri SB11 Yimer Ayalew Ahmed12
ABSTRACT
The research has analyzed the organizational competencies in the case of selected banks in Dessie city (Wegagen Bank, and
Awash International Bank). The specific objectives of the o explore organizational competencies of each branch bank. To
achieve the objective of the study, both primary and secondary data sources were used. Primary data is collected through
questionnaire and interview. Both open ended and close-ended questions are employed to gather data from employees of the
bank. Furthermore, semi structured interview is conducted to gather data from general managers of the stated banks.
Secondary data is collected from, annual reports and other unpublished materials of the banks. Descriptive statistical tools are
used to analyze both primary and secondary data. Results show variety of resources, variety skills indifferent functional areas
and communication means were used for organizational competencies development and implementation and organizational
competencies vary based on the resources and skills of the banks. Technology was identified as organizational competency of
Wegagen Bank. Awash International Bank identified team supported standardized service as its competency. Finally, based on
the findings of the study, possible recommendations were given. These include developing strategies that incorporate
organizational competencies, allocation of resources, and continuous improvement of employee skills, communicating
organizational competencies between members.
KEYWORDS
Resources, Skills, Organizational Competencies, Communications, Employee Skills etc.
INTRODUCTION
The successes and failure of every economy depends on its financial systems. Financial system of an economy comprises of
financial markets. Financial market is place money and other allied forms of money is being bought or sold. Banks are considered
as one of the best market places for financial markets. Banks are the financial institutions preserve money in the form of deposits
and lend money as loans and advances. Primarily banks engage on accepting deposits and lending loans. In addition to the
banking activities, the banks are also provide various investment opportunities and insurance products. The major banking
functions can be classified as monetary authorities by the central bank of the country and Depository Credit Intermediation.
Central bank is involved in managing Nation's money, International reserves, holds reserve deposits of different domestic banks
and issues the dollars depending on the requirements of foreign currency (Gebreselassie, 2013). On the other hand, the credit
intermediation delivers banking services to customers and businesses like securing the money of depositors and lending money
(Bureau of Labor and Statistics, 2010). Globally, the banking business is transformed after the liberalization of several economies
in the world. These changes made other economies also to change though they are not the part of globalization. The major forces
like embrace the deregulation of financial services at the National level, technological innovation, prevailing international
competition, vital changes in companies behavior, growing disintermediation and increased focus on shareholder worth.
According to the monetary and economic department documents (MED, 2001) the banking sector in central Europe and Latin
America has additionally been transformed as results of privatization of state-owned banks that had dominated their banking
systems in the past (Gebreselassie, 2013). In Africa, the banking sector in Middle East and Northern Africa Region are among the
biggest and deepest in the developing world. Competition in the banking business is mostly with regard to lower prices for
banking products, greater bank efficiency and increased access to finance. Differences in banking sector, competition between
Middle East and Northern Africa and other regions result from a worse credit information environment, strict regulations and
practices governing bank entry. Therefore, measures to promote competition in Middle East and Northern Africa should focus on
making banking sectors in the more contestable, increasing the scope, access, and quality of credit information among banks
(Diego et al., 2010). Ethiopian banking is booming. Financial results for the 2010 fiscal year show an industry benefited from high
growth, high profits, and high dividends. Even in the challenging environment, all major areas of banking operations like
collecting deposits, providing loans, and foreign exchange dealing showed growth of more than 20 percent. Profits increased up to
45% and shareholders (at banks open for more than a year) received an average return of 27% on their investments. Although
there is strong growth, notable variations among banks in terms of their aggregate size, revenue sources, relative profitability, loan
concentration, customer focus, and operational efficiency. The ranking of banks’ performance on these financial measures using
annual reports have just become available for all 12 of Ethiopia’s private banks viz., Abyssinia, Awash, Berhan, Bunna, CBO,
Dashen, Lion, NIB, OIB, United, Wegagen, and Zemen (Access Capital, 2010). However, firms in this volatile environment can
11Associate Professor, Department of Management Studies, College of Business and Economics, Wollo University, Ethiopia,
[email protected] 12Head of Department & Lecturer, Department of Management, College of Business and Economics, Wollo University, Ethiopia,
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base their competition on internal capabilities to fit with the environment and achieve superior performance than their competitors.
Strategy or practice to manage change in banking business is critical in allowing the bank to best exploit its competencies relative
to opportunities in the external environment and to neutralize the threats. In other words, the right strategy or practice is needed
for improving performance (Rizal, 2008, cited by Gebreselassie, 2013). Business strategy is highly associated with crafting and
maintaining a profitable fit between the commercial venture and its environment. SWOT analysis- the identification and
assessment of strength, weakness, opportunity and threats is intended to yield strategic insights.
Firm’s internal environment, in terms of resources and capabilities, might offer the premise for a strategy or practice and
ultimately influence the firm’s performance (Hitt and Ireland, 1986). Therefore, the firm due to the unpredictability of the
marketplace requires an emphasis on the internal resources and capabilities or organizational competencies that react to
environment. These internal capabilities would help banks to better respond to either external or internal challenges. The resource-
based view says that competitive behavior of the firm is not the result of the firm is positioning within a wider environment, but
certain distinctive and intrinsic features of the firm itself. The resource-based view shifts the emphasis from the competitive
environment of firms to the resources that firms have developed to compete in that environment (Miller and Shamsie, 1996).
Organizational competencies should contribute considerably to the value of the product if they allow a firm to create a customer
benefit. A product with good value should add to customer satisfaction. Investing in organizational competencies for their
development is important. Resources would be allocated to their development. The rent generating capabilities of these
competencies would need to be measured. (Prahalad and Hamel, 1990).The development and use of organizational competencies
to create competitive advantage is being used more widely in the banking industry. Organizational competencies are created by
bundling employee skills, organizational assets, technologies, and processes allowing a company to offer a particular benefit to
customers in a manner superior to their competitors.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Organizational competencies are groups of variables in institutions such as special skills, expertise, processes, technologies,
knowledge and many more. Business firms can gain long-term development and experiences by utilizing these kinds of variables
and this long-term experience creates customer value because they are considered by customers to be unique and distinguishable.
This value helps to protect business organizations from competitors and it is difficult for competitors to access and imitate this
value (Ahmed, 2010, Gebreselassie, 2013).
Organizations can gain and sustain competitive advantage both externally and internally. The external view focuses on the
environment and competitive forces. The main target in such cases is how organizations gain a competitive advantage within the
industry of competition with their ability of identifying threats and opportunities within the industry, competitors and the general
environment. Studies emphasize on either a certain skill giving competitive advantage to a firm or the linkages among series of
skills or activities in jointly creating competitive advantage (Ulrich et al., 1991).
According to Barney (2011), Gant (1991), Gebreselassie (2013) resource-based view emphasizes the internal capabilities of the
organization in formulating strategies to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage in its markets and industries. The
organization is considered to have a bundle of resources and capabilities those can be configured to provide with competitive
advantage, then its perspective become inside-out perspective. That is, its internal capabilities determine the strategic choices it
makes in competing in its external environment. An organization’s capabilities may allow it to create new markets and add value
for the consumer. The ability to develop a sustained competitive advantage today is increasingly rare. A competitive advantage
laboriously achieved can be easily lost. Organizations can sustain a competitive advantage only so long as the services they
deliver and the manner in which they deliver them have attributes that correspond to the key buying criteria of a substantial
number of customers. Sustained competitive advantage is the result of an enduring value differential between the products or
services of one organization and those of its competitors in the minds of customers (Jack et al., 1998).
Liu et al (2010) tried to study the resource-based performance determinants for commercial banks in Tanzania and they found risk
management capability, managerial efficiency, service delivery capability, innovation capability and market-sensing capability as
important resources of the commercial banks. Up to the knowledge of the researcher there is no research conducted on
commercial banks organizational competencies on the study area. Therefore, this research tried to assess and explore
organizational competencies based on Resource Based View (RBV) framework of the selected banks in Dessie city (Awash
International Bank Dessie branch, and Wagon Bank Dessie branch).
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
The general objective of study is to assess organizational competencies based on Resource Based View (RBV) framework.
To assess the organizational competencies in the selected banks.
To explore and compare the organizational competencies of each branch banks.
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SCOPE OF STUDY
The scope of this study delimited to Dessie city. For conducting a research in all service industries is not an easy task; it requires
much money, time, and effort the study assess only from internal resource based view. The result of the study is helpful for
corporate managers to develop strategies that incorporate their competencies and take the necessary measure to overcome the
problems by looking at the finding and recommendations given by this study and It contributes to other managers both in service
and manufacturing sectors to identify and develop their competencies and become competent in the business market.
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
For this study, the researchers used both qualitative and quantitative data. The researchers employed both primary and secondary
data sources. Primary data is collected directly from General Managers and employees of the bank-using questionnaire and
secondary data has collected from various articles of the same topic, books, magazines of the banks and other published
information in the form of articles, research papers, and internet. Also the information provided by each branch bank. Data has
collected from the banks’ any additional data they thought addressed their Organizational competencies. This research relies on
both quantitative and qualitative type of research approach. Such research design is a good way of approaching issues in the study
as it enabled to counteract and triangulate evidences in both quantitative and qualitative research types. Because of the limited
number of employees in each bank branch (Wegagen Bank dessie branch, and Awash International Bank Dessie branch) totally 80
employees are the target population of the study. Those who are not relevant for the study like cleaners, messengers, and guards
are not considered as target respondents because they are not involved in the core banking activities. Both qualitative and
quantitative methods of data analysis techniques are employed.
In Qualitative Data Analysis data gathered from interviews, open-ended questions, and non-financial materials are analyzed
qualitatively and also in Quantitative Data Analysis Questionnaire are prepared to gather data on which competencies banks reside
and what assets, technologies and skills are used to develop and implement these competencies. Descriptive analytical tools like
percentages, means, and standard deviation are used to analyze quantitative data. The means for each branch in each competency
are compared using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). In a study One-way ANOVA is used if there is only one factor and to
investigate the differences amongst its various categories having numerous possible values. The results are examined to show
which bank has significantly higher means on their organizational competencies and skills. The data is tabulated by using tables.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table-1: Resources for Developing and Implementing Organizational Competencies
Wegagen Bank Awash Bank
Mean Std. Deviation Mean Std. Deviation
Financial Resources 4.44 0.64 4.30 0.98
Technology 4.41 0.63 3.70 1.34
Adequate human Resource 4.15 0.71 3.80 1.01
Skilled Human Resource 4.07 0.73 3.70 0.923
Harmonic R/ship among employees 3.44 1.12 3.80 1.50
Good organizational image 4.00 1.14 3.80 0.95
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-1 shows the availability of bank resources that use for developing and implementing organizational competencies. In
Wegagen Bank resources availability to the development and implementation of its organizational competencies look financial
resources having a mean of 4.44 with a std. deviation of 0.64, technological resources having a mean of 4.41 with a standard 3.8
deviation of 0.063, adequate human resource having a mean of 4.15 with a standard deviation of 0.72, skilled human resource
having a mean of 4.07 with a std. deviation of 0.73, organizational image which is the intangible resource of the bank having a
mean of 4.00 with a std. deviation of 1.14, and harmonic relationship among employees of the bank having a mean of 3.44 with a
std. Deviation of 1.12. This indicates the intangible resources organizational image and harmonic relationship among employees,
even though they have above average mean, respondents were highly deviated by 1.14 and 1.12 respectively. Villalonga (2003)
intangibles resources can play an effective role in sustaining a firm’s competitive advantage.
The interview with the general manager of Wegagen Bank Mekelle branch supported that the bank is emphasizing more on
introducing new banking technologies to deliver technologically supported banking service to the customer. Currently, Wegagen
Bank has introduced networked banking system, which they called Smart banking and Agar Visa Card, which helps customers of
the bank withdraw their money from their account within short period. The manager pointed that in the networked banking service
there is a problem which is directly associated with telecommunication networks and have an impact on the service delivery of the
bank because there is a delay when the network fails.
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The resource availability in Awash International Bank is also depicted in Table 4.5 financial resources having a mean of 4.30 with
a std. deviation of 0.98, technological resources having a mean of 3.70 with a standard deviation of 1.34, adequate human resource
having a mean of 3.80 with a standard deviation of 1.00, skilled human resource having a mean of 3.70 with a std. deviation of
0.92, organizational image which is the intangible resource o the bank having a mean of 3.80 with a std. deviation of 0.95, and
harmonic relationship among employees of the bank having a mean of 3.8 with a std. deviation of 1.50. However, resources have
above average means in Awash International Bank, the high std. deviation for technological resources and harmonic relationship
among employees indicates that respondents were not in the same stand for the availability of such resources. The mean results
also indicate respondents were not fully in agreement because they respond below ‘agree’ (4) except for financial resources
availability. The interview with the general manager of Awash International Bank supported the above Survey result and with
regard to the technological resource, the bank has currently introduced networked banking system called Branch power system but
it has to introduce more banking technologies. Generally, as the Survey result and the discussion with the general managers of the
banks indicated the resource allocation for Wegagen Bank is relatively better than the two banks. Wegagen Bank prepares its
annual plan and requests budget from the center (headquarter) for the resources it needs to perform its annual plan. The budget
request is critically evaluated at the head office level, the head office deploys human resources, and other material resources
requested. The same is true for Awash International Bank according to Grant (1991) intangible resources and people based skills
are the most strategically important resources for a firm. The remarkable turn round in the performance of Walt Disney Company
between 1985 and 1987 owed much to the exploitation of Disney’s considerable and unique assets. Therefore, the banks should
turn their face to their intangible resources equally as to that of the tangible resources.
Table-2: Assets and Other Items to Develop and Implement Organizational Competencies
Wegagen Bank Awash Bank
Item Mean Std. Deviation Mean Std. Deviation
Computers 4.59 .844 4.90 .308
Teller machine 3.74 1.607 2.80 1.735
Visa card 4.48 .509 2.10 1.553
Networked system 4.67 .620 4.05 1.146
Adequate human resource 4.44 .892 4.60 .470
Customer focus group 4.78 .424 4.30 .801
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-2 shows the degree of importance of the bank assets and other item that assist the development and implementation of the
banks’ competencies. In wegegen bank customer focus group assist development and implementation of competencies having a
mean of 4.78 with a std. deviation of 0.42, financial resource having a mean of 4.70 with a std. deviation of 0.54, net worked
banking system having a mean of 4.67 with a std. Deviation of 0.62, computers having a mean of 4.59 with a std. deviation of
0.84, visa card having a mean of 4.48 with a std. deviation of 0.51, adequate human resources having a mean of 4.44 with a std.
Deviation of 0.89, trainings having a mean of 4.19 with a std. deviation of 1.07, comment cards having a mean of 4.00 with a std.
deviation of 1.00, and teller machine having a mean of 3.74 with a std. deviation of 1.61. These show respondents were agreed on
the overall importance of the above resources with more emphasis of technological aspects in organizational competency
development and implementation. Customer focus group and financial assets are also important. In Awash International Bank,
computers assist the development and implementation of its competencies having a mean of 4.90 with a std. Deviation of 0.31,
adequate human resource having a mean of 4.60 with a std. deviation of 0.47, financial resources Having a mean of 4.55 with a
standard deviation of 0.75, trainings having a mean of 4.50 with a std. deviation of 0.68, customer focus groups having a mean of
4.30 with a std. deviation of 0.80, net worked banking system having a mean of 4.05 with a std. deviation of 1.04, This indicates
there is high deviation on respondents of Awash International Bank on net worked banking system in development and
implementation of organizational competencies. Results from the interview with the general manager of the bank shows human
resource were treated as important resources of the bank and different promotional mechanisms like salary increments, priority for
internal vacancy, additional two-month salary at the end of the year and two step increment provision and bonuses were used.
Employees of the bank were getting training twice a year and there was rotational work every three months supported with
teamwork. There was also consequent contact with prominent customers of the bank and their comments were important input for
improving their service delivery. Suggestion box were also evaluated every month. All these assets were important for their
organizational competencies development and implementation.
ORGANIZATIONAL COMPETENCIES
According to Jehad and Faleh (2009), organizational competencies are particular strengths relative to other organizations in the
industry, which provide the fundamental basis for the provision of benefit. Organizational competencies are the collective learning
in organizations, and involve how to coordinate diverse production skills and integrate multiple streams of technologies. It is
communication, an involvement and a deep commitment to working across organizational boundaries.
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ANOVA results that show the particular strength of branch banks’ competencies relative to other branches are presented in Table
3 and Table 4 for the two branch banks.
Table-3: Organizational Competencies Significantly Higher in Wegagen Bank Dessie Branch
Description Banks Banks Mean Mean Sig
We focus on technology Wegagen Bank Awash Bank 4.74 4.15 0.019
Detailed procedure, standard and
systems in service delivery
Wegagen Bank Awash Bank 4.33 3.65 0.016
We focuses on devising shorter
process to render the service
Wegagen Bank Awash Bank 4.19 3.25 0.001
Sources: Authors Compilation
Respondents in Wegagen Bank Dessie branch rated technology significantly higher than Awash International Bank dessie branch
with a mean of 4.74, detailed procedures, standards and system in service delivery rated significantly higher in Wegagen Bank
than Awash International Bank with a mean of 4.33. The manager also supported the idea of organizational competencies of the
bank by giving special emphasis to technology. The data from secondary sources, the mission statement of the bank boldly shows
“providing wide range of banking service supported with up to date IT solutions”.
As cited by Rasiah (2010) e-banking provides customers with an across-the-board range of financial benefits like lower
transaction handling fees, higher bank deposit rates, chances to acquire additional credit card incentive points, and it allows for
customers to save time by carrying on their transactions quickly without having to consume time, waiting in line up, to use paper
documents, and allows customers with instantly accessible to their selective bank account information. Wegagen Bank has started
Payment Card services to provide excellent services, keep side by side with the developing global banking technology and satisfy
the increasing needs and wants of world class banking products. As a result, the bank has started issuance of Agar Visa Electron,
Visa’s leading debit product line, which is accepted at the Bank’s ATM network across the country. With Agar Visa card, one
could do a host of various banking activities 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
The bank also was focusing on devising detailed procedures, standards and systems in service delivery to provide fast service to
its customers. Interview results also confirm that detailed manuals, which show what criteria, should be fulfilled by the customer
to get service from the bank were prepared and provided to each employee and written materials that show what one customer
should fulfill to get the banking service were prepared and provided to customers to give fast service. This shows that even though
Wegagen Bank identified its organizational competency on delivering technologically supported banking service, this indicates
that Wegagen Bank is not highly utilizing its technology and managing its expenses and the bank made little effort to create
customer awareness to use Agar Visa Card thereby increase deposits.
Table-4: Organizational Competencies Significantly Higher in Awash International Bank
Description Banks Banks Mean Mean sig
Strong devotion to standardized
service delivery
Wegagen Bank Awash Bank 4.70 4.04 0.019
Consistent training programs for
employees on daily operation
Wegagen Bank Awash Bank 4.35 3.54 0.016
We emphasis on culture that
promotes team work
Wegagen Bank Awash Bank 4.55 3.93 0.031
Sources: Authors Compilation
Respondents in Awash International Bank Dessie Branch rated strong devotion to standardized service delivery significantly
higher than Wegagen Bank Dessie branch with a mean of 4.70, and a culture that promotes team work were rated significantly
higher in Awash International Bank than Wegagen Bank with a mean of 4.35, consistent training programs for employees on daily
operation were rated significantly higher in Awash International Bank than Wegagen Bank with a mean of 4.55. The interview
with the general manager of Awash International Bank reveals that, the bank’s competencies were bundled by the term
“delivering team supported standardized service”. Employees of the bank were provided with different training. Every employee
gets training at least twice a year. They also have long aged teamwork culture and employees support each other. Social
ceremonies were celebrated at the end of the year, which strengthens management employee relationships and the relationship
among employees. Different promotions were provided to employees and employees were motivated to fast and standardized
service to customers of the bank. These organized organizational competencies can create delivering quality service that adds
value to the customer and are significantly higher in the bank. The interview with the general manager confirmed that, the bank
identified its competency as delivering standardized service to customers by devising the above-mentioned mechanism stated in
the Survey result.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
At the corporate level, the banks should develop clear strategy that allow them to benefit more from their available
unique resources, skills, and processes in order to improve performance that will lead to achieve competitive advantage.
Wegagen Bank should give due emphasis to the allocation of resources and it should properly integrate them to create
organizational competencies. Its technological resources should be used in a wise and cost efficient manner and
promotional campaigns should be made to create awareness on the customers of the bank. In addition to this, to
minimize the delay of its service Due to some network problems Wegagen Bank should also use manual system like
those of non-networked banks. The bank should also give much emphasis to build its image and strengthen harmonic
relationships among its employees to use them as a source of its competencies.
Awash International Bank should assess their resource allocation properly and they should give emphasis to
technological resources because other competing banks are coming up with technologically supported banking services.
All the two banks should integrate the means by which organizational competencies are communicated among members
because integrated communication helps members to have common understanding on what they should focus up on.
In addition to this, adequate training should be provided for all employees of the banks to develop their skills and
abilities to implement competencies of the banks.
It is suggested that the banks should provide transparent services to the customers. In addition, ensure them that they are
providing the services with tangibility, reliability, empathy, assurance, responsiveness for enhancing the satisfaction
levels of the customers and retain the customers.
CONCLUSIONS
Resources are available in Wegagen Bank to the development and implementation of its organizational competencies. More
emphasis was given in introducing new banking technologies to deliver technologically supported banking service to the
customer. Relatively low emphasis is given to work on organizational image building and creating harmonic relationship among
employees. In Wegagen Bank, managerial skills are low relative to other functional area skills. In Awash International Bank,
customer service officers and support service officers skills are relatively low as compared to the managerial skills; Wegagen
Bank rated technology, detailed procedures, standards and system in service delivery and shorter process to render the service as
organizational competencies of the bank. Mission statement of the bank boldly shows “providing wide range of banking service
supported with up to date IT solutions”. Wegagen Bank has started networked banking and payment card services to provide
excellent service, keep side by side with developing global banking technology and satisfy the increasing needs and wants of
world class banking products. Manuals show what criteria the customer to get service from the bank should fulfill, these were
provided to each employee, and written materials that show what one customer should fulfill to get the banking service were
prepared and provided to customers to give fast service. In Awash International Bank, strong devotion to standardized service,
culture that promotes teamwork and consistent training programs for employees on daily operations was identified as
organizational competencies of the bank. The interview with the general manager of Awash International Bank reveals that, the
bank’s organizational competency bundled by the term “delivering team supported standardized service”.
LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
The current research a Comparative study on Organizational Competencies at Selected Commercial Banks in Ethiopia is limited
to Dessie city branches of the selected banks. Limited number of employees in each bank branch is taken for the study. This is not
applicable to the entire country and all bank branches of Ethiopian country. The results derived from this study are also applicable
only to the selected banks. This cannot be inference to all the service sector organizations like banks. Conducting this type of
research is little bit expensive in terms of money and time. This study is not even applicable to other banks of the country and
other service sector industries.
REFERENCES
1. Ahmed, E. (2010). Core Competencies of Micro Businesses as Sources of Competitive Advantage: An Exploratory
Study of Street Food Vending (MBA Thesis). Asian Institute of Technology.
2. Barney, J. A. (1986). Organizational Culture: Can It Be A Source of Sustained Competitive Advantage? Academy of
Management Journal, 11(3), 656-665.
3. Barney, J. A. (1991). Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage. Journal of Management, 17(1), 99-120.
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4. Barney, J. B. (2001). Is the resource-based view a useful perspective for strategic management research? Yes. Academy
of Management Review, 26(1), 41-56.
5. Bharadwaj, S. G., Varadarajan, P. R., & Fahy, J. (1993). Sustainable Competitive Advantage in Service Industries: A
Concept Model and Research Propositions. Journal of Marketing, 57, 83-99.
6. Christensen, C. (1965). Business Policy: Text and Cases. Irwin: Homewood
7. Collis, D. J. (1994). Research Note: How Valuable Are Organizational Capabilities? Strategic Management Journal,
15, 143-152.
8. Coyne, K. P. (1985). Sustainable competitive advantage what it is, what it isn’t. Business Horizons, 29, 54-61
9. Eisenhardt, K. M., & Martin, J. A. (2000). Dynamic capabilities: What are they? Strategic Management Journal, 21.
10. Glenn, M. (1988). Excess earnings, competitive advantage, and goodwill value. Journal of Small Business
Management, 26.
11. Helfat, C., & Peteraf, M. (2003). The dynamic resource-based view: capability lifecycles. Strategic Management
Journal, 24, 10
12. Himanshu, K. Shee. (2010). Antecedents to Firm Competitiveness: Development of a Conceptual Framework and
Future Research Directions. Victoria University
13. Ian, S. Hayes. (2011). Developing a Core-Competence Based Strategy. Clarity consulting Inc.
14. Jack, D, Peter, M., Gintei, & Linda, E. Swayne. (1998). Competitive advantage and internal organizational assessment.
Academy of Management Executive, 12(3), 6-16
15. Jehad, S., & Faleh. (2009). The Impact of Core Competencies on Competitive Advantage: Strategic Challenge.
International Bulletin of Business Administration.
16. Retrieved from http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation
17. Retrieved from https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20130711183606AAZhBPE
18. Retrieved from http://ventures.powweb.com/business_guide/mgmt_stategic_resource-based.html
19. Retrieved from http://aurino.com/wordpress/it/core-competency
20. Retrieved from http://isma.info/uploads/files/005-core-competence-a-competitive-base-for-organizational-success.pdf
*****
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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Dr. Monika Bansal13 Dr. Nisha Rana14
ABSTRACT
Intelligence comes as a result of two causes viz.: Cognition and Emotion. The cognitive scientists held the view that
intelligence is mere processing of fact, the emotions have no role to play in intelligence. However, with the changing times,
the researchers have begun recognizing and realizing the significance of feeling while thinking. Hence, emerged the domain of
Emotional Intelligence. Emotional intelligence (80%) and Cognitive intelligence (20%) are not opposing competencies, as in
reality, both have equally crucial role to play in human life. Since 80% of success in our lives depends on EI it is essential for
the individuals to know their EI level which in turn help them in choosing the right career and right organization to work with.
As well it helps the organization to have Competitive edge over others by having people of good quality to gel with each other
to work together best as a team. A study has been conducted to find the level of emotional intelligence among University
students in Delhi, India. Bhattacharya Instrument of Emotional Intelligence (BEIS-In) was administered on the sample.
KEYWORDS
Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Quotient, Interpersonal Skill, Interpersonal Conflict, Emotional Facilitation etc.
INTRODUCTION
In present day workplaces, it is not merely technical competence and intelligence, which determines one’s success; it is the
“people skills” or emotional intelligence (EI) that seems to matter more. Successful people in the workplace have both cognitive
intelligence (Intelligence Quotient) and emotional skills (Emotional Quotient). As one progress up the higher echelons of
organizational structure, personal qualities become essential ingredients for achievement of excellence at work. At any point of
time, our evaluation on job is in terms of these human abilities and personal qualities. The precise understanding that has evolved
for these human talents is referred to as emotional intelligence. Research shows that emotional intelligence is responsible for as
much as 80% of success in our lives. More and more organizations now see “Emotional Intelligence” as a vital ingredient of their
management philosophy. True competitive edge of an organization is determined by quality of its people- how well they gel with
each other to work together best as a team.
The major area of application of emotional intelligence may be seen in the field of education. Keeping this in view, the
relationship between emotional intelligence and education can be looked at from the perspective of development of an integrated
sense of identity (self) to become effective learners and doers in the classroom situations, as well as apply some of the lessons
learnt therein, in real life situations.
EI theory suggests that emotionally intelligent individuals who work well with others will be the most valued and sought-after
employees because they elevate the group’s or organization’s collective emotional intelligence. Within the past decade, EI has
emerged as an indicator of career success, and the theory has found increased use in organizations like American Express, AT&T,
Ford, Johnson &Johnson etc. for training and development.
It is believed that emotional intelligence plays a very important role in leadership, work life and career development. IQ predicts
only about 20 percent of career successes, which leave the remaining 80 percent to other factors such as emotional intelligence
(Pool, 1997). Emotional Intelligence does not respect the gender. The popular belief is that, women are not more emotionally
intelligent than men. They are, however, emotionally intelligent in different ways. An analysis of emotional Intelligence was
found in thousands of men and women, which showed that women, on average, are more aware of their emotions, show more
empathy, and are more adept interpersonally. Men, on the other hand, are more self-confident, optimistic, and adaptable. It was
found that men are also able to handle stress better than women. In general, however, far more similarities exist than differences.
Some men are empathetic as the most interpersonally sensible women are, while some women are just as able to withstand stress
as the most emotionally resilient men. After taking into account overall ratings for men and women, the strengths and weaknesses
average out, so it is a competition between both sexes. Findings of studies reported by King (1999), Sutarso (1999), Wing and
Love (2001) and Singh (2002) revealed that females have higher emotional intelligence than that of males. Since females tend to
be more emotional and intimate in relationships as compared to males, so their emotional intelligence ought to be higher than that
of males. Society is responsible for this, which socializes the two genders differently as has been found in studies by Duckelt and
Raffalli (1989), and Sandhu and Mehrotra (1999). Moreover, higher emotional intelligence among girls can also be explained in
terms of some of their personality characteristics. Similar findings were reported in studies by Tapia (1999) and Dunn (2002).
They observed that girls score higher with regard to empathy, social responsibilities and interpersonal relationships than boys.
13Assistant Professor, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India, [email protected] 14Associate Professor, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India, [email protected]
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More sensitivity was found towards their relationships with parents, friends and siblings. All these traits help them to acquire
more emotional intelligence as compared to boys. This study is only a stepping-stone in the field of emotional intelligence. A
study based on integrative model of Petrides and Furnham’s (2001) examined the relationships between trait EI and work related
constructs. Gender specific perspective was adopted in order to take into account existing gender differences in work related
variables as well as in perception of EI (Furnham, 1994; Petrides, Furnham and Martin, 2004).Male and female data has been
merged by many empirical studies even though there are reasons to believe that systematic differences in the ways in which the
two genders experience the workplace and its demand exist (Roxburgh, 1996).
DATA SOURCE, SAMPLE DESIGN AND MEASURES
The present research work is an empirical one based on both primary and secondary data. The theory is developed from secondary
sources of information and a thorough study of various academic works in the field has been attempted. Primary data were
collected with the help of a standard questionnaire. T-test is applied to test the significance of difference of Emotional Intelligence
between male and female students. This study was conducted among the final year graduates and postgraduates in University of
Delhi. A total of 224 (138 Male and 86 female) samples was collected from the population under study. The sample constitutes 94
under graduates and 130 postgraduates.
The main objective of the research is:
To examine the level of emotional intelligence through different dimensions of EI on the under graduate and post
graduate students of University of Delhi;
To study the relationship between emotional intelligence with respect to their gender.
INSTRUMENT
This study used the instrument developed by Bhattacharya (2003), the Bhattacharya Instrument of Emotional Intelligence (BEIS-
In). Bhattacharya (2003) has attempted to address the significance of culture in emotional intelligence; Indian cultural dimensions
and their implication on managerial effectiveness; and the rationale for developing an emotional intelligence scale in India. The
scale is a 40-item scale evolved the five factors of emotional intelligence like appraisal of negative emotions, appraisal of positive
emotions, interpersonal conflict and difficulty, interpersonal skill and flexibility, & emotional facilitation and goal orientation.
FINDINGS
Table-1 depicts the interpretation of score of each of the five factors of Emotional Intelligence. For each parameter, there is a
maximum and minimum score and the actual score along with their respective interpretations.
Table-1: Level of Emotional Intelligence of Under Graduate & Post Graduate Students
Factor Max. & Min. Score Actual Score Percentile of Students Interpretation
Appraisal of negative
emotions
Max. Score 65
Min. Score 13
More than 49
36-49
26-36
13-26
More than 75%
55-75%
40-55%
20-40%
Extremely High
High
Average
Below Average
Appraisal of positive
emotions
Max. Score 50
Min. Score 10
More than 38
28-38
20-28
10-20
More than 75%
55-75%
40-55%
20-40%
Extremely High
High
Average
Below Average
Interpersonal conflict &
difficulty
Max. Score 30
Min. Score 6
More than 23
17-23
12-17
6-12
More than 75%
55-75%
40-55%
20-40%
Extremely High
High
Average
Below Average
Interpersonal skill and
flexibility
Max. Score 30
Min. Score 6
More than 23
17-23
12-17
6-12
More than 75%
55-75%
40-55%
20-40%
Extremely High
High
Average
Below Average
Emotional facilitation
and goal
orientation
Max. Score 25
Min. Score 5
More than 19
14-19
10-14
5-10
More than 75%
55-75%
40-55%
20-40%
Extremely High
High
Average
Below Average
Sources: Authors Compilation
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Table-2 depicts that a significant difference was found between responses of male and female students regarding Appraisal of
Negative Emotions at 1% level of significance. It is also extracted that significant difference was found between responses of
male and female regarding Inter personal Skill & Flexibility at 5% level of significance. Whereas in case of other factors no
significant differences has been found between the gender and emotional intelligence of students.
Table-2: Gender Wise Comparison of Emotional Intelligence
S. No. Variable Mean
(Male)
Mean
(Female)
Standard
Deviation
(Male)
Standard
Deviation
(Female)
t-value
Sig.
Value
1 Appraisal of Negative Emotions 4.24 4.33 0.56 0.41 2.377** 0.006
2 Appraisal of Positive Emotions 4.25 4.25 0.46 0.48 0.861 0.390
3 Inter personal Conflict & Difficulty 4.21 4.18 0.45 0.51 1.724 0.086
4 Inter personal Skill & Flexibility 4.09 4.15 0.80 0.71 2.268* 0.024
5 Emotional Facilitation & Goal
Oriented ness 3.89 3.90 0.76 0.74 0.845 0.399
Note: **significant at 0.01 level
*significant at 0.05 level
Sources: Authors Compilation
CONCLUSION AND LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
The ultimate aim of any student after completing their course is to join a company or to start his own company. For this, s/he
needs both cognitive intelligence and emotional intelligence. Cognitive intelligence is imparted to the student through the
curriculum, which he studies as well as additional coaching, provided the institutes.
The organizations, while recruit students for a post, test the skill through their own competitive tests, group discussions and
personal interviews. Even if the recruiter finds the person not suitable and needs to be given training on a particular skill s/he may
be given the requisite training by the employer during the probation period (i.e. varies from six to twelve months) itself. However,
as far as Emotional intelligence is considered only very few institutes have courses on emotional intelligence and only very few
companies are measuring the EQ of the prospective employee. So most of the recruiters find it very difficult to select a right
candidate for the post. Even if they feel that the skill can be imparted to them after recruitment, they (the employer) lack the right
personnel to train the candidate on emotional intelligence.
It was found that the EI scores are high for both undergraduate and post graduate students of University of Delhi but there exists a
difference among male and female students on two factors of Emotional Intelligence as discussed above. This implies that the
corporate can give just a little more training to male recruitee, if they wish and there is no need for them to provide in-depth
training to improve the emotional intelligence of the recruitee.
A study about the gender differences on emotional intelligence showed that there is a significant difference between men and
women on some subscales of emotional intelligence i.e. Assertiveness, Independence, Stress Tolerance and Impulse Control
(Kaneez, 2006). The findings revealed that there is a significant difference between the mean scores of the men and women. It
means that men show more assertiveness, self-recognition about himself show more independence and management according to
the situations than the women. Independence impulsive assertiveness is usually observed in men. One of the reasons for this is that
men are a powerful member in our society.
The present study has certain limitations that need to be taken into account when considering the study and its contributions. Since
the study covers only students of University of Delhi hence cannot be generalized. This study merely focused on the level of
Emotional Intelligence and ignored the intervening factors.
REFERENCES
1. Duckelt, E., & M., Raffalli. (1989). Taking care, maintaining the self and the home in adolescents. J. Youth and
Adolescence, 18(6), 549.
2. Dunn, P. (2002). The impact of starting a new venture on the entrepreneur and their family: Expectations, reality, and
willingness to start again. In Association for Small Business and Entrepreneurship 2002 Annual Conference.
3. Furnham, A. (1994). Personality at work. London: Routledge.
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4. Kaneez, U. (2006). Emotional Intelligence among the Individual with Depression and without Depression. A
Comparative Study (Unpublished M.Sc. Dissertation). Islamabad. Quaid-e-Azam Univ.: Nat. Instt. Psychol.
5. King, M. (1999). Measurement of differences in emotional intelligence of preservice educational leadership students
and practicing administrators as measured by the multifactor emotional intelligence scale. Dissert. Abst. Int., 60(3), 606.
6. Petrides, K. V., & A., Furnham. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric investigation with reference to
established trait taxonomies. Europ. J. of Personality, 15, 425-448.
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8. Pool, C. R. (1997). Up with emotional health. Educational Leadership, 54, 12-14.
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Social Behavior, 37, 265-277.
10. Sandhu, P., & N., Mehrotra. (1999). Time pattern of female students with special reference to leisure time activities.
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13. Tapia, M. L. (1999). A study of the relationships of the emotional intelligence inventory (intelligence tests). Dissert.
Abst. Int.
14. Wing, E., & G., D. Love. (2001). Elective Affinities and Uninvited Agonies: Mapping Emotions With Significant
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*****
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BECOMING RAW TO READY: IMPORTANCE OF DEVELOPING SOFT SKILL
IN SUCCEEDING TODAY’S CORPORATE WORLD
Dr. Deepshikha Srivastava15 Ritesh Srivastava16
ABSTRACT
In today’s world, India is charging ahead in terms of development and technical growth and there is a steady increase in the
proportion of the workforce in the age group of 15–59 years. The country is now making headway in being equipped to meet
the growing demands of the world and can, in the future, become a center for outsourcing of skilled workforce. With the rise
in the number and quality of the educational institutions of our country, the workforce produced faces a challenge from the
lack of opportunities for employability.
Every year over three million graduates and postgraduates are added to the Indian workforce according to NASSCOM.
However, only 25% of technical graduates and 10 – 15% of other graduates are considered actually employable. In today’s
scenario, where the survival of the fittest is the criteria, it has become unavoidable to sharpen one’s technical skills, and more
importantly one’s soft skills.
KEYWORDS
Soft Skill, Interpersonal Skill, Communication Skill, Self-Management Skill, Academic Skill etc.
INTRODUCTION
India’s population is huge at 1.21 billion. It is rapidly increasing at a rate of 17% and integrating quickly into the global economy.
India is among the ‘young’ countries in the world, with the proportion of the work force in the age group of 15-59 years, which is
increasing steadily. However, presently out of total workforce in India only 2% of the have undergone skills training. India has a
great opportunity to meet the future demands of the world though it can become the worldwide sourcing hub for skilled
workforce. The challenges for India are exaggerated. It needs to reach across million workforce ready population, while facing an
ever-growing relocation of labour from agriculture to manufacturing and services. With the growth and development of
educational institutions in our country, the quality of workforce is challenged by its employability.
Attempts to open the Indian education sector to international standards have experienced a setback in recent months. This shows
that the employable workforce what institutions are generating are at stake. However, this reluctance to admit international
educators does not apply to all educational sectors. As India labors to meet its aim of upskilling 500 million workers by the
beginning of the next decade, the country has turned to international organizations and institutions for help.
According to a report by NASSCOM, each year millions of graduates and post-graduates are added to the Indian workforce.
However, of these only 25 per cent of technical graduates and 10-15 percent of other graduates are considered actually
employable. Industry today faces a shortage of appropriately skilled labor and the possibility of someone joining straight out of
college being up to the mark is rare. Estimates say, it takes at least six months before a graduate becomes actually employable. We
need to create a platform where students, academia and industry could come on board interact, engage and help each other.
Compared to many Western nations, India faces a unique dilemma. Although the country boasts one of the greatest labor
surpluses in the world. Indian employers are particularly likely to experience difficulty meeting their needs for employees.
Approximately 67% of Indian employers reported that they struggle to find workers who meet their requirements.
The reason for this apparent contradiction lies in the fact that a large proportion of Indian workers are unskilled. Research
performed by the Indian government presented this staggering statistic: “80% of the workforce in rural and urban areas does not
possess any identifiable marketable skills.”
REAL CHALLENGES
Although India has already achieved notable success in creating a skilled workforce, there are still several serious challenges that
the country has to overcome in order to achieve its goals.
15Assistant Professor, Amity School of Languages, Amity University, Uttar Pradesh, India, [email protected] 16H.O.D. (MBA), Sherwood College of Engineering Research and Technology, Uttar Pradesh, India, [email protected]
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Creating and formally adopting a framework of standards was an important first step; however, in a country as diverse and
decentralized as India, it may prove challenging to introduce the framework quickly. In addition, even if the framework is adopted
smoothly, its proponents will have to struggle with common prejudices about the quality of education.
As per current scenario, the billions of young workers who will flood its job markets in the next decade will be in danger of
downfall that will cost the nation down in terms of GDP. The problem is that most of the Indians are fanatical with classroom
teaching and white-collar dreams. Most of them are not aware or does not try careers that guarantee them good career growth. The
less formally educated youth lack appropriate guidance and are destined to flow from one underpaid stint to another.
NEED OF STUDY
Introduction of MNC’s in India has grown in the history. It exponentially arises in last few decades. Employers often complain
about a lack in soft skills among graduates from education institutions in India. Mostly about communication skills and other
required sets. Knowledge in business management and logical thinking is also highly required, which is also in the required list
desirable skills for graduates entering the business world. This problem is universal and not only restricted to us but also well
known to developed countries around the world. A recent objection in this regard came from the British Association of Graduate
Recruiters (AGR), according to which many graduates lack soft skills, such as team working. Further, they explain that candidates
are normally academically proficient but lack in soft skills. They lack in communication numerical ability as well as verbal and
nonverbal reasoning. Indeed, the situation seems to be particularly bad in science and engineering programmes. Engineering
graduates should bring along knowledge of foreign languages, cultural awareness, should be team workers, and should perhaps
have attended a Rhetoric course (Ihsen, 2003).
In today's world, where the survival of the fittest is the norm, it has become imperative to sharpen one's technical skills, and more
importantly, one's soft skills. Technical skills can be learnt, applied and measured to an established degree. However, the same
cannot be said of soft skills. Soft skill is a sociological term for an individual's Emotional Intelligence (EQ). It can be broadly
defined as personal attributes that enhance an individual's interactions, job and career prospects. Whether it involves face-to-face
customer interaction or even indirect correspondence over telephone or e-mail, employees adept at soft skills will achieve both
individual as well as organizational success. Soft-skills are significant to promote and use one's hard skills. Both are required and
complimentary to each other. One without the other has no impact. According to Serby Richard (2003) today’s organization
required such candidates specifically who can add value to their organization. With the help of Soft Skills and the ability to
develop can make the difference between a job offer and enjoyment of new employment. The requirement of soft skills in a job
has made the competition for getting good jobs quite tougher. Candidates who want to compete over their competitor are expected
to develop their soft skills. Employers value soft skills because they cater value addition over traditional job qualifications.
Professionals today need to include a perfect soft skills quotient, which required along with good domain knowledge in order to
succeed in this cutthroat competition. For developing soft skills in them, they require rigorous and focused trainings as a part of
their curriculum. This will help them to improve their ability, which will enable them to secure a respectable career in the
corporate world.
In spite of such great significance of soft skills in today’s corporate world, many institutions are yet to bring in soft skills in their
regular curriculum. There is a dire need of developing focused soft skills training sessions and curriculum to ensure commendable
career to graduates and post-graduates.
MODEL
During the process of creating and operating an institution like in India, result can ultimately determine the success or failure of an
institution. Creating and distributing a focused agenda that outlines the areas to be exercised in an institute can have several
important benefits.
Academic Skill
Focused Direction: Teachings that have no agenda are likely to have less direction and be less productive than more
structured teachings with a preset list of guidelines. In addition, learning participants and students may become
disengaged if teaching stray from relevant topics, which can set a poor precedent for future results. If students feel that
teachers are unfocused and contribute little to their work, they may skip classes.
Preparation of Lesson Plan and Course handout with an Agenda: Another important aspect of creating and
circulating an agenda with course handout for teaching ahead of time is that it gives teachers and students an
opportunity to prepare for the learning process. If participants know which specific topics are going to be discussed in a
class, they can research those topics in advance and prepare relevant information and questions to contribute
constructively to it. If participants know that important, relevant topics are going to be covered at meeting, they will be
more likely to attend.
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Research: Ability to research suitable periodicals, books, websites and other references to draw the required
information.
Synthesis of Data: Having located relevant information from a variety of sources, to bring it together and present in a
coherent argument.
Critical Thinking: Consider issues from a variety of perspectives and draw appropriate ideas and values in arriving at a
critical assessment.
Active Learning: Develop willingness to take an active role in learning and distinguish personal responsibility for
learning.
Problem Solving: To develop ability to negotiate barriers in pursuing an objective and develop effective strategies for
overcoming them.
Project Management: Able to plan, monitor and evaluate using project management tools and techniques to provide
workable solutions.
Creativity / Innovation: Able to think crossways and creatively, to develop original approaches in defining and solving
problems.
Self-Management Skills
Reflection on Learning: Able to stand back, review an activity or task, capture its essence and systematically plan the
next steps.
Self-Awareness / Assessment: To develop ability to evaluate one’s own strengths, weaknesses, values and progress.
Action Planning / Decision Making: To develop ability to plan, set and meet own objectives and make decisions
starting from a variety of possible options.
Time Management / Self Discipline: To develop ability to prioritize tasks, manage and achieve results on time and
within budget or other constraints.
Independence: To develop ability to work without supervision in unfamiliar surroundings and make a full contribution.
Initiative / Proactive Approach: To develop ability to initiate activities and execute interests without administration
and control or any intervention from others.
Budgeting: To develop ability to budget finances effectively and supplement income from part-time work when
appropriate.
Communication Skills
Written Materials: To develop ability to build grammatically correct and well-written formats, reports, essays using
the most appropriate style.
Oral / Visual Presentations: To develop ability to filter information, transfer ideas and concepts to the audience using
new technology audio visual aids and prepare to face questions to defend.
Active Listening: To develop ability to hear and understand verbal messages without any discrimination or prejudice.
Technical Vocabulary / Languages: To develop ability to read, speak and understand technical jargons and languages,
where and when appropriate.
Numeracy: To develop ability to manipulate numerical data in any context in which you would be expected to
participate.
Information Skills: To develop ability to seek, store, retrieve, synthesize, use and present information in ways
appropriate to the task, including the use of Computers & IT.
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IT Skills: To develop ability to use computer applications to the level required and tackle the problem in hand.
Interpersonal Skills
Group Work / Teamwork: To develop ability to cooperate with others, contribute to help the group achieve its goal.
Understanding / Tolerance of Others: Recognize and accommodate the fact that others have different needs, feelings
or behavior.
Negotiation: To develop ability to know what is wanted, to negotiate assertively (not aggressively) and to come to a
mutually agreed outcome.
Peer Assessment: To develop ability to give constructive feedback to student peers and to receive/ accept similar from
them.
Leadership: To develop ability to manage, guide or facilitate a group to maximize its success and the contribution of all
participants.
Manage Change / Adaptability: To develop ability to make / manage change and comfortably face changing
circumstances and new challenges.
Mutual Growth / Assessment: To develop ability to work as a catalyst for the growth of other student peers and to
receive/ accept similar from them.
The above selective model can be further enhanced to develop according to the needs of the audience and proper activities and
techniques must be evolved for teaching and training. This model can be used in developing curriculum and be entrusted to
develop soft skills to the students of graduate and postgraduate programs.
REFERENCES
1. Carnegie, Dale. (1998). How to Win Friends & Influence People, Pocket. ISBN: 978-0-671-02703-2.
2. CP. What soft skills do the Employer look for? Retrieved on 2013-04-14.
3. Bhatnagar, Nitin. Effective Communication and Soft Skills. Pearson Education India. ISBN: 8131760340.
4. Rao, M. S. Soft Skills For Young Managers. Wiley India Private Limited. ISBN: 8177223771.
5. Symmonds, A. (etc.). (2009). Smart English through Success Secrets & other 'Smart English Series'. ISBN: 978-81-
909849-6-6.
6. Retrieved from http://businesstoday.intoday.in/story/companies-work-towards-skills-gap-in-india/1/193097.html
7. Retrieved from http://www.cisco.com/web/IN/about/network/academia_partnerships.html
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11. Retrieved from https://futuresharp.wordpress.com/2013/04/04/1516/
12. Retrieved from http://blog.aeseducation.com/2015/04/workplace-readiness-skills
13. Retrieved from http://businesstoday.intoday.in/story/companies-work-towards-skills-gap-in-india/1/193097.html
14. Retrieved from http://monitor.icef.com/2013/02/to-upskill-workforce-india-goes-international/
15. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/importance-having-agenda-before-business-meeting-25867.html
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16. Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/200-community-colleges-to-come-up-for-skill-
t...
17. Retrieved from http://www.abes.ac.in/career/planning-for-career/training-and-placement
18. Retrieved from http://www.boxwind.com/site/en/jobdrills.com
19. Retrieved from http://www.cisco.com/web/IN/about/network/academia_partnerships.html
20. Retrieved from http://www.cisco.com/web/IN/about/network/skills_development.html
21. Retrieved from http://www.ficci.com/sector/74/Project_docs/SectorProfile.pdf
22. Retrieved from http://www.ncl.ac.uk/quilt/assets/documents/com-rep-ultsec-13mar-docB.pdf
23. Retrieved from http://www.scienceandnature.org/IJEMS-Vol3(4)-Oct2012/IJEMS_V3(4)12.pdf
24. Retrieved from http://www.tsscindia.com/newsnevents02.html
25. Retrieved from http://www.ucl.ac.uk/lifesciences-faculty/degree-programmes/biological-sciences/Personal_profile_for...
26. Retrieved from http://yourstory.com/2013/09/inquisitive-making-raw-ready-employment/
27. Retrieved from https://futuresharp.wordpress.com/2013/04/04/1516/
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PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
Uday Bhosale17 Dr. K. Pradeep Kumar18
ABSTRACT
The Performance Management Systems are widely recognized as a key business strategy for creating performance-driven
culture in the Organization and in turn, for driving strong business result. Process in evaluating the performance of employees
is one of the most important determinants of organizational justice. Studies indicate that fair practices in human resource
management, particularly in terms of performance appraisal has a predictive role in the employees’ attitude such as the
organization’s commitment. The present study aims at understanding the influence of Performance appraisal system on
organizational commitment among 200 managers in Pune. A scale consisting of 11 dimensions and organizational
commitment consisting of 15 statements assessed performance appraisal system. The findings revealed that perception of
performance appraisal system has a positive correlation with organizational commitment. It signifies that performance
management system do influence organizational commitment. Among the PAS Dimensions, the highest correlation is between
Employee Training and Organizational Commitment. Rating technique, Performance feedback and Distributive justice
projected a negative value with commitment.
KEYWORDS
Performance Management System, Organizational Commitment etc.
Performance Management is a process, which measures the implementation of the organization’s strategy. It is also a
Management tool to plan, monitor, measure and review performance of indicators to ensure efficiency and effectiveness.
Performance appraisal is a systematic and periodic process that assesses an individual employee’s job performance and
productivity in relation to certain pre-established criteria and organizational objectives (Manasa & Reddy, 2009).
The Performance Management Systems are widely recognized as a key business strategy for creating performance-driven culture
in the Organization and in turn, for driving strong business result. Process in evaluating the performance of employees is one of
the most important determinants of organizational justice.
Organizational commitment may be viewed as an organizational member's psychological attachment to the organization.
Organizational commitment plays a very large role in determining whether a member will stay with the organization and zealously
work towards organizational goals.
Studies indicate that fair practices in human resource management, particularly in terms of performance appraisal has a predictive
role in the employees’ attitude such as the organization’s commitment. (Jehad & Farzana, 2011).
The relationship between organizational justice and organizational commitment has been widely researched. Several studies
support the notion that fairness of performance appraisal is related to employees’ commitment, satisfaction and motivation to their
organization (Morrow, 2011; Abdul Shukor et.al, 2008 and Colquitt et al., 2001).
Performance appraisal is viewed as an important mechanism for changing employees’ attitude and behaviors such as affective
commitment (Morrow, 2011).
Tam (1996) indicates that the commitment of government employees is higher in the federal government agencies that implement
a fair and transparent assessment.
With the advent of globalization and liberalization, Organizations today believe that every individual has potential and strength
and those human capabilities could be sharpened, developed and utilized better for achieving Organizational goals. However, in
spite of the attention and resources applied to the practice, dissatisfaction with the process still abounds and systems are often
viewed by employees as inaccurate and unfair (Church, 1985).
The present study aims at understanding the Perception of Performance appraisal system and its influence on organizational
commitment among managers in and round Pune.
17 Head (Human Capital & Employee Relations), Precision Automation and Robotics India Limited, Maharashtra, India,
[email protected] 18 Associate Professor, Chatrapathi Shahu Institute of Business Education and Research, Maharashtra, India,
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OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES
To know the perception of the managers regarding performance management system.
To ascertain their level of commitment
To assess the impact of performance management system and organizational commitment.
It was hypothesized that the perception of Performance Management System and its Dimensions and commitment are
positively correlated.
METHODOLOGY USED
Employees at managerial levels in the industries at Pune constitute the universe of the study. Twenty Companies
from five segments viz Auto OEM & Auto Component Industries, Manufacturing, Research & Development, FMCG &
Information Technology & Service and pharmaceutical were selected randomly from the list of major Industries. Ten
managers from each industry were selected and 200 respondents constituted the sample.
Perception of Performance Management System was assessed by a scale developed by Freinn-von Elverfeldt, A.C,
von (2005) consisting of 11 dimensions -instrument validity, distributive justice, procedural justice, goal-setting,
performance feedback, performance based pay, employee participation ,360-degree appraisal, Rating techniques, Rating
accuracy and training. Organizational commitment was assessed by Mowday R. T. Steers R. M, Porter L.W
(1979).consisting of 15 questions. All the scales were assessed on a five-point Likert-scale ranging from one to five.
FINDINGS
Demographic details disclosed that majority of the managers are males, very few are female in the organization .The
managers are well experienced and are from the background of social sciences and management. Majority of the
organizations are Indian companies and a few are multinationals.
Table-1 shows the mean and standard deviation for the dimensions of performance appraisal system. In general, the
agreement constitutes relatively a high percentage in all dimensions. Among the dimensions performance feedback and
procedural justice have a high mean score. However, disagreement is observed more in 360-degree appraisal followed
by almost a similar trend as far as rating accuracy, rating techniques, employee participation and procedural justice.
Correlation between PAS (Performance Appraisal System) and commitment and its Dimensions (Table-2) revealed that
PAS and commitment are positively correlated. Further, the dimensions projected that the highest correlation is
between Employee Training and Organizational Commitment .This shows that Employees expect for more exposure for
development and since they are provided with sufficient opportunities, obviously they are committed to the
organization. This is true as far as our data is concerned.
Rating technique, Performance feedback and Distributive justice projected a negative value. When people are appraised
properly by a good and reliable technique, they feel fairness in the system and can foster commitment. If they do not
have confidence, it can negatively affect and obviously result in less commitment, which is true in our study. Similarly,
the data revealed that feedback and distributive justice do not have any bearing on commitment; perhaps, they perceive
these as part of the process.
The data further shows that Process in evaluating the performance of employees is one of the most important
determinants of organizational commitment.
It is noteworthy that the procedure followed is acceptable to them but they have less faith in rating accuracy and
rating techniques. 360 degree is perceived relatively undesirable.
The findings are indicative that modern methods need to be implemented with caution by communicating the employees
in an acceptable manner.
REFERENCES
1. Abdull, Sukor S., Mohd, Khan, J. K., Tang, S. M., & Lim, K. T. (2008). Fairness in performance appraisal amongst
teachers and its relationship with job motivation and academic school performance. International Journal of
Management Studies (Bumper issues), 15, 159-176.
2. Church, A. H. (1985). From both sides now, performance appraisals: Political tools or effective measures. The
Industrial Organizational Psychologist.
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3. Colquitt, J. A., Conlon, D. E., Wesson, M. J., Porter, C. O. L. H., & Ng, K. Y. (2001). Justice at the millennium. A
Meta-Analytic Review of 25 years of organizational justice research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 425-445.
Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.425
4. Elverfeldt, A. V. (2005). Performance Appraisal-how to improve its effectiveness. Enscheda: University of Twenty.
5. Jehad, M., & Farzana, Q. (2011). Organizational Justice and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Evidences from
Malaysia. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Accounting, Business and Economics (ICABEC).
6. Manasa, K., & Reddy, N. (2009). Role of Training in Improving Performance. The IUP Journal of Soft Skills, 3,
Morrow, P. C. (2011). Managing organizational commitment: Insights from longitudinal research. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 79, 18-35. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.12.008
7. Morrow, P. C. (2011). Managing organizational commitment: insights from longitudinal research. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 79(1), 18-35. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2010.12.
8. Mowday, R. T., Steers, R., & Porter, L. W. (1979). The measurement of organizational commitment. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 14, 224-247. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(79)90072-1
9. Tam, W. W. (1996). An assessment of the relationships among organizational trust, organizational politics and
organizational justice and their effects on merit pay outcomes in the Malaysian Public Sector (Doctoral Dissertation).
Penn State University at Harrisburg, 1995. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/304443454/accountid=45905
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13. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2911925
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APPENDIX
Table-1: Mean and Standard Deviation for Dimensions of Performance Management System
Sources: Authors Compilation
S.
No.
Particulars
Mean Standard Deviation
Agree Undecided Disagree Agree Undecided Disagree
1 Instrument Validity 124.29 39.43 36.29 17.62 12.37 11.31
2 Distributive Justice 117.25 51.5 31.25 17.82 12.04 10.34
3 Procedural Justice 125.14 30.71 44.14 16.41 10.29 7.06
4 Goal Setting 129 34.13 36.88 21.04 8.59 16.95
5 Performance Feedback 134.29 33.43 32.29 10.69 10.03 2.69
6 Performance based pay 109.4 45.2 45.4 25.58 9.15 17.5
7 Employee Participation 122.67 31.33 46 21.22 10.6 19.7
8 360 degree appraisal 96.2 48.8 55 8.87 9.71 9.25
9 Rating Techniques 119.8 33.8 46.4 7.69 8.7 10.83
10 Rating Accuracy 106.25 49.25 44.5 10.9 14.97 4.43
11 Training 110 38 52 17.37 8.05 13.34
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Table-2: Correlation of PAS and Organizational Commitment
Org. Commitment Correlation Coefficient
PAS Particulars
IV .043
DJ -.113
PJ .050
GS .036
PF -.064
PBP .057
EP .097
360DA .048
RT -.207**
RA .086
TR .129
Organizational Commitment .092
Note: *.Significant at 0.05 levels (2-tailed).
Sources: Authors Compilation
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A STUDY ON BEHAVIOUR PROBLEM OF IDENTIFIED SCHOOL CHILDREN IN SHIMOGA
Pushpalatha19 Dr. H. M. Sudharshana20
ABSTRACT
Children are the most important asset of a nation and are the richest source of development of a nation. Developing child
passes through a rapid physical, hormonal intellectual emotional and psychological growth. This can cause emotional and
behavioral instability in the developing personality. A problem behavior is deviant behavior of a child, which does not confirm
to the expectations of the society and is considered detrimental to the when are of the social emotional and intellectual
developing of the children. The school or home is influenced by the health and wellbeing of the child. Against this
background, this study chose to identify the problem behavior in children. Data collection involved the use of two tools (a)
Demographic profile sheet; and (b) Problem Behaviors Check list (Arachan Dodra 2005) on the whole results out of 75
children show that the around 5.2% had exhibited problem behaviors. In that aggressive, temper tantrums, excessive level of
fighting and fear of animal are highest frequency in the hierarchy. There is significant sex differences in the problems
exhibited by children boys are number girls in problem behaviors like aggressiveness temper tantrum, excessive level of
fighting. Problem of anxiety and involuntary wetting of the bed is seen more in girls than boys.
KEYWORDS
Early Childhood in School, Level of Problem Behavior, Check List etc.
INTRODUCTION
Children are the most important asset of a nation and are the richest source of development of a nation. Incidence of problem
behavior in primary school children & most of the children show aggressive behavior. Developing child passes through a rapid
physical, hormonal, intellectual, emotional and psychological growth. This can cause emotional & behavioral instability in the
developing personality (Banik 1972).
Mental health programmes can be carried out at the school level. Several enrichment programmes carried out on the pre-school
children indicate that they make significant gains in cognitive development. The school is one of the most organized & powerful
system in the society which presents opportunity to work through it and to influence the health & wellbeing of those who meet it.
School contributes to learning and psychosocial development of children. The components like identifying children with different
problems, understanding the causes wherever possible & impact of the problems on achievement. (Ram 2000) school related
experience affect the social, emotional & intellectual development of the children. The school & home are influenced by the
health & wellbeing of the child (Parthasarathy 1994).
Ratios indicates a young with a difficult temperament was two time more likely to have behavioral problems at school age.
Maturation of nervous system during early children contributes to the increasing ability to inhibit disorganized response, to
stressful situations (Clecuyer-Maus Hock 2002). Problems indicative of externalizing behavior is more hostellers than day
scholars (Chandrakala, 2000).
In Indian setting, a wide variety of emotional problems exists among children, which deserve special attention. (Shenoy, Kapur &
Kaliaperumal 1996) Frued was convinced that childhood psychological conflicts were the Key to understanding adult behavior,
School teacher are able to identify the behavioral problem in children (Verhulst & Akkerhuis in Holland 1986) teacher tended to
use harmful methods of dealing with children behavioural problems like minor punishments, moral education (Somena 1984).
There is high level of problem behaviour in children of the inner city school (Rogeness, Bendar & Diesenhavas 1975). Against
this background of this study attempt to identify the problem behaviors in children.
METHODOLOGY USED
The aim of the present study is to identify the problem behaviors among children in selected sample at Shimoga.
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
To list the problems identified by parents.
To find out the percentage of different problems reported by parent.
To study the sex differences among children with problem behavior.
19Clinical Psychologist District Hospital, Karnataka, India, [email protected] 20Faculty, Abdul Nazir Sab State Institute for Rural Development, Karnataka, India, [email protected]
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METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
Participants
The Sample in the present investigation is selected school going children of Shimoga district over all 75 children between the age
range of 8-12 and who are considered as problematic children identified by the different schoolteachers.
Procedure
Investigator has visited selected schools of Shimoga to collect the addresses of children who are considered by teachers as
problem children. Parents of these children are administered problem behavior checklist. After obtaining permission from school,
authority intervened each problematic child. Data collection involved individual interview of 75 target children using Problem
Behavior Check list (PBCL) modified in the local language they have to read each problem one by one and assess whether that
problem occurs most often, occasionally or never. Their responses are recorded, scoring is done on the basis of their responses the
interview were carried out undisturbed with the co-operation of children as well as school teacher if child unable to express
particular related issue were discussed with class teacher in some case home visit also done by the investigators on and average
each interview took more than 45 miniatures. Some children especially aggressive and temper aspect behavior. Such situation was
handled tactfully. The area covered in questionnaire included Demographic profile and Problem Behavior Check list (PBCL) by
Vimal Veeraragavan and Archana Dongre 2005.
Operational Definitions
A problem behavior is deviant behavior of a child which does not confirm to the expectations of the society is considered
detrimental to the welfare of self, family and society. Several clusters of problem behavior not all of which are present in every
student characterize behaviorally disordered group. In turn, each of these problem behaviors is addressed by different
interventions. The major clusters of problem behavior that are commonly used to characterize behaviorally disordered students
include:
Unsatisfactory academic achievement without evidence of sensory or cognitive disability.
Emotional disturbance.
Behavior excesses and deficits.
Disruptive behavior.
When the child shows at least one of the following criteria behaviors is considered problematic (Peshawar R. C., and Dr.
Venkatesan 1992)
Behaviors are not dangerous to self or others
Behaviors are not appropriate for the age.
Behaviors are socially deviant.
Early detection and intervention of young children’s behavior problems play an important role in successful school adaptation;
whereas lack of intervention can have detrimental outcomes in terms of a child’s social, emotional and behavioral functioning.
Tools & Materials
The two tools used in this study are:
Demographic profile: This tool was developed for the purpose of this study to elicit details of the respondents on their
current age, type of family, sex, birth order etc.
Problem Behavior Check list (PBCL).
Vimal veeraraghavan and Archana Dogra (New Delhi 2005) developed the checklist. A total of 100 items was prepared in the
form of symptoms which had to be rated on a three point scale, with 1,2 and 3 indicative of “No”-‘Average’ & ‘high’ problem
behavior. As per ICD-10, specific diagnostic were included separately for emotional, conduct mixed disorders of conduct &
emotions. These 100 items were then given to 25 psychological & 25 psychiatrists. Using the internal consistency method only,
those items were chosen on which the rating was the same amongst all the 50 experts. Using this principle, 58 items were selected
from 100 items. Thus, there are 58 items in the scale to be responded by the parent’s with “most often”, “occasionally” & “never”.
These were then administered to a group of 300 married couples from the normal population, (N=600) & 100 couples from the
psychiatric population (N=200) of the reliability & validity were worked out.
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Reliability-The test and retest Reliability for this scale was xtt=.85with an index of reliability was 0.85 spearman brown formula
for doubling the test length = .72with anrtt-.81
Out of 75, number of children shown multi behavioral attitude:
Table-1
1 Aggressive behavior 18 (24%)
2 Increase in temper tantrums 14 (18%)
3 Fear of animal 13 (17%)
4 Excessive level of fighting 12 (16%)
5 Habit of unusual frequent temper tantrums 12 (16%)
6 Deliberate attempts to annoy other 11 (11%)
7 anxiety 8 (10%)
8 Scholastic problem 8 (10%)
9 Involuntary wetting of bed 6 (8%)
10 Poor memory 6 (8%)
11 Lack of attention 6 (8%)
12 Persistent inappropriate fear of being alone 6 (8%)
13 Involuntary wetting of the bed 6 (8%)
14 Cruelty to animals or other people 6 (8%)
15 Lack of concentration 6 (8%)
Sources: Authors Compilation
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Problem behavior among children has become one of the major problems faced on all most all the schools. Severity and nature of
the problems are unique to every child. Finding of the problem behavior checklist administered on parents shows that out of 75.
Children, in general, the intensity of the problem was low in 68 children, average in 5 children & was high in two children.
Considering the problem behavior in the checklist individually, it is been that 39 children out of 75, constituting around 52% had
exhibited problem behaviors. In that aggressive (24%), temper tantrums (18%) excessive level of fighting (17%) fear of animals
(16%) deliberate attempts to harm others (16%) are with highest frequency in the hierarchy. Accordingly, problems like anxiety
(14%) involuntary wetting of the bed, Examination Phobia, poor memory, lack of attention & concentration are seen frequently in
around 8% of the sample.
There are significant sex differences in the problems exhibited by children. Boys out number girls in problem behaviors like
aggressiveness, temper tantrum, excessive level of fighting, examination phobia, cruelty to animals and scholastic problems.
Problem of anxiety and involuntary wetting of the bed is seen more in girls than boys who could be due to the inhibitions that are
generally there for girls.
It is generally believed that the prevalence rate of behavioral & emotional problems is higher among the poor performers that the
normal. This view is supported by various studies (Krouse & Krouse, 1981) reported that there was greater maladjustment,
immaturity & inadequacy among under achieving children than among students performing at their expected levels.
The study has thrown light on the problem faced by children in younger age & also the intensity of the problem. By identifying
children problems early, we can initiate interventions early to help the children to prevent & manage their problems through
caretakers.
REFERENCES
1. Anuradha. (2002). Psychological Research in mental Health of Neuro science 1957-2007, pp.112.
2. Banik, N. D. B., Sushila, N., Krishna, A., & Raj, L. (1972). Behavior Problems & primary school children. Indian
Pediatrics, 9,767-761.
3. Chess, S. (1988). Child of Adolescent psychiatry cone of age: A 50 year perspective. Journal of American Academy of
child of Adolescent Psyciatry.
4. Rangopal, C. N. (1988). Psychological Research in mental Health & Neuroscience 1957-2007, pp. 89.
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5. Dwrlak, J. A. (1985). Primary prevention of school mal adjustments. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
53(5), 623-630.
6. Hawkins, J. D. (et.al). (1991). Reducing early childhood aggression; Results of a primary prevention program. Journal
of American Academy of child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 208-217.
7. Kapur, M. (1995). Mental Health India Children. New Delhi: Sage.
8. Gopal, M. Venu. (1980). Psychological Research in mental Health & Neuroscience 1957-2007, pp. 83.
9. Margarlt, C. Wang, Maynard, C. Neynolds, & Herbert, J. Walberg. (1988). (Ed) Handbook of special education
Research of Practice, Vol. 2.
10. Malavika. Psychological therapy with children of adolescent, pp.4.
11. Michelle, Angela. (2002). Psychological Research in mental Health and Neuroscience, pp. 12.
12. Nuiloz. (2008). Behaviour Problem in Rural Bangladesh. Journal of child Psychiatry.
13. Scood, Neelam. (1977). Behavior Problem in children. New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishing Holy.
14. Parthasarathy, R. (1944). Promotion of Mental Health through schools. Health for million, 4, 12-13.
15. (1997). Promoting Health through school who technical report series. WHO Geneva.
16. Retrieved from http://www.rguhs.ac.in/cdc/onlinecdc/uploads/05_N202_42648.doc
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THE ‘INDIVIDUAL’ DIMENSIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR
(OCB): VARIATIONS BETWEEN PUBLIC & PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS OF NCR, INDIA
Arkja Singh21 Dr. Nisha Agarwal22 Swati Rai23
ABSTRACT
The focal point of this study is the effect and nature of relationship of Altruism, and Courtesy (Organizational citizenship
behavior – individual (OCB-I) factors of OCB) on and with the Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) of the employees
of Public & Private Sector Banks of National Capital Region (NCR) of the Indian Sub-continent. Overall, 50 employees from
both Public & Private sector Banks were selected to complete an OCB survey comprising of the two OCB-I factors from the
Five Factors of OCB. As per preceding studies, it was hypothesized that there exists a direct and significant relationship
between the chosen factors and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB). Based on this a comparison between the public
and private sector banks was done to find out the variations in the display levels of OCB-Is as well as OCB in both the
Banking sectors. Largely, the variations in display levels of each of these factors have helped us uncover the disparity in OCB
display level amongst the two sectors of the Indian Banking Industry. The results prove that the above-mentioned dimensions
had significant positive relationship with OCB. No considerable difference was established between the OCB-Is display levels
of the public and private sector banks. However, OCB levels did show a variation between the two sectors. The findings will
have implications for organizational researchers and practitioners who are seeking to enrich the organizational citizenship
behavior amongst the banking employees.
KEYWORDS
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB), Banking Sector, Altruism, Courtesy, Organizational Citizenship Behavior
– Individuals (OCB-Is) etc.
INTRODUCTION
“No employee in any organization is indispensable,
every employee’s efforts to become indispensable bring forward the citizenship.”
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) is a multifaceted phenomenon now emerging as a significant aspect of human
behavior at work. OCB has been studied since the late 1970s. Over the past three decades, ever-increasing attention has been
drawn to the concept of OCB by academic researchers and, of late, by managers also. The key research, in this relatively infant
field of study has chiefly taken place in the 1990s and still progressing at a steady pace.
Organ (1988) defined OCB as “individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal
reward system, and that in aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization”.
OCBs are extra-role behaviors displayed by employees that go beyond their role requirements, not officially rewarded or punished
by the organization, which comprehensively facilitate organizational functioning and benefit the organization by recuperating
organizational efficiency. Working under changing circumstances becomes the core character of modern-day organizations. Thus,
organizations will necessarily become dependent on individuals who are keen to contribute to successful change regardless of
their official job requirements. The theoretical implication of OCB lies in the observation that it cannot be accounted for by the
incentives that sustain in-role behaviors. It is a belief amongst the theorists that as more the employees engage in OCB, the more
successful the organization becomes.
Over the years, the measurement and dimensionality of OCB have evolved to a five-factor model that includes altruism,
courtesy, conscientiousness, civic virtue, and sportsmanship (Organ, 1988). Each of them can be defined as follows:
Altruism: Behaviors that have the effect of helping specific others with a work-relevant problem.
Courtesy: Behaviors aimed at preventing work-related problems with others from occurring.
Conscientiousness: Going well beyond the minimum requirements of the organization in the areas of attendance, obeying rules
and regulations, and/or taking breaks.
21Assistant Professor, School of Business Management, IFTM University, Uttar Pradesh, India, [email protected] 22Associate Professor, School of Business Management, IFTM University, Uttar Pradesh, India, [email protected] 23Assistant Professor, School of Business Management, IFTM University, Uttar Pradesh, India, [email protected]
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Civic Virtue: Macro-level interest in, or commitment to the organization as a whole, displayed such as participating actively in
meetings, monitoring the organization’s environment for potential threats, and looking out for its best interests.
Sportsmanship: Willingness to tolerate the inevitable inconveniences and impositions of work without complaining, as well as
maintaining a positive attitude when things do not go as one plans.
Williams and Anderson (1991) divided these dimensions of OCB into two different types of OCB based on whom the behaviors
were directed at. Organizational Citizenship Behavior – Individual (OCB-I) include behaviors that are aimed at other individuals
in the workplace while Organizational Citizenship Behavior – Organizational (OCB-O) include behaviors directed at the
organization as a whole. Altruism and courtesy are actions aimed at other employees and thus fall under the umbrella of OCB-
Is. Conscientiousness, civic virtue, and sportsmanship are behaviors intended for the benefit of the organization and can
subsequently be considered OCB-Os.
In this paper the two OCB-I dimensions, namely: Altruism & Courtesy; are being studied to analyses the variations in display
levels of each of these factors. This in turn will help us uncover the variation in OCB display level amongst the Public & Private
sectors of Banking Industry.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Bateman & Organ (1983) proposed the term “organizational citizenship behavior” (OCB) to denote those organizationally
beneficial behaviors and gestures that can neither be enforced on the basis of formal role obligations nor elicited by contractual
guarantee of recompense. OCB consists of informal contributions that participants can choose to proffer or withhold without
regard to considerations of sanction or formal incentives. OCB includes not only enactment of positive gestures and contributions,
but also the quality of forbearance – the willingness to endure the occasional costs, inconveniences, and minor frustrations
attendant to collective endeavors. Examples of these efforts include cooperation with peers, performing extra duties without
complaint, punctuality, volunteering and helping others, using time efficiently, conserving resource, sharing ideas and positively
representing the organization (Turnipseed and Rassuli, 2005).
OCB has often been referred to in academic literature as a construct focused on ‘helping’ (Ehrhart & Naumann, 2004). Those
employees that demonstrate OCBs are more likely to provide others with assistance in completing work tasks and demonstrate
loyalty to work colleagues and the organization; foster connectedness with other individuals and work teams; and promote the
goals of the organization whilst also contributing to its social and psychological environment (Lievens & Ansell, 2004).
According to Organ (1988), in organizational citizenship behavior, an individual’s behavior is discretionary. This behavior is not
directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system and it in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the
organization. Katz (1964) paid heed to the notion of employees’ extra role behaviors. He believes that employees willingly
contribute extra efforts to the attainment of organizational outcomes. Another important assertion, especially in Organ’s (1988)
finding OCB is that these behaviors are often internally motivated, arising from within and sustained by an individual’s intrinsic
need for a sense of achievement, competence, belonging or affiliation.
DIMENSIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR
Organ (1988) has examined the OCB under such topics as: a) Altruism b) Courtesy, c) Conscientiousness, d) Sportsmanship and
e) Civil Virtue.
Altruism and courtesy are actions aimed at other employees and thus fall under the umbrella of OCB-Is. Conscientiousness, civic
virtue, and sportsmanship are behaviors intended for the benefit of the organization and can subsequently be considered OCB-Os.
The focus of this study is on OCB-Is:
Altruism / Helping behaviors: Helping behavior includes all types of voluntary actions of workers displayed to help the fellow
workers in performing their work and overcoming problems within the organization (Organ, 1988; 1990; Podsakoff and et al.,
2000). Examples of this attitude include helping beginners in getting used to work, sharing the work burden of fellow workmen,
helping others in solving problems, training fellow workmen on utilization of new equipment, helping fellow workmen to works
for required deadlines and obtaining the materials and equipment which is needed by fellow workmen (Podsakoff and et al.,
2000). The helping behavior is not confined only to fellow workers; it can be displayed also to the customers, vendors and the
ones working in procurement (Organ, 1988, 1990; Podsakoff and et al., 2000).
Courtesy: Courtesy attitude covers up all behaviors for helping others in avoiding problems to occur. Examples of this attitude
include trying to prevent other people from suffering because of a certain event, informing fellow workers on work schedule about
the points, which must be taken into consideration in advance (Organ, 1988, 1990; Podsakoff and et al., 2000).
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METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
Research Statement
“A study of the variations in ‘individual’ dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) between public & private
sector banks of NCR, India”
Objectives of Study
To determine the nature of relationship between OCB-I: Altruism and OCB.
To determine the nature of relationship between OCB-I: Courtesy and OCB.
To discover the variation in the two OCB-Is among Public and Private Sector Banks.
Hypotheses of Study
Based on the research objectives aligned above, the null hypothesis for the first objective was:
H10: There is no significant relation between OCB-I: Altruism and OCB;
Null hypothesis for the second objective was:
H20: There is no significant relation between OCB-I: Courtesy and OCB;
Null hypotheses for the third objective were:
H3a0: There is no significant difference in OCB-I: Altruism display levels between the public and private sector banks.
H3b0: There is no significant difference in OCB-I: Courtesy display levels between the public and private sector banks.
H3c0: There is no significant difference in OCB display levels between the public and private sector banks.
Research Design
This research has been tagged as Descriptive; reason being that it is the portrayal of the relationship among the OCB-I factors and
OCB as it is. In addition, it can be typed as Analytical: as the data has further been utilized to evaluate as to which sector displays
a higher degree of OCB-I level, which deciphers the chief intention behind this research.
Sample Design
Universe Type: Finite
Sampling Method: Convenience
Sampling Unit: Punjab National Bank, State Bank of India, HDFC and ICICI.
Secondary data has been pulled together from the Internet, books, journals, etc. For primary data collection, a five-point Likert’s
scale questionnaire, including 23 statements, has been used, the choice ranging from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree”.
The questionnaires were filled by 50 respondents in all, comprising of 25 respondents from each sector; viz. public and private.
After data collection, Correlation & Regression analysis has been done, with the aid of MS Excel, to investigate if the null
hypotheses H10 and H20 hold true. In addition, Mann-Whitney test has been applied on H30, H40, and H50 with the assistance of
SPSS software.
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
A survey was conducted on a sample of 25 bank employees each, from public as well as private sector banks of NCR. The
responses were tabulated in Excel sheet and used to test the first two Hypotheses of the Research.
Table 1 demonstrates the correlation analysis used for testing the first two hypotheses.
Table-1: Correlation Analysis
OCB Altruism Courtesy
OCB 1
Altruism 0.771156 1
Courtesy 0.735848 0.414898 1
Sources: Authors Compilation
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The first hypothesis of the research was as follows:
H10: There is no significant relation between OCB-I: Altruism and OCB.
H1A: There is a significant relation between OCB-I: Altruism and OCB.
For this, the regression analysis exhibited in Table-2 was also used:
Table-2: Regression Analysis (Altruism & OCB)
Regression Statistics
Multiple R 0.771156
R Square 0.594682
Adjusted R Square 0.586238
Standard Error 0.332872
Observations 50
ANOVA
D.f. SS MS F Significance F
Regression 1 7.803404 7.803404 70.42556 5.67E-11
Residual 48 5.318572 0.110804
Total 49 13.12198
Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value
Intercept 0.749368 0.385994 1.941399 0.058093
Altruism 0.811888 0.096746 8.391994 5.67E-11
Sources: Authors Compilation
The correlation coefficient, r came out to be 0.771156 (Table 1 & Table 2) which proves that there is a significant positive
correlation between Altruism and OCB. In addition, r Square came out to be 0.594682 (Table 2) which confirms that 59% of
variation in OCB is due to variation in Altruism. Further, the value of Sig. F & P-value, both being less than 0.05 depicted that
the Null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, there is a relation between Altruism & OCB.
The second hypothesis of the research was as follows:
H20: There is no significant relation between OCB-I: Courtesy and OCB.
H2A: There is a significant relation between OCB-I: Courtesy and OCB.
For this, the regression analysis exhibited in Table 3 was also used:
Table-3: Regression Analysis (Courtesy & OCB)
Regression Statistics
Multiple R 0.735848
R Square 0.541473
Adjusted R Square 0.53192
Standard Error 0.354048
Observations 50
ANOVA
D.F. SS MS F Significance F
Regression 1 7.105193 7.105193 56.68299 1.14E-09
Residual 48 6.016783 0.12535
Total 49 13.12198
Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value
Intercept 1.863831 0.283467 6.575123 3.3E-08
Courtesy 0.554461 0.073645 7.528811 1.14E-09
Sources: Authors Compilation
The correlation coefficient, r came out to be 0.735848 (Table 1 & Table 3) which proves that there is a significant positive
correlation between Courtesy and OCB. In addition, r Square came out to be 0.541473 (Table 3) which confirms that 54% of
variation in OCB is due to variation in Courtesy. Further, the value of Sig. F & P-value, both being less than 0.05 depicted that
the Null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, there is a relation between Courtesy & OCB.
Next, Mann Whitney test was applied on the data, with the results as exhibited in Table 4, which was further used for testing the
third, fourth and fifth hypotheses.
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Table-4: Mann-Whitney Test
Ranks
Bank N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
OCB
1 25 30.94 773.5
2 25 20.06 501.5
Total 50
Altruism
1 25 27.4 685
2 25 23.6 590
Total 50
Courtesy
1 25 29.1 727.5
2 25 21.9 547.5
Total 50
Test Statisticsa
OCB Altruism Courtesy
Mann-Whitney U 176.5 265 222.5
Wilcoxon W 501.5 590 547.5
Z -2.673 -0.931 -1.76
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) 0.008 0.352 0.078
Note: a. Grouping Variable: Bank
Sources: Authors Compilation
The third hypothesis of the research was as follows:
H3a0: There is no significant difference in OCB-I: Altruism display levels between the public and private sector banks.
H3aA: There is a significant difference in OCB-I: Altruism display levels between the public and private sector banks.
As seen in the Test Statistics (Table 4), p=0.352 which is greater than 0.05, therefore H30 is accepted. Hence, it can be concluded
that the data does not provide statistically significant evidence of any difference between OCB-I: Altruism display levels among
the public and private sector banks.
The fourth hypothesis of the research was as follows:
H3b0: There is no significant difference in OCB-I: Courtesy display levels between the public and private sector banks.
H3bA There is a significant difference in OCB-I: Courtesy display levels between the public and private sector banks.
As seen in the Test Statistics (Table 4), p=0.078 which is greater than 0.05, therefore H40 is accepted. Hence, it can be concluded
that the data does not provide statistically significant evidence of any difference between OCB-I: Courtesy display levels among
the public and private sector banks.
The fifth hypothesis of the research was as follows:
H3c0: There is no significant difference in OCB display levels between the public and private sector banks.
H3cA: There is a significant difference in OCB display levels between the public and private sector banks.
As seen in the Test Statistics (Table 4), p=0.008 which is smaller than 0.05, therefore H50 is rejected in this case. Hence, it can be
concluded that the data provides statistically significant evidence of difference between OCB display levels among the public and
private sector banks.
CONCLUSION
This study proffers strong clues, that the two OCB-I factors have profound impact on OCB in the Banking Sector of NCR.
However, it was likely that disparity in cultural and environmental aspects may have caused some divergence and inconsistency
from the results established by former researchers, who considered merely the society of the western countries in their researches.
On the other hand, the values were not a great deal like chalk and cheese from those generated by prior researches.
The Bank employees display a high level of Altruism where they voluntarily help their fellow employees by partaking in their
workload, guide their juniors with the expertise of assorted errands at hand, work out the inconvenience of the clientele, and aid in
other equivalent ways. Same goes for Courtesy as well, wherein, yet again, bank employees attempt to put off their colleagues
from being tormented as a product of a certain unwanted episode, update them on work agenda pertaining to the purpose, which
must be contemplated beforehand.
Finally, it is comprehensible that OCB-I levels in both public as well as private sector do not show a discrepancy of an enormous
degree. However, the H3c hypothesis has altogether another story to tell. It is seen that even though the OCB-I display levels do
not show any variations in public and private sector banks, still OCB display levels vary. For this reason, it can be observed that
probably OCB-O factors play a stronger role in influencing OCB, which can further justify this behaviour.
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OCB has an imperative magnitude for an organization; because if employees are not keen to work and their work guidelines are
not corresponding to the organizational intent then the organization cannot accomplish the operational competence. As devoid of
OCB, there will not be much apprehension in attendance amid the workforce about the endorsement and advantage of the
organization.
LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
In spite of every possible attempt, a little amount of factors may ration the latitude of this research. By considering only two of the
factors, the scope of this research stands limited. As the survey has been done within a diminutive locale with a minuscule sample,
hence the generalization of the results is restricted. Moreover, the respondents might not have responded to the questions
objectively due to their individual limitations.
FUTURE IMPLICATIONS
This study, being done on a very small number of branches of a handful of banks, has a restricted scope. The potential researchers
are recommended to administer the study on a larger region and sample. India is a sundry budding nation and its each state has a
diverse milieu. Thus, it is recommended to do additional researches on the sectors and industries of other states also.
A similar study can be carried out on OCB-O factors of OCB, which can help us conclude as to which factors have more
substantial influence on OCB. In addition, comparative studies among married and unmarried employees, employees with lesser
and more experience, male and female employees, different class of employees, etc. can further be carried out.
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LEAN THINKING
Abhijit B. Savgave24
ABSTRACT
In last 30 years, Lean Management has changed the face of automobile industry drastically. Because of Lean implementations,
every process in organization is more efficient, more productive. Lean thinking is one of the vital aspects in Lean
management. Everyone is aware that Lean is a Philosophy. There is a direct relationship between this Philosophy & Lean
thinking. If we see the practical aspects, there is some misunderstanding of Lean Management in organizations. People are
taking Lean activity only as a waste reduction, but it is more than that. This paper specially focuses on Lean Thinking, which
is very important for getting 100 % results of Lean Concepts & Implementations. This paper covers Lean thinking, Lean
Enterprises, Principles & Characteristics.
KEYWORDS
Lean Thinking, Lean Enterprises, Principles etc.
AN INTRODUCTION TO LEAN THINKING
What is Lean Thinking? The concept Lean’ is becoming more popular in many industries but it is used in various meaning. The
concept sometimes used to describe an company that has been focusing on cost and is maintaining minimum staff. However, that
is not the real meaning behind Lean as expected in ‘Lean Thinking’, the term initiated by Dan Jones and James Womack to
describe Efficient, Agile and successful organization. The concept Lean here is compare with Athletic. Consider two Athletics
player – one is Sprinter and second is marathon runner. They are perfect, muscular at their place. Both practice continuously to
improve their sport, but neither could excel at each other’s. Both are lean in their own way – fit for purpose and trained to deliver
a peak performance in their own event. This concept is applicable for organizations also. Each has its own purpose, its own
strategy and priorities, its own customers, employees, suppliers, regulators, stakeholders, heritage and opportunities. Each must
therefore strive to be the best that it can possibly be – whether determined by the level of efficiency, satisfaction, profit or the
outcomes it creates in the communities it serves. Lean Thinking focus on a set of principles that help organizations to deliver its
result more and more effectively; continuously improving the system results, Reduction in all forms of wastes and ultimately
contributing positively to society. With its roots in Deming’s transformational system of management, this last point reflects the
true context of the term Lean.
Lean is a way of thinking, not a tool, used to look at your business whether it is manufacturing, service or any other activity where
you have a supplier and a customer.” It is some twenty years since the ideas of lean production were first articulated in what
became to be a bestselling book ‘The Machine that Saved the World’ by Womack, Jones and Roos in 1990. The basic idea of lean
production is that the expenditure of resources for any goal other than the creation of value for the end customer to be wasteful,
and thus a target for elimination. Ultimately, this entails the quest for preserving value through performing less work. During the
1990s, the lean concept was extended from the shop-floor operational level to a strategic level. In their follow-up book Womack
and Jones (1996) further developed the lean tool to encompass “lean principles”, involving the identification of customer value,
the management of the value stream, developing the capacity to flow production, the use of “pull” mechanisms to support flow of
materials at constrained operations and finally the pursuit of perfection through reducing to zero all forms of waste in the
production system (Womack & Jones, 1996).
Lean has now been applied across a wide range of industrial settings and “has moved away from a merely ‘shop floor-focus’ on
waste and cost reduction to an approach that contingently sought to enhance value (or perceived value) to customers by adding
product or service features and/or removing wasteful activities” From mass production vehicle manufacture to a wider range of
industries and sectors One of the criticisms lean has received is its automotive industry-focus and the appropriateness and
feasibility of applying lean in other industries and sectors. The car industry, as “the mother of lean thinking”, has undoubtedly
seen wide diffusion of lean ideas into its operations albeit adapted to local institutional conditions. However, the characteristics of
the automotive industry, i.e. mass production and the standardized assembly line, call into question whether it is appropriate to
apply lean in other industries and sectors. The contingent nature required for lean implementation needs to be recognized, from an
organizational learning and strategy perspective, suggest that learning is an essential link between strategy and competence
building and the competences should be built into a production system in accordance with different strategies.
Along with this logic, lean fits better in some industries than others rather than being a universal recipe for every organization. By
comparing different strategies and industries, authors argue that lean is appropriate for implementation in the automobile industry,
where the strategy is to pursue operational excellence and the objective is to offer the market a product that optimizes the
24Assistant Professor, Sinhgad Business School, Maharashtra, India, [email protected]
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quality/price ratio. This is particularly the case when production volumes are high and there is a high degree of product and
process standardization. On the other hand, when the strategy is more focused on what Fleury and Fleury call client intimacy, eg
in the packaging industry, the objective is to meet the needs of specific clients in specific areas and to specialize in developing
tailored solutions to manifest demands in the form of a flexible product system. The Lean Journey Any enterprise (private sector,
public sector or not-for-profit) will be compatible to improve its processes using the model of Lean Thinking. Organizations often
obtain rapid benefits from starting the lean journey, but more importantly, they gain much larger benefits over the long term. The
Lean approach, when properly applied, would result in a uniquely optimized business.
The 5 Principles of Lean Thinking
Specify value per specific product,
Identify the value stream for each product,
Let the value flow without interruptions in a continuous way,
Let the customer pull the value,
Perfection specifying value.
Firstly, identify Value – what the customer really wants and is prepared to pay for. This must be defined by the end consumer,
typically in terms of the requirements of a service, product or experience, a channel or method of delivery, a schedule or an ideal
lead time, a price and the benefits the consumer expects to achieve. Then identify the Value Streams - the specific steps that are
needed to create the value and put it into the hands of the consumer. Map out the specific steps as they happen in reality (warts
and all - not as they appear in the ISO manual on the shelf). Work with every team member to monitor performance and eliminate
all waste, mistakes, bureaucracy and superfluous steps. Then smooth the Flow of work to avoid peaks and troughs in the speed of
business processes. Design a continuous movement of services and information through the various transformations to the final
customer (involving all organisations in the supply chain).
Proactively manage variation in order to reduce backlogs, delays, rework, stock and write offs. Let the customer Pull the service
or product - only do what the customer wants, when the customer needs you to. Work systematically to continuously improve
every aspect of what is done, how it is done, who does it and what it is done with. It is the striving for a seemingly impossible
level of performance that brings tremendous results and provides a stimulating place for people at every level of an organization to
work. However, it is not all plain sailing (otherwise, it might be the norm everywhere). It does require a different way of leading
and managing an organization, and it does demand a new level of joined-up thinking and co-operation across an organization. The
challenges of good Business Change Management apply to Lean programs as much as to any method of business improvement.
Implementing Lean Thinking Jones and Womack’s books develop the model further to look at the use of these principles, and the
evolution of the enterprise on a long-term journey of customer satisfaction, business growth and increasing success. They point
out that a Lean enterprise consists of five elements: a product development process, a supplier management process, a customer
management process, an overarching enterprise management process, and a production process from order to fulfillment. Each of
these processes is tailored for the organization in question and is designed to perform in a consistent way despite the difficulties of
business or political life. Staff should have sufficient time in their schedule to do the best possible job in an un-rushed way, and
have time set aside to contribute ideas and energy to finding better ways to do business – week-by-week, month-by-month, quarter
by quarter. A little pressure is generally good as it keeps people on their toes and forces them to priorities what is most important,
but sustained periods of stressful work is bad for motivation, morale and the health of the organization. It also leads to too many
mistakes and ultimately poor customer service.
Lean thinking can help you manage your cost base through these busy periods and minimize overheads during the slack periods –
it is a philosophy and a design blueprint for matching ever more exactly the changing customer demands with the organizational
capability. Further Information There are many books on Lean Thinking, but the best starting points are the original texts by Jones
& Womack. They initially studied the automotive industry to research how world-leading organizations managed their business.
This led on to a wider analysis of other organizations in Japan, Europe and America and ultimately was distilled into some very
powerful design principles for any organization to use. Lean Thinking stands for radical improvement (kaikaku) in contrast with
continuous incremental improvement (kaizen).Value must been seen through the eyes of the customer. The great virtue of Lean
Thinking is not directly to provide state-of-the art solutions for a complex problem, but to change the logic of working so that the
problems more or less disappear. Lean Manufacturing eliminates and/or visualizes waste. Is there a better way? The Lean
Thinking gives a clear answer In order to efficiently control the throughput, delivery times, WIP and inventory in a complex
environment. It is essential that manufacturing and assembly are performed at a pre-defined pace or TAKT and that the operations
are carried out in a continuous flow. This is the “push” characteristic of Lean Thinking. This TAKT is determined by the business
plan, and the resources of the bottleneck activity -whatever they are- must be able to follow this TAKT. In the continuous-flow
layout, the production steps are arranged in sequence, usually within a cell, and the product moves from one-step to the next with
no buffer of work-in-process in between (Kanban) continuous flow instead.
The focus should be on strengthening the market and sales competence and acquiring profound customer knowledge instead of
leanness in production. Customer requirements are far from standardized, not least in B2B markets. A more appropriate design
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choice here is agile manufacturing (ref) since it is better suited to satisfying fluctuating demand (in terms of volume and variety)
while lean manufacturing requires and promotes, a level schedule (Naylor, Naim & Berry, 1999). Besides, when considering
whether to adopt agile or lean manufacturing techniques, it’s critical to consider the buffer needed in order to attain a balance
between fluctuating customer orders or/and product variety and smooth production output, which according to the lean principle,
is always considered as a non-value added activity and is therefore rejected. Where exploitation has been referred as single-loop,
lower level, and adaptive learning; while exploration has also been referred as double loop, higher level, and developmental
learning. Although coined with different labels, these dualities all, arguably, refer to similar content but notably see learning types
as occurring in a hierarchy. The latter part of the couplet is invariably a “higher level” and thereby better form of learning.
Again, as the lean programme stated: “Since a true Lean organization applies Lean principles everywhere, the scope has now been
expanded to business processes in supporting functions such as HR, Finance and the SCA Containerboard Service Centre.” At the
heart of the lean thinking is the customer value, “The focus of a Lean organization is on the Customer. Improvements are targeting
four areas: Safety, Quality, Delivery and Cost. A Lean organization looks at eliminating wastes, reducing variability and
increasing flexibility to improve in these four areas.” Eventually, the aim of lean is not only to pursue short-term results, i.e. better
quality of products, lower price and shorter delivery time, but rather to create a lean organization, that is, to cultivate a continuous
improvement culture, to make lean a way of thinking in people’s daily work. “The ultimate goal of a Lean organization is to have
a continuous improvement culture. In other words, we want to have Lean in the DNA. Do things as simply as possible and in the
most efficient way. It’s about way of working, no matter what kind of activities you are doing.” In this sense, even designers,
working as the most creative innovators in the organization, could be involved in lean programme to improve the efficiency of
their daily work. Definitely, nobody is working in a most optimized way. All the time we can do something to improve. That is
lean. If we want to do something better, less costly, less time, more efficiently, then it makes sense to investigate, and lean can
support and allow you to do that… You can identify what can be improved. That is lean.
Many of our respondents did not identify with the ideas of lean thinking on either cognitive or emotional levels. Lean thinking
was accepted and was seen positively, but only within operations and not at the strategic level. In other words, there was a clear
gap in the rhetoric of the company policy or espoused theory on lean thinking and the reality. The company policy on lean
thinking from 2008 explicitly extended lean ideas from production to include the entire customer delivery process. We were
struck by how the policy had lifted the five principles of lean solutions from Womack and Jones’ 2005 text almost word for word.
One reading of this is that organizational learning around lean solutions – like all other cultural change programmes - will take
time to come to fruition (Alvesson & Sveningsson, 2008). It is therefore too early to make a definitive judgment on the
programme. This suggests that firms experiencing the lean evolution will take time to arrive the final destination – lean solutions.
This view finds support in the work of Hines et al (2004) who link the evolution of the lean concept to organizational learning,
both for the lean movement itself and the firms who are going through different stages of lean thinking.
Their model of evolution is closely related to the developmental stages of organizational learning proposed by McGill and Slocum
(1993). From its implementation in cells and assembly lines on the shop floor, to the value stream and system, the organization
implementing lean undergoes a learning process from adaptive or single-loop learning to developmental and double-loop learning.
At the early stage when implementation is focused on the shop floor, organizations often claim that they are applying lean
organizationally, although they are in practice only doing so in limited islands on the shop floor. They are not open to further
change and expanding their learning experience. However, at the value systems stage, organizations take active approaches to
capture the customer needs and actively use contingent strategy 15 deployments and policy deployment. This lean value system is
likened to the last phase of McGill and Slocum’s model in the learning organizations, wherein learning opportunities of different
parts are sought, such as employees, suppliers, customers and even competitors. Such approach facilitates learning and double-
loop learning or learning through exploration is expected. Lean thinking, focusing on cost reduction, efficiency improvement,
standardization, prior planning and on-going direct control, might become an obstacle to certain forms of learning, which on the
other hand requires organizational slack, employee autonomy as well as motivation and willingness to learn.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A LEAN ENTERPRISE
While Lean can be beneficially applied to any process within an organization, its greatest benefit comes when it is applied across
the enterprise. In The Machine That Changed World in 1990, Jim Womack, et al., emphasized, "That Lean thinking can be
applied by any company anywhere in the world but that the full power of the system is only realized when it is applied to all
elements of the enterprise." Over time, it can be said that an organization that implements Lean becomes a Lean Enterprise. While
there is no precise definition of a Lean Enterprise, I believe those organizations share common characteristics. A Lean Enterprise
can be defined by these 15 characteristics:
Customer Focus - The external customer is both the starting point and ending point. Maximize value to the customer.
Optimize not around internal operations, but around the customer. Seek to understand not only the customer's
requirements but also their expectations of quality, delivery, and price.
Purpose - The purpose of an organization encompasses your vision (where you want to go), your mission (what you
do), and your strategies (how you do it). Focus on Focus on purpose, not tools.
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Organizational Alignment - You want people to understand their purpose, not just their job description or the tasks
that are assigned to them. All the people involved need to have a common understanding of the organization's purpose,
and practical understanding of the consequences of failure and the benefits of success.
Knowledge – People are the engine of the company, so it is vital to build knowledge and share it. This includes explicit
knowledge (like that from books) as well as tacit knowledge, involving soft skills. Knowledge is built through the
scientific method of PDCA.
Questioning - Encourage a questioning culture. Ask why several times to try to get to the root cause. Encourage
everyone to question. "Seek first to understand, then to be understood," said Stephen Covey.
Humility - The more you strive for Lean, the more you realize how little you know, and how much there is yet to learn.
Learning begins with humility.
Trust – Build confidence in your promises and commitments. Building trust takes time.
Empowered Employees - Give frontline employees the first opportunity to solve problems. All employees should share
in the responsibility for success and failure.
Flexible Workforce - As the Greek philosopher Heraclitus once said, "The only constant is change." Flexibility is the
ability to react to changes in customer demand. The key to success is to maintain redundancy and hence flexibility
within the core competency.
Partnership - Use teams, not individuals, internally between functions and externally with suppliers. Employees are
partners too. As Covey says, "You must find a win-win, never win-loose, solution and if you can't you should walk
away
Simplicity - Lean is not simple, but simplicity pervades. Simplicity is best achieved through the avoidance of
complexity, than by 'rationalization' exercises
Process - Organize and think by end-to-end process. Think horizontal, not vertical. Concentrate on the way the product
moves, not on the way the machines, people, or customers
Improvement - Continuous improvement is everyone's concern. Improvement should go beyond incremental waste
reduction to include innovation breakthrough
Prevention - Seek to prevent problems and waste, rather than to inspect and fix. Shift the emphasis from failure and
appraisal to prevention. Inspecting the process, not the product, is prevention. Use poka yoke to mistake proof process
errors
Visualization – Visuals translate performance of every process into expected versus actual, throughout the management
systems. It is regular, frequent, and factual data driven. Visuals provide the opportunity to quickly spot and take action
at the earliest point that performance has not met what was expected.
Table-1: Difference between Traditional Manufacturing & Lean Manufacturing
Traditional Manufacturing Lean Manufacturing
Scheduling Forecast - push Customer Order – pull
Production Stock Customer Order
Lead Time Long Short
Batch Size Large - Batch & Queue Small - Continuous Flow
Inspection Sampling - by inspectors 100% - at source by workers
Layout Functional Product Flow
Empowerment Low High
Inventory Turns Low - <7 turns High - 10+
Flexibility Low High
COGS High and Rising Lower and Decreasing
Sources: Authors Compilation
LEAN SYSTEM COMPONENTS & BEST PRACTICES
Cultural awareness,
Workplace organization - 5S (sort - straighten - sweep - standardize - self-discipline) & visual control,
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Standardized work,
Flexible operations,
Employee empowerment and continuous improvement,
Quick changeover capability,
Total Quality Management & total productivity maintenance,
Error proofing,
Material control,
Level production.
REFERENCES
1. THE IMPACT OF LEAN THINKING ON ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING Yaqian Wang1 Lund University School of
Economics and Management Department of Business Administration [email protected] Tony Huzzard Lund
University School of Economics and Management Department of Business Administration [email protected]
2. Alvesson, M., & Sveningsson, S. (2008). Designed for learning: A tale of two plants. Sloan Management Review, 34(3),
85-94.
3. Argyris, C., & Schon, D. (1978). Changing organizational culture: Cultural change work in progress. London:
Routledge.
4. Ben, N. J., Naim, M. M., & Berry, D. (1999). Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective. MA: Addison
Wesley.
5. Berggren, C. (1995). Legality: Integrating the lean and agile manufacturing paradigms in the total supply chain - Strategies
for enriching. International Journal of Production Economics, 62(1 & 2), 107-118.
6. 'The Fate of the Branch Plants - Performance Versus Power' in Sandberg, Å (ed), Enriching Production, Avebury,
Aldershot. Benner, M. J., & Tushman, M. L. (2003),
7. Bjorkman, T. (1997). Exploitation, Exploration, and Process Management: The Productivity Dilemma Revisited. The
Academy of Management Review, 28(2), 238-256.
8. Burgelman, R. A. (1991). The Swedish Model of Lean Production: the Volvo and SAAB Cases. In Durand, J. P, Stewart, P,
Castillo, J. J. (eds), Teamwork in the Automobile Industry – Radical Change or Passing Fashion? Basingstoke:
Routledge.
9. Cook, S. D. N., & Yanow, D. (1993). Intra-organizational Ecology of Strategy Making and Organizational Adaptation:
Theory and Field Research. Organization Science, 2(3), 239-262.
10. Cooney, R. (2002). Culture and Organizational Learning. Journal of Management Enquiry, 2, 373-90.
11. Corbett, S. (2007). 'Is “lean” a universal production system? Batch production in the automotive industry. International
Journal of Operations & Production Management, 22(10), 1130-1147.
12. Cox, A., & Chicks and, D. (2005). Beyond manufacturing the evolution of lean production. The McKinsey Quarterly, 3,
95-105.
13. Touchpoint Change Ltd 0845 1301 357 www.TouchpointChange.co.uk © Touchpoint Change Ltd 2008 Page 4 of 5
14. (Gati-Wechsler & Torres, 2008; Hongyi & Taylor, 2009; Lindeke, Wyrick, & Chen, 2009; Shu & Shi, 2010)
15. Retrieved from http://www.touchpointchange.co.uk/
16. Retrieved from https://set.kuleuven.be/phd/dopl/tosb/110316leanmanufacturing.pdf
17. Retrieved from http://www.aleanjourney.com/2010_07_01_archive.html
18. Retrieved from http://www.aleanjourney.com/2010/07/characteristics-of-lean-enterprise.html
19. Retrieved from https://christianpaulsen62.wordpress.com/2012/08/20/defining-a-lean-organization-is-a-matter-of-char...
20. Retrieved from http://www.circoraerospace.com/company-lean-manufacturing.asp
21. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3678835
*****
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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS BETWEEN
MALE AND FEMALE POLICE CONSTABLES
Devata D. Gasti25 Dr. Promod R. Shivacharan26
ABSTRACT
Stress is often regarded as a response state and that its induction depends on the mediation or some appraising, perceiving or
interpreting mechanisms. Studies have conducted in executive, bank employees, officers but much of the studies are not
conducted on police constables occupational stress. In view of this, the present study is conducted to study the Occupational
stress of male and female police constables. The main objective of the study is to find out whether any difference exists
between male and female police constables in regards to stress. A quota sample of 45 male and 45 female police constables of
Hubli-Dharwad city of Karnataka. Occupational Stress Index (OSI) developed by Dr. A. K. Srivastava and Dr. A. P. Singh
was administered. To determine the significance of difference between the two groups means the t-test is applied. From the
same tale, one can also observe that the two groups, female do not differ significantly from each other in the dimension of
occupational stress such as role overload, unreasonable group and political pressures and unprofitability. Further, even in
overall occupational stress females have shown higher occupational stress compare to male police constables.
KEYWORDS
Stress, Occupational Stress, Female Police Constables, Male Police Constables etc.
INTRODUCTION
Stress is part of our way of explaining our behavior and ourselves. It is thought to cause a range of emotional, physical and social
problems. Life would be simple if our needs were immediately and automatically satisfied. However, we know that there are
many obstacles of both environmental and internal origins, which interfere with need gratification. The word ‘Stress’ defined by
the Oxford Dictionary as “a state of affair involving demand on physical or mental energy’ a Condition or circumstances (not
always adverse), which can disturb the normal physical and mental health of an individual.
High incidences of stress-related illness are causing concern across population. Against a background of impending legislative
moves tarts to improve this situation, there is a need to identify key work related stressors. Police work tends to be regarded as
inherently stressful because of the personal risk of exposure to confrontation and violence and the day-to-day involvement in a
verity of traumatic incidents. As a result, high levels of stress-related symptoms might be expected in this population of police
personnel working for our safety and security.
There is a growing preoccupation with stress as a problem within the workplace. Evidence from the Health and safety Executive
(HSE) suggests that 20% of workers feel ‘very’ or ‘extremely’ stressed at work, with percentages rising to 40% in some
occupational groups (Pestonjee & Mishra 1998). ‘Right from the time of birth till the last breath drawn, an individual is invariably
exposed to various stressful situations. The interest in the issues (stress) has been rising with the advancement of the present
century, which has been called the ‘Age of Anxiety and Stress’. Stress is a subjective, which is hard to avoid. Stress is inevitable.
Stress is “a non-specific response of the body to any demand or challenge”. Hnas Selye first introduced the concept of stress in the
life sciences in 1935. It is a concept borrowed from the natural sciences. The concept of stress is derived from the Latin word
‘Stringer’.
Stress is defined as an adaptive response to an external situation that results in physical, psychological and behavioral deviations
for organizational participants. Modern living has brought with it not only innumerable means or comfort but also plethora of
demands that tax human body and mind. The awareness of a demand that exceeds the coping ability of an individual is called
stress. It has been considered as the number one emotional and physical health problem. Though stress is an inescapable part of
human life style, it is manageable largely. With proper understanding of the processes that cause stress, the situation can, be well
managed, stress is a global phenomenon. It is an individual’s physical, mental and psycho-emotional surrounding and its overload
of demands in excess of this capacity to cope through “Soluble resources” (Sharma 1999). Stenbery & Ritzmann (1990) – Stress
can be defined as an under load or over load of matter, energy or information input or output from a living system.
Stress is also used to refer to the state of person in a threatening or difficult situation. Stress is often regarded as a response state
and that its induction depends on the mediation or some appraising, perceiving or interpreting mechanisms.
25 Assistant Professor, Department of Studies in Social Work, Rani Channamma University, Karnataka, India,
[email protected] 26Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, Karnatak University, Karnataka, India, [email protected]
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METHODOLOGY USED
In the world of work as we all, no one has to undergo certain situations where they find it out of control or situations where they
had to see all the side but due to overload or lack of time it becomes less possible. Studies have conducted in executive, bank
employees, officers but much of the studies are not conducted on police constables occupational stress. In view of this, the present
study is conducted to study the Occupational stress of male and female police constables.
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
To find out whether any difference exists between male and female police constables in regards to stress.
Sample: A quota sample of 45 male and 45 female police constables of Hubli-Dharwad city of Karnataka.
Measures Used: Occupational stress Index (OSI) developed by Dr. A. K. Srivastava and Dr. A. P. Singh. The scale consists of 46
items each to be rated on five-point scale out of 43 items, 2 are ‘true-keyed’ and 19 are ‘false-keyed’.
Reliability: The reliability index as curtained by split-half (odd-even) method and Cronbach’s alpha-coefficient for the scale as a
whole were found to be 934 and 93, respectively.
t-test: To determine the significance of difference between the two groups means the t-test is applied.
Table-1: Showing Me and SDs for Occupational Stress Variable of Male and Female Police Constable
Variable Gender No Mean SD
Role Overload Male 45 48.2 10.06
Female 45 51.78 9.74
Role Ambiguity Male 45 46.72 9.49
Female 45 53.28 9.56
Role Conflict Male 45 47.42 8.42
Female 45 52.59 10.82
Unreasonable Group and Political Pressures Male 45 48.22 11.16
Female 45 51.78 8.49
Responsibility For Persons Male 45 46.69 9.40
Female 45 53.32 9.56
Under Participation Male 45 48.13 9.29
Female 45 51.87 10.42
Powerlessness Male 45 46.44 7.20
Female 45 53.56 11.16
Poor Peer Relations Male 45 46.57 8.04
Female 45 53.43 10.65
Intrinsic Impoverishment Male 45 46.40 8.18
Female 45 53.60 10.43
Low Status Male 45 44.04 7.25
Female 45 55.96 8.77
Strenuous Working Conditions Male 45 46.25 9.06
Female 45 53.76 9.55
Unprofitability Male 45 51.10 10.63
Female 45 48.91 9.32
Overall Occupational Stress Male 45 44.57 6.82
Female 45 55.43 9.76
Sources: Authors Compilation
An observation of table-1 reveals that Female’s police constables are found to be above average in most of the dimensions of
occupational stress as well as overall occupational stress. Such as role overload (51.78), Role ambiguity (53.28), Role conflict
(52.59), Irresponsibility for persons (51.87), Under-participation poor peer relations (53.43), Intrinsic impoverishment (53.60),
Low status (55.96), overall occupational stress (55.43) whereas male are have shown below average in these dimensions and
overall occupational stress. Further in are dimension of occupational stress that is unprofitability shown above average (51.10)
whereas females have shown below average (48.91).
A glance at the table No.2 reveals that male and female police constables differ significantly from each other in the dimension of
occupational stress that is Role conflict (t—2.52; p<0.05), in under participation (t= -1.79; p<0.05). In other words, female police
constables are found to have significantly higher occupational stress in terms of Role conflict and under participation.
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Even in the dimension such as Role ambiguity (t=-3.26; p<0.01), Responsibility for persons (t=-3.31; p<0.01), powerlessness (t=-
3.59; p<0.01), poor peer relations (t=-3.45; p<0.01), female police constables are found to high higher occupational stress
compared to male police constables.
Table-2: Showing MD SEM and t-value for the Score of Occupational Stress of Male and Female Police Constable
Variable Mean
Difference
Std. Error
of Mean
‘t’ value
Role Overload -3.55 1.50 -1.70
Role Ambiguity -6.55 1.41 -3.26**
Role Conflict -5.17 1.25 -2.52*
Unreasonable Group and Political Pressures -3.56 1.66 -1.70
Responsibility for Persons -6.60 1.40 -3.31**
Under Participation -3.73 1.38 -1.79*
Powerlessness -7.11 1.07 -3.59**
Poor Peer Relations -6.86 1.20 -3.45**
Intrinsic Impoverishment -7.19 1.22 -3.64***
Low Status -11.91 1.08 -7.02***
Strenuous Working Conditions -7.50 1.35 -3.82***
Unprofitability 2.19 1.58 1.04
Overall Occupational Stress -10.86 1.01 -6.12***
Note: *p<0.05; significant
** p<0.01; highly significant
*** pM0.001; very highly significant
Sources: Authors Compilation
Further in dimension such as Intrinsic impoverishment (t=-3.64, p<0.001), Low status (t=-7.02; p<0.001), strenuous working
conditions (t=-3.82, p<0.001), and even in overall all occupational stress (t=-6.12; p<0.001) female police constables are found to
have significantly very high occupational stress compared to male police constables. From the same tale, one can also observe that
the two groups. Female do not differ significantly from each other in the dimension of occupational stress such as role overload,
unreasonable group and political pressures and unprofitability.
CONCLUSION
The obtained results have led to following conclusions:
Female police constables have shown significantly higher occupational stress in terms of role ambiguity compared to
male police constable.
Female police constables have shown significantly higher occupational stress to terms of role conflict compared to male
police constable.
Female police constables have shown significantly higher occupational stress in terms of responsibility for persons,
under participation, powerlessness, poor peer relations, intrinsic impoverishment, and low status as well as in strenuous
working conditions.
Further, even in overall occupational stress females have shown higher occupational stress compare to male police
constables.
REFERENCES
1. Akiva, M. Liberman, Suzanne, R. Best, Thomas, J. Metzler, Jeffrey, A. Fagan, Daniel, S. Weiss, & Charles, R. Marmar,
(2002). Routine occupational stress and psychological distress in police. Policing: An International Journal of Police
Strategies and Management, 25(2), 421-441.
2. Barathan, D. (1998). Stress Management. Social Welfare, 49, 69.
3. Bruce, Kirkcaldy, Jennifer, Brown, & Cary, L. Cooper. (1998). The demographics of occupational stress among police
superintendents. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 13, ½, 90-101.
4. Chouhan, V. L., & Sharma, R. K. (2009). A study of stress among policy constables. Journal of well being, 3(1).
5. Cooper, Cary L., Davidson, M. J., & Robinson, P. (1982). Stress in the Police Service. Journal of Occupational
Medicine, 24(1).
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6. G., H. Godjonsson, & K. R. C. Adlam. (1985). Occupational Stressors among British Police Officers. Police Journal
58(1), 73-80.
7. Hurrell, Jr, Joseph J. (1995). Police work, occupational stress and individual coping. Journal of Organizational
behavior, 16(1), 27-28.
8. J., Pienaar, & S., Rothmann. (2006). Occupational stress in the South African Police service. Journal of Industrial
Psychology, 32(3), 72-78.
9. Jennifer, Brown Cary, Cooper, & Bruce, Kirkcaldy. (1996). Occupational stress among senior police officers. British
Journal of Psychology, 87(1), 31041.
10. John, P. Crank, & Michael, Caldero. (1991). The production of occupational stress in medium-sized police agencies; A
survey of line officers in eight municipal departments. Journal of Criminal Justice, 19(4), 339-349.
11. L., Territo, H., L. Vetter, Sale, Allya, & Bacon, Inc. (1991). Stress and Police Personnel, pp. 344. United States
Publication.
12. Malach-Pines, Ayala, & Keinan, Giora. (2007). Stress and burnout in Isreli police officers during a Palestinian uprising
(intifada). International Journal of Stress Management, 14(2), 160-174.
13. He, Jihong Zhao, & Ling, Ren. (2005). Do Race and Gender Matter in Police Stress? A Preliminary Assessment of the
Interactive Effects. Journal of Criminal Justice, 33(6), 535-547.
14. Nicolien, Kop, & Martin, C. Euwerna. (2001). Occupational Stress and the Use of Force by Dutch Police Officers.
Criminal Justice and Behaviour, 28(5), 631-652.
15. Novaes, Lipp, & Marilda, E. Stress and Quality of Life of Senior Brazilian Police Officers. The Spanish Journal of
Psychology, 12(2), 593-603.
16. Pestonjee, D. M., & Mishra, P. K. (1998). Stress and creativity: Some research enideneels. Journal of Productivity, 39,
18L.
17. Sharma, E. (1999). Copping with stress. Journal of higher education, 37, 5-8.
18. T., Patterson. (2003). Examining the effects of coping and social support on work and life stress among police Officers.
Geo Journal of Criminal Justice, 31(3), 215-226.
19. Wexler, J. G., & Logan, D. D. (1983). Sources of Stress among Women Police Officers. Journal of Police Science and
Administration, 11(1), 46-53.
20. William, P. McCarty, Jihong “Solomon” Zhao, & Brett, E. Garland. (2007). Occupational stress and burnout between
male and female police officers: Are there any gender differences?. Policing: An International Journal of Police
Strategies & Management, 30(4), 672-691.
21. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12147-011-9100-9
22. Retrieved from http://medind.nic.in/iay/t03/i2/iayt03i2p6.pdf
23. Retrieved from http://ijtre.com/manuscript/2014010519.pdf
24. Retrieved from http://www.officer.com/article/10249325/tactical-differences-between-male-and-female-officers
25. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12815123
26. Retrieved from http://occmed.oxfordjournals.org/content/53/4/256.abstract
*****
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IMPACT OF FAMILY-FRIENDLY POLICIES
IN THE POLICE DEPARTMENT ON WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT
Patricia Jhansi Rani27 Dr. D. Joseph Anbarasu28
ABSTRACT
In India, both central and state governments recently recruit more women police to cater to the needs of women of the country.
However, the women police undergo lot of job stress. Their work life and family life have conflicts with each other due to
various factors like parental leave, work scheduling, school scheduling of their children and so on. For policewomen, parental
leave and early childhood education and care are negatively associated with family-work conflict but the relationship is
curvilinear with the family-work benefits to these policies slowing in the most family-friendly countries. The aim of this paper
is to describe this issue in a present condition. Both primary and secondary data were collected to draw results out. About 80
respondents constitute the sample of the study. With the help of primary and secondary information, the findings are made.
The study reveals that the factors like age, income, family size, experience, shifts and their designation have direct impact
over their work-life balance.
KEYWORDS
Policies, Family-Friendly Policies, Police Department, Work-Family Conflict etc.
INTRODUCTION
The impact of job related stressors generally passes through the families of employees and their jobs. It also has an impact on the
organisations and the community for which they work. The stressful jobs have more such conflicts. Police personnel fall under
this category. Specifically, officers may experience physical, emotional, and social problems exacters bated by stressors that
result from their jobs.
Policewomen may not be able to strike a balance between their hectic work schedules and their family lives, especially if they are
married and with children. Policewomen can be called anytime to report to duty, which would interfere with their home chores
and responsibilities, especially when they live in a nuclear family system without any support and understanding from their family
members. This pressure to meet work demands and assume responsibility for household management and childcare as well is felt
especially by women in police due to the rigid nature of their jobs and having to work. Job attitude is currently gaining attention in
the context of psychological well-being. Police personnel typically spend a great deal of time at work. They have attitudes or
viewpoints about many aspects of their jobs, their careers, and their organizations. Not surprisingly, work experiences are related
to a number of important psychological outcomes such as life satisfaction and overall psychological functioning.
Policewomen need to manage the daily requirements of their family as one side and the multiple schedules, meetings, business
requirements and other routine responsibilities at work. Work-life conflict is extensively reported to be a problem for individuals,
their families and organisations. In order to develop effective strategies for preventing work-life conflict it is critically important
to gain a good understanding of its sources and consequences. Work-life conflict was therefore the central variable in this study.
Women at work need to be understood by their employers. Organizations say that they provide the information about work-life
balance policies and special leave arrangement such as annual leave, career break leave, leave for elective representative, leave to
attend as witness at court in organization, health care centers, rewards and recognition, career growth, insurance plans, job
rotation, incentives, performance related pays, rest rooms and other government schemes like maternity, marriage, sick leave, and
medical benefits. And other work life balance options like staff counseling, organizational psychology unit, workplace health
promotion, social clubs, pre-retirement club, women’s network, breast feeding support groups etc. are said to be existing.
However, work stress still prevails.
The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of work stress on work-family conflict in women police personnel.
Additionally, it is also assessed that how the availability and use of organizational family-friendly policies and personal support
from family go with work-family conflict. Given the relative paucity of the study on work-family conflict and family-friendly
work environments in law enforcement, this is an attempt to fill this gap by examining the effects of work stress and support
mechanisms on a sample of police personnel.
27 Assistant Professor, Department of Management Studies, Bishop Heber College, Tamil Nadu, India,
[email protected] 28Research Guide, Department of Management Studies, Bishop Heber College, Tamil Nadu, India, [email protected]
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Storch and Panzarella (2001) examined the various categories of police stressors and noted that two primary categories of
stressors tended to emerge those within the organization and those outside of the organization. Organizational variables include
such aspects as relationships with superiors, personnel policies, and work conditions. Variables outside of the organization include
relationships with individuals who were not police officers, such as the officer’s family, the public, the media, and the legal
system.
These two domains (i.e., organizational vs. non-organizational areas) are not likely to be completely independent of one another.
In particular, an individual’s role as a police officer may conflict with that individual’s role as a family member. That is, many of
the stressors that are inherent to police officers’ work may influence the relationship that the officers have with their family
members (Roberts & Levenson, 2002). However, as noted earlier, work-family conflict has remained a lesser-examined stressor in
the area of police work.
There exists evidence that the cost of poor work-life interaction on individuals, families and society as a whole is high. Canadian
researchers have estimated that there are substantial costs of work-family conflict to the health care system to be as high as C$2.8
billion (Higgins et al. 2004).
A number of previous reviews and meta-analyses have demonstrated that experiences of high work-life conflict are linked to
lower job satisfaction and organizational commitment, as well as impaired physical and psychological health (Allen et al. 2000;
Amstad et al. 2011; Beauregard and Henry 2009).
The findings of Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) survey have shown that work-family strain
predicts decreased physical and mental health throughout the subsequent year (Magee et al. 2012).
Work and life are an increasing focus for policy initiatives at government and organizational levels in Australia and beyond. There
are four general policy areas that shape discussion in this domain (see Brough et al. 2008; Baird 2011; Hegewisch and Gornick
2011).
The first relates to employee-centered flexibility, for example changing the location or scheduling of work to fit personal
circumstances. Previous international reviews have shown strong evidence for the positive effects of flexible work practices on
work-life balance, health and wellbeing and job outcomes (Nijp et al. 2012).
In a study of parents’ transition back to paid work after the birth of a child, Brough, O’ Driscoll and Biggs (2012) observed that
parents with little or no access to paid parental leave (at the time of the study, prior to recent legislative changes) were more likely
to return to work due to financial pressures. They also reported a range of negative outcomes on their personal health and
wellbeing (including child attachment) and in the work sphere (reduced satisfaction and commitment). Some fathers reported
difficulty accessing parental or recreational leave, and this was perceived to affect father-child attachment and increase pressure
for their partners as the primary caregivers. Similar to other research, the importance of organizational culture was emphasized.
Parents who had experienced a lack of support on return to their workplace (e.g. contract and pay issues, lower quality job role,
lack of opportunities) reported considering moving to a more family friendly employer (Brough et al. 2013).
With regard to recreation leave, a nationally representative survey of working Australians observed clear links between lacks of
uptake of full recreational leave entitlements and higher work-life interference for women and parents, with the strongest
association observed for working mothers (Skinner and Pocock 2013a).
The current review found limited research on the implications of childcare for work-life outcomes. Australian studies using
qualitative interviews to canvass mothers’ views emphasize the importance of childcare for both women’s employment
participation and their work-life balance (Renda et al. 2009, Table 1; see also Table 2 for Baines 2011 and Nowak et al. 2013).
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
In recent years, police departments have become increasingly concerned with the effects of occupational stress on policewomen.
Stress has come to be viewed as a serious problem facing law enforcement, and attempts to both understand and remedy the
problem have been undertaken. The Policewomen play a vital role in police force and the trend of the strength particulars over a
decade in the Tamil Nadu police reveals that there is rapid increase in the recruitment of policewomen recently. In 2013-2014, 165
women police personnel have been recruited in the city alone and in the district 165 were recruited. Tiruchirappalli City Police
comprises of one Commissioner of Police in the rank of Inspector-General of Police, one Deputy Commissioner of Police for Law
and Order, one Deputy Commissioner of Police for Crime and Traffic, one Additional Deputy Commissioner of Police for
Prohibition Enforcement Wing. Assistant Commissioners of Police-I are 12, Assistant Commissioner of Police-II are 3, Inspectors
of Police-I are 31, Inspectors of Police-II are 5, Sub Inspectors of Police (both men and women) are 90, and other ranks consists of
1791 (both men and women.) Women were preferred in this occupation, as they possess inherent personality characteristics like
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maternal sympathy, instinctively relating with a person in distress, compassionate, human responsiveness, good listening etc.
Policewomen have these qualities largely than policemen and they were found to be more successful than their male counterparts
in investigation of crimes concerning women and children.
The need for women police are increasing with the rise in number of women accused, criminals, and victims of crimes such as
rape, kidnapping, sexual harassment, dowry deaths, etc. Policewomen faced work-family balance is considered as an important
factor. Policewomen stress is unavoidable in the police job and women may be at increasing risk for the deleterious effects of it.
The Police women faced the problems of work-life and family-work conflict and policy measures: Parental leave, work
scheduling, school scheduling and early childhood education and care. This study concentrates on these issues and makes them
factors under analysis.
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
The objectives of the study are to:
Study the level of family-friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict at Tiruchirappalli in
Tamil Nadu,
Describe the socio demographic profile of the Policewomen,
Explain the level of family conflict,
Analyze various factors of family-friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict, and to
Provide possible suggestions to reduce family conflict and increase the family cares and the level of family-friendly
policies in the police.
RESEARCH DESIGN
In this study, the researcher attempts to analyze the various dimensions towards family-friendly policies in the police and
implications for work-family conflict. Hence, descriptive design was adopted.
Primary Data: The data are collected with a structured questionnaire, which has been twice tested with preliminary
questionnaires. Women police personnel were hesitant to answer few questions, which have been removed finally. The samples
are chosen from Tiruchirappalli town in Tamil Nadu. The data are collected directly from the Policewomen with a designed
schedule for the purpose.
Secondary Data: The studies already made by researchers mainly constitute the secondary sources. General studies contribute
much to the study. Journals and websites are sources to lay down premises for this study. Few are mentioned in the references.
Research Hypotheses
Based on the sources and the objectives of the study, the following hypotheses are framed and tested:
There is a significant association between the age of the respondents and family-friendly policies in the police and
implications for work-family conflict.
There is a significant association between the monthly income of the respondents and friendly policies in the police and
implications for work-family conflict.
There is a significant association between the experience of the respondents and friendly policies in the police and
implications for work-family conflict.
There is a significant difference between the respondents’ shift work and friendly policies in the police and implications
for work-family conflict.
There is a significant difference between the respondents’ type of family and friendly policies in the police and
implications for work-family conflict.
There is a significant variance among the designation of the respondents with regard to friendly policies in the police
and implications for work-family conflict.
Samples: The sample size of this study is restricted to 80. The selection of sample is not based on the universe, because it is a thin
population, approximately around 250. The sample data were collected from Tiruchirappalli police stations. Purposive sampling is
used for the purpose of study. The investigator’s judgment is essential for this study. Absenteeism, complaints from management
and employers etc., are few factors for judging the sampling unit. Judging the sampling unit is done informally and sometimes
silently. Then, the sample unit is directly contacted and questioned. Few sample units are contacted over phone and questioned.
Period of Study: The study on friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict among the policewomen in
Tiruchirappalli was carried out for the period of April 15 to May 12, 2015.
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ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION
The analysis of the collected data was carried out by using percentage analysis and chi square test, z test and ANOVA test.
Table-1: Shows Low and High Level of Family-Friendly Policies in the Police and Implications
for Work-Family Conflict in Various Dimensions
S. No. Variable Number of Respondents (n:80) Percentage
1. Family-Friendly Policy
Low level 38 47.5
High level 42 52.5
2. Childcare
Low level 33 41.2
High level 47 58.8
3. Family Conflict
Low level 37 46.2
High level 43 53.8
4. Spouse Support
Low level 33 41.2
High level 47 58.8
5. Overall
Low level 40 50.0
High level 40 50.0
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table1 depicts that family-friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict in various dimensions such as
family-friendly policy, childcare, family conflict and spouse support had more than half of the respondents had high level and
overall exactly of the respondents had low and high level.
Table-2: Association between the Monthly Income of the Respondents and Family-Friendly Policies in
Police and Implications for Work-Family Conflict in Various Dimensions
S. No. Variable Monthly income Statistical
Inference Rs. 10000 to Rs. 20000 (n: 33) Rs. 20001 to Rs. 30000 (n: 22) >Rs. 30000 (n: 25)
1. FF- Policy
x2=16.569
Low 24 4 10 d.f. =2
High 9 18 15 p < 0.001
Significant
2. Childcare
x2=31.046
Low 24 9 0 d.f. =2
High 9 13 25 p < 0.001
Significant
3. Family Conflict
x2=17.649
Low 12 5 20 d.f. =2
High 21 17 5 p < 0.001
Significant
4. Spouse Support
x2=4.435
Low 18 8 7 d.f. =2
High 15 14 18 p > 0.05
Not Significant
5. Overall
x2=1.525
Low 19 9 12 d.f. =2
High 14 13 13 p > 0.05
Not Significant
Sources: Authors Compilation
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From Table-2, it is inferred that there is a significant association between the monthly income of the respondents and various
dimensions of family-friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict such as family-friendly policy,
childcare and family conflict. There is no significant association between the monthly income of the respondents and spouse
support and overall.
Table-3: Association between the age of the Respondents and Family-Friendly Policies in the Police and
Implications for Work-Family Conflict in Various Dimensions
S. No. Variable Age Statistical
Inference Below 25 years (n: 09) 25 to 35 years (n: 33) 36 to 45 years (n: 38)
1. Family-Friendly Policy
x2=25.588; d.f. =2
p < 0.001
Significant Low level 8 23 7
High level 1 10 31
2. Childcare
x2=4.106; d.f. =2
p > 0.05
Not Significant Low level 6 15 12
High level 3 18 26
3. Family Conflict
x2=11.113; d.f. =2
p < 0.05
Significant Low level 5 8 24
High level 4 25 14
4. Spouse Support
x2=11.228; d.f. =2
p < 0.05
Significant Low level 7 17 9
High level 2 16 29
5. Overall
x2=6.307; d.f. =2
p < 0.05
Significant Low level 8 14 18
High level 1 19 20
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table 3 depicts that there is a significant association between the age of the respondents and various dimensions of family-friendly
policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict such as family-friendly policy, family conflict, and spouse support
and overall.
Table-4: ‘z’ test between the Respondents’ Type of Family and Various Dimensions of Family-Friendly
Policies in Police and Implications for Work-Family Conflict
Sources: Authors Compilation
S. No. Variable Mean S.D S.E Statistical
Inference
1. Family-Friendly Policy
Joint (n:41) 12.7073 5.44630 .85057 z =2.010; d.f.=78; p > 0.05
Not Significant Nuclear (n:39) 15.1538 5.43642 .87052
2. Childcare
Joint (n:41) 16.8293 4.76394 .74400 z =0.837; d.f.=78; p > 0.05
Not Significant Nuclear (n:39) 16.0256 3.73100 .59744
3. Family Conflict
Joint (n:41) 23.0732 6.43968 1.00571 z =0.247; d.f.=78; p > 0.05
Not Significant Nuclear (n:39) 22.6923 7.33109 1.17391
4. Spouse Support
Joint (n:41) 20.6829 3.17363 .49564 z =3.387; d.f.=78; p < 0.01
Significant Nuclear (n:39) 17.6410 4.74335 .75954
5. Overall
Joint (n:41) 73.2927 8.29230 1.29504 z =0.658; d.f.=78; p > 0.05
Not Significant Nuclear (n:39) 71.5128 15.09422 2.41701
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It is inferred from table 4 that there is no significant difference between the respondents’ type of family and various dimensions
of family-friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict such as family-friendly policy, childcare, family
conflict and overall. There is a significant difference between the respondents’ type of family and spouse support.
Table-5: One-Way Analysis of Variance among the Respondents’ Designation with Regard to and Various Dimensions
of Family-Friendly Policies in the Police and Implications for Work-Family Conflict
Sources: Authors Compilation
Note: G1= Constable, G2= Head Constable, G3= Sub Inspector, G4= Inspector
Table 5 depicts that there is a significant difference among the designation of the respondents with regard to various dimensions of
family-friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict such as family-friendly policy and childcare. There
is no significant changes among the designation of the respondents with regard to family conflict, spouse support and overall.
FINDINGS AND SUGGESTIONS
The following are the inferences made out of percentage analysis:
Nearly half (i.e.) 47.5 per cent of the respondents were 36 to 45 years.
Nearly three-fourth (i.e.) 71.2 per cent of the respondents was Under Graduation.
Nearly half (i.e.) 42.5 per cent of the respondents were constables.
Nearly half (i.e.) 41.2 per cent of the respondents received monthly salary of Rs.10000 to Rs.20000.
Exactly three-fourth (i.e.) 75.0 per cent of the respondents had above 10 years’ experience.
High majority (i.e.) 87.5 per cent of the respondents had alternative shift.
More than half (i.e.) 51.2 per cent of the respondents were joint family.
The following are the findings based on family-friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict in various
dimensions:
More than half (i.e.) 52.5 per cent of the respondents has high level with regard to family-friendly policy.
More than half (i.e.) 58.8 per cent of the respondents had high level with regard to childcare.
More than half (i.e.) 53.8 per cent of the respondents had high level with regard to family conflict.
More than half (i.e.) 58.8 per cent of the respondents had high level with regard to spouse support.
S. No. Source D.f. SS MS Mean Statistical
Inference
1. Family-Friendly Policy
G1=12.5588 F=6.626
Between Groups 3 503.638 167.879 G2=16.9231 P < 0.001
Within Groups 76 1925.562 25.336 G3=10.6667 Significant
G4=17.0000
2. Childcare
G1=14.7647 F=4.809
Between Groups 3 231.275 77.092 G2=17.0385 P < 0.05
Within Groups 76 1218.413 16.032 G3=17.6667 Significant
G4=21.0000
3. Family Conflict
G1=24.8529 F=2.638
Between Groups 3 349.274 116.425 G2=22.7308 P > 0.05
Within Groups 76 3354.713 44.141 G3=20.3333 Not Significant
G4=18.0000
4. Spouse Support
G1=18.9706 F=0.507
Between Groups 3 28.335 9.445 G2=19.9615 P > 0.05
Within Groups 76 1414.465 18.611 G3=18.3333 Not Significant
G4=19.4000
5. Overall
G1=71.1471 F=2.436
Between Groups 3 1006.201 335.400 G2=76.6538 P > 0.05
Within Groups 76 10465.349 137.702 G3=67.0000 Not Significant
G4=75.4000
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Exactly half (i.e.) 50.0 per cent of the respondents had low level and 50.0 per cent of the respondents had high level with
regard to overall family-friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict.
The following are the findings arrived out of test analysis:
There is a significant association between the age of the respondents and various dimensions of family-friendly policies
in the police and implications for work-family conflict.
There is a significant association between the monthly income of the respondents and various dimensions of family-
friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict.
There is a significant association between the experience of the respondents and various dimensions of family-friendly
policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict.
There is a significant difference between the respondents’ type of family and various dimensions of family-friendly
policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict.
There is a significant difference between the respondents’ shift work and various dimensions of family-friendly policies
in the police and implications for work-family conflict.
There is a significant variance among the designation of the respondents with regard to various dimensions of family-
friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict.
SUGGESTIONS
The personnel do not attend any exclusive orientation programme, which should cover the work-life balances.
Therefore, family orientation programs must be thought of in the future. The effectiveness of such programmes is to be
tested with feedbacks and reviews.
By providing counseling on work related and personal problems and extending support from a team of welfare health
and counseling staff, the stress experienced by the women police could be attended and addressed.
Counseling practices can be extended at family level including dependents and relatives for better results.
Support from family members is essential for effective work life and family life. A detailed study can be initiated in this
area.
Typical governmental policies do not consider job based increments and incentives.
In general, police personnel do not have longer vacations.
Exclusive schools for children of police personnel may be considered to reduce school scheduling burden.
CONCLUSION
The study aims at understanding the family-friendly policies in the police and implications for work-family conflict. The
descriptive design is adopted to do the study. The study reveals the complexity of the situation in family conflict. Women need to
prepare themselves to cope up with these challenges. Both external variables like age, type of family and internal variables like
income, experience, shift, designation have direct impact over the conflicts. The focus on internal variables, which is very much
related to policy, needs more attention. Government has a challenge to implement family–friendly approaches to encourage
women police personnel to balance their work-family challenges. The benefits of family-friendly programs may be moderated by
the nature of the job. Family-friendly policies are one way to balance such demands. Such measures are likely to help in
harnessing the potential existing among the women police personnel thereby enabling them enhance their performance at the
work.
REFERENCES
1. Allen, T. D. (2001). Family–supportive work environments: The role of organizational perceptions. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 58, 414–435.
2. Allen, T. D., Herst, D. E. L., Bruck, C. S., & Sutton, M. (2000). Consequences associated with work–to–family conflict:
A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 278–308.
3. Baird, M., & Whitehouse, G. (2012). Paid Parental Leave: First Birthday Policy Review. Australian Bulletin of
Labour, 38(3), 184–198.
4. Bourg, C., & Segal, M. W. (2008). The impact of family supportive policies and practices on organizational
commitment to the Army. Armed Forces & Society, 25, 633-652.
5. Brough, P., Holt, J., Bauld, R., Biggs, A., & Ryan, C. (2008). The ability of work—life balance policies to influence key
social/organizational issues. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 46(3), 261–274.
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6. Greenhaus, J. H., Collins, K. M., & Shaw, J. D. (2003). The relation between work-family balance and quality of life.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 510-531.
7. Higgins, C. A., Duxbury, L. E., & Irving, R. H. (1992). Work-Family Conflict in the Dual-Career Family.
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 51(1), 51-75.
8. Higgins, C., Duxbury, L., & Johnson, K. (2004). Exploring the Link Between Work-life Conflict and Demands on
Canada's Health Care System. Ottawa, Ontario: Healthy Communities Division, Health Canada.
9. Nijp, H. H. M., Beckers, D. G. J. P., Geurts, SaEP, Tucker, P. P., & Kompier, MaJP. (2012). Systematic review on the
association between employee work time control and work-non-work balance, health and well-being, and job-related
outcomes. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health, 38(4), 299–313.
10. Roberts, N. A., & Levenson, R. W. (2002). The remains of the workday: Impact of job stress and exhaustion on marital
interaction in police couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 1052-1067.
11. Storch, J. E., & Panzarella, R. (2001). Police stress: State-trait anxiety in relation to occupational and personal stressors.
Journal of Criminal Justice, 24, 99–107.
12. Retrieved from http://www.infinitecourses.com/Search.aspx?Query=Tamilnadu-Police-Recruitment&QueryId=912
13. Retrieved from http://www.trichycitypolice.com/aboutus.html
14. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3103153/
15. Retrieved from http://psychology.berkeley.edu/people/robert-w-levenson
16. Retrieved from http://www.divorcereform.org/cor.html
17. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3103153
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STUDY OF FACTORS IN WORK-LIFE BALANCE AMONG WOMEN EMPLOYEES
IN IT SECTOR WITH RESPECT TO AGE, MARITAL STATUS AND FAMILY STRUCTURE
Sadhvi29
ABSTRACT
In the fast changing socio-cultural environment, lot of emphasis is given to women education. As a result, more and more
number of women is now working. Gone are the days when men folk were the bread earners for the family. Now women also
share equal responsibility with men. Thanks to the information technology, which has given a broad platform by providing lot
of job opportunities? Work-life balance, therefore has become a challenge now a days for all corporate and it is being
discussed everywhere as a major issue. Work-life balance actually is all about having balanced time for work and personal
life. It includes proper prioritizing and balancing of work and lifestyle. Where work-life balance can lead to a healthy synergy
within the employee, the work-life imbalance can lead to conflicts, job dissatisfaction, health problems, low productivity etc.
WLB, therefore, has become a challenge for working professionals. Though everybody is affected by it in some or the other
way, surveys have indicated that the majority of women population have either turndown or do not pursue jobs because of the
fear that job may disturb their personal lives. Since women are to take care of their family and do most of the household work,
balancing the professional life and personal life simultaneously becomes a challenge. They start feeling that they are not able
to justice with both of their roles.
Purpose: The present study attempts to identify the factors that may lead to work-life imbalance especially in women in IT
Sector. The study attempts to find out the problems faced by working women in IT Sector. This paper will also study whether
age factor, marital status and family structure affects work-life balance. It strives to study the degree to which certain factors
affect work-life balance.
Methods: This research is carried out in IT sector in Delhi and NCR by collecting primary data through structured
questionnaire irrespective of their cadre and age group from the sample of 100 female employees. The analysis is done by
statistical tools like Factor analysis, ANOVA, t-test etc., using SPSS.
Result: Result shows that age and marital status affects the work-life balance in working women. Certain factors like
Company police, Flexibility, company facilitation etc., also are the factors affecting Work-life balance.
Implications: Through this study, we would work out the possible solution to the work-life related problems. The study
would help the IT and other Industries to formulate the policies and flexible work environment to improve women
employment in the industry and women are encouraged to take up jobs. Results may encourage companies to bring work- life
balance among working women by formulating company policies, which are supportive enough to retain women employees.
A better male-female ratio can be achieved if some flexibility in terms of job is provided.
KEYWORDS
Work-Life Balance, Working Women, Factors in WLB, IT Industry, Age, Marital Status, Family Structure etc.
INTRODUCTION
The contribution of the Indian IT industry to the Indian economy over the years has increased tremendously as per the study of
NASSCOM. The contribution is immense with respect to service sector in India. However, the industry is fast paced which is also
suffering from high attrition rate, poor commitment of employees and is depicted with high stress in the job.
The term Work Life balance has been receiving heightened attention and importance since two decades (De Bruin & Dupuis,
2004). Though everybody is affected by it in some or the other way, surveys have indicated that the majority of women population
(72%) have either turndown or do not pursue jobs because of the fear that job may disturb their personal lives. This is evident
from the fact that only 9% of IT professionals in the total labor force are women.
From past two decades, the term Work-life balance (WLB) has been an area of interest and research and is been defined in many
different ways. Work-life balance is balancing the work-family with low conflict. (Limoges, 2003). It is how much the person is
able to utilize or distribute his/her energy, effort between work and family (Parasuraman and Greenhaus 2002).
Handling Work-life balance has become critical as well as it is challenging. In the past decade, globally the number of women
workforce has increased with added responsibilities of home especially raising their children (Brown, 2004; Duxbury & Higgins,
29Assistant Professor, Bhavan’s Usha & Lakshmi Mittal Institute of Management, New Delhi, India, [email protected]
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2001, 2003; Parker & Arthur, 2004). Especially in India with change in socio-demographic factors in terms of nuclear families,
dual-career and single parent families, the concept of work-life balance for women is particularly very important. The companies
are facing the challenge of talent retention in this era of global development economy. There is a need to address the issue of work
life balance in order to win the talent war. To retain the best talent and prevent the burning of the talent because of stressful life, it
becomes a critical issue for the companies to device such policies, practices, programs and interventions to bring harmony and
synergy between work and life of their employees.
Work-Life Imbalance can become a critical disease unless it is handled with care. The recent study is an attempt to understand
WLB and would help IT industry understand the problems of women workers. It will help IT sector to formulate the healthy
policies and work environment to ensure WLB for working women so that large and large number of women are encouraged to
work with IT Companies and the ratio of female employees also increases.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Lot of research has been taken place in terms of work-life balance. Time to time some factors are been unveiled that are some or
the other way responsible for creating disturbance in work and life. From some researches, we understand that there are four
general policy areas that that may be considered very important for discussion in this domain (Brough et al. 2008; Baird 2011;
Hegewisch and Gornick 2011). The first primarily talks about employee-centered flexibility, like, changing the location or
scheduling of work to make working more convenient. Its positive impact can also be seen on health and wellbeing and job
outcomes (Nijp 2012). However, there are varieties of mixed evidence pertaining to the degree to which flexible work practices in
a different way put impact on work-life outcomes (Allen 2013).
The second area is the concept of leaves in terms of paid and unpaid leave. It means how much the employees can avail leaves for
their family reasons like maternity leaves, paternity leaves so that they can address their family responsibilities (Baird and
Whitehouse 2012, King 2012). There are empirical researches which points at the fact that maternity leaves is highly beneficial in
terms of good health for mother as well as care for the child (Productivity Commission 2009). However, there is research which
has come out with observation that fathers are unable to utilize their paternity leave (Smith and Williams 2007; Haas and
Rostgaard 2011; Hegewisch and Gornick 2011).
The third policy in studying work-life balance is the working hours. Majority of research from Australia and overseas suggests
that there is direct impact on work related stress leading to conflict because of long working hours (Holden 2010). This actually
gives rise to the fourth area, which strives on childcare and the impact of this on the employees. Just as paid parental leave, access
to high quality childcare is also considered a very essential support in terms of parents’ participation in paid work. It is a critical
and delicate issue pertaining to the care of the children especially when parents are working. The slight imbalance causes conflict
and leads to immense pressure on the parents leading to work life imbalance (Bianchi and Milkie 2010).
Women’s employment participation (Breunig et al. 2011) is also an important factor to be taken care and it was agreed that these
are the factors that influence parents’ decisions to go for a certain type of childcare provision (e.g., family-provided or formal
services); or issues related to children’s health (Bohanna et al. 2012). By reviewing another ten different studies from New
Zealand and Australia regarding working hours, it was concluded that working hours has a direct impact on work life balance.
(Gray et al. 2004; Alexander and Baxter 2005; Brough et al. 2005; Hosking and Western 2008; Macky and Boxall 2008; Skinner
and Pocock 2008; Losoncz and Bortolotto 2009; Peetz et al. 2011; Skinner and Pocock 2011a; Brown 2012).
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
Objectives of Study
To find out the problems faced by working women in IT Sector with respect to WLB.
To identify the factors that lead to imbalance in WLB.
To find out whether age, marital status and family structure affects WLB
To find out whether different age group affects WLB
Research Design: This study is an exploratory and descriptive research where we study and explore various factors that may lead
to imbalance in Work-Life Balance among women in IT Industry.
Data Collection: Primary data was directly collected through structured questionnaire for WLB.
Method and Tools Used: A structured questionnaire was used to measure WLB. The population included female IT professionals
from Delhi and NCR. 150 questionnaires were distributed in total but the actual response rate was 100. Therefore, a population of
100 could be sampled. Data from the questionnaires was coded and analysed. Mean, Standard deviation, Cronbach's Alpha, and
Pearson correlation were used as statistical tools to assess the reliability and correlations or relationship between WLB, Age,
gender and marital status. SPSS was used to generate the results.
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Work-Life Balance was measured using a questionnaire containing structured questions. All items were rated on five point scale.
“The weight attached to the scales were 1=strongly disagree; 2=disagree; 3=undecided; 4=agree; 5=strongly agree”. Seven
factors, namely, Company Policy, Attitude, Health Facilities, Telephone Facility, Company Facilitation, Flexibility, Study leave
were studied to arrive at the results.
“Cronbach's Alpha” was used to test the reliability of data. “Cronbach's Alpha” was found to be 0.80 which is more than the
standard value (0.70). Using Pearson correlation through SPSS we correlated the measures.
KMO test was performed to check the validity of sample. (The standard value should be .5) Since KMO value is more than .5,
therefore the sample is adequate to represent the population.
Table-1: KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .541
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 1.173E3
D.f. 171
Sig. .000
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-2
Sources: Authors Compilation
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Table-3
Sources: Authors Compilation
From the set of 19 components in the questionnaire, 7 factors could be generated. The total variance explained is as under:
Factor 1 is named as Company Policy and it consists of five components namely Telecommuting, Holidays, Cultural
leaves, Pooling of leaves, Paid Maternity. It has created a difference of variation of 13.580 on WLB
Factor 2 is named as Attitude of people (at home and office) and it consists of four components namely Spouse Support,
Family’s attitude, Superior’s attitude, Colleagues attitude. It has created a difference of variation of 13.580 on WLB
Factor 3 is named Health factor as and it consists of two components namely Health Programs and Exercise. It has
created a difference of variation of 12.926 on WLB
Factor 4 is named as Telephone facility and is an independent factor in itself. It has created a difference of variation of
10.503 on WLB
Factor 5 is named as Company Facilitation and it consists of three components namely Parenting, Relocation, and
Career Rooms. It has created a difference of variation of 10.193 on WLB
Factor 6 is named as Flexibility and Transportation and it consists of two components namely Flexibility and
Transportation. It has created a difference of variation of 7.591 on WLB
Factor 7 is named as Study Leaves and is an independent factor in itself. It has created a difference of variation of 7.381
on WLB
Hypothesis
The following hypotheses were generated:
Hypothesis Statement 1: WLB is significantly affected by Family Structure.
Hypothesis Statement 2: WLB is significantly affected by Age Factor.
Hypothesis Statement 3: WLB is significantly affected by Marital Status.
Hypothesis Statement 4: WLB varies in different Age Groups.
FINDINGS AND RESULTS
Hypothesis Statement 1: WLB is significantly affected by Family Structure.
Null Hypothesis: Family Structure does not affect the WLB.
Alternate Hypothesis: Family Structure affects the WLB.
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Table-4: One-Way Anova for Family Structure and WLB
Sources: Authors Compilation
The significance of Family Structure on WLB was studied by using Anova. Results presented in Table 4 indicate that Family
Structure does not significantly affect work-life balance. Since p value (0.123) is more than α (.05), it implies that Family
Structure does not affect WLB. We therefore accept Ho as the hypothesis is non-significant.
Hypothesis Statement 2: WLB is significantly affected by Age Groups
Null Hypothesis: Age Factor does not affect the WLB.
Alternate Hypothesis: Age Factor affects the WLB.
Table-5: One-Way Anova for Age Groups and WLB
ANOVA
WLBA
Sum of Squares d.f. Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 1.528 2 .764 12.320 .000
Within Groups 5.953 96 .062
Total 7.480 98
Sources: Authors Compilation
The significance of Age Groups on WLB was studied by using One-way Anova. Results presented in Table 5 indicate that Age
Groups significantly affect work-life balance. Since p value (0.000) is less than α (.05), it implies that Age Groups affect WLB.
We therefore reject H0 as the hypothesis is significant.
Hypothesis Statement 3: WLB is significantly affected by Marital Status.
Null Hypothesis: Marital Status does not affect the WLB.
Alternate Hypothesis: Marital Status affects the WLB.
Table-6: One-Way Anova for Marital Status and WLB
ANOVA
WLBA
Sum of Squares d.f. Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups .692 1 .692 9.852 .002
Within Groups 6.882 98 .070
Total 7.574 99
Sources: Authors Compilation
The significance of Marital Status on WLB was studied by using One-way Anova. Results presented in Table 6 indicate that
Marital Status significantly affect work-life balance. Since p value (0.002) is less than α (.05), it implies that Marital Status affect
WLB. We therefore reject H0 as the hypothesis is significant.
Hypothesis Statement 4: WLB varies in different Age Groups.
Null Hypothesis: WLB does not vary in different Age Groups
Alternate Hypothesis: WLB significantly varies in different Age Groups
We have divided the age factor in three groups. Age group 1 includes female employees who are less than 30. Age group 2
includes female employees who fall in the age group of (31-40). Age group 3 constitutes of female employees more than 40.
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Table-7: Independent Sample t-test for Age Group 1 & 2
Sources: Authors Compilation
To check the variation of age group 1 (less than 30) and age group 2 (31-40) independent t-test was performed. The result from
Levene’s Test indicates that there is no significant variation between age group 1 and 2 as p value (0.585) is more than α (0.05).
Therefore, we are considering significant value of Equal Variance Assumed. From t-test of Equality of Means, the p value (0.0) is
less than α, therefore we reject H0. It means that WLB varies between Age Group 1 & 2.
Table-8: Independent Sample t-test for Age Group 1 & 3
Sources: Authors Compilation
To check the variation of age group 1 (less than 30) and age group 3 (above 40) independent t-test was performed. The result from
Levene’s Test indicates that there is no significant variation between age group 1 and 3 as p value (0.263) is more than α (0.05).
Therefore, we are considering significant value of Equal Variance Assumed. From t-test of Equality of Means, the p value (0.0) is
less than α, therefore we reject H0. It means that WLB varies between Age Group 1 & 3.
Table-9: Independent Sample t-test for Age Group 2 & 3
Sources: Authors Compilation
To check the variation of age group 2 (31-40) and group 3 (above 40) independent t-test was performed. The result from Levene’s
Test indicates that there is no significant variation between age group 2 and 3 as p value (0.321) is more than α (0.05). Therefore,
we are considering significant value of Equal Variance Assumed. From t-test of Equality of Means, the p value (0.407) is more
than α, therefore we accept H0. It means that WLB does not vary between Age Group 2 & 3. Therefore, WLB varies in the age
group of 1 & 3 and also age group 1 &2. However, WLB does not vary in the age group of 2& 3.
CONCLUSION
From the study, we have concluded that Age Groups and Marital Status significantly affect work-life balance whereas Family
structure has not much to do with work-life balance. Where all female employees seek family support, the family structure does
not significantly affect work-life balance. It was also found that Work-life balance among working women also varies with Age.
Apart from these factors the other factors which came into highlight is Company Policy consisting of five components namely
Telecommuting, Holidays, Cultural leaves, Pooling of leaves, and Paid Maternity. Another important factor which was deduced
from the study was Attitude of people (at home and office) and includes Spouse Support, Family’s attitude, Superior’s attitude,
Equal variances
assumed 0.301 0.585 -3.776 89 0
Equal variances not
assumed -3.36 24.737 0.003
WLBA
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Equal variances assumed
1.272 0.263 -3.865 78 0
Equal variances not
assumed -4.336 9.201 0.002
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
WLBA
Equal variances assumed
1.026 0.321 -0.844 25 0.407
Equal variances not
assumed -0.97 18.54 0.344
Sig. (2-
tailed)
WLBA
F Sig. t df
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means
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and Colleagues attitude without which it is difficult for a women to continue their work. Health factor cannot be neglected as
Health Programs and Exercises are very much required and company facilitation like Parenting, Relocation, and Career Rooms
are very much in demand by female employees. Another factor like work flexibility and Transportation which allow working
women to continue with their jobs without much problem and the concept of study leaves are also considered by women
workforce as vital requirement, so that they can pursue their higher studies. In order to really manage and retain the women talent
pool it is therefore pertinent for organizations to addresses these factors while designing their policies. The organizations must
understand the needs of women employees and frame the policies incorporating the above factors such as flexibility,
transportation, career rooms, study leaves, paid maternity leaves etc. Since women are more sensitive towards the environment
specially attitude of colleagues and boss at office and spouse at home, it is therefore required for the organizations to provide a
healthy work environment so that women employees can also give their contribution towards national development and balance
male-female employment ratio.
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360-DEGREE FEEDBACK AND OUTCOME BENEFITS: A REVIEW
Uttam Kumar Das30
ABSTRACT
360-degree feedback plan has to be clear regarding what the organizational objective is and what will be the individual
objective of every employee. It should be used as a personal development process. 360-degree feedback system is employees
receive feedback from multiple sources. These sources include supervisors, subordinates (i.e., direct reports), peers or
colleagues, team members, internal and external customers and suppliers, and the feedback recipients themselves. “360-degree
feedback” means to a circular, wide view of an individual’s performance and behaviour from individuals who interact with the
employee and gives information that is more useful. This review of literature discusses 360-degree feedback and its benefits
that provide employees the opportunity to increase their self-awareness. This will also help them to improve their leadership
conducts by having feedback from various sources. The system will also increase individual commitment of subordinates by
giving them chance to express their opinions about supervisors, and thus, to participate more in the decision making process
which is likely to create a higher level of motivation. This review of literature aims at identifying using 360-degrees feedback
and its benefits.
KEYWORDS
360-Degree Feedback, Employees, Leadership Development, Organization etc.
INTRODUCTION
360-degree feedback, also known as “multi-rater feedback”, is employee development feedback that comes from all around the
employee, i.e. those individuals that interact with the person. "360" refers to the 360 degrees in a circle. The feedback would come
from subordinates, peers, and managers in the organizational hierarchy, as well as self-assessment, and in some cases external
sources such as customers and suppliers or other interested stakeholders. Multisource feedback or 360° feedback is an extension
of traditional performance appraisal by collecting information from employee, subordinates, peers, supervisors and customers.
360 Degree Feedback is a system or process in which employees receive confidential, anonymous feedback from the people who
work around them. This typically includes the employee's manager, peers, and direct reports. A mixture of about eight to twelve
people fill out an anonymous online feedback form that asks questions covering a broad range of workplace competencies. The
feedback forms include questions that are measured on a rating scale and ask raters to provide written comments. The person
receiving feedback also fills out a self-rating survey that includes the same survey questions that others receive in their forms.
360-degree feedback has many uses; there are generally two reasons for using it—to evaluate employees for making personnel
decisions, and/or for training and development of employees. According to a recent survey conducted by the editors of
Compensation and Benefits, more than 90-percent of companies that have adopted 360-degree feedback use it in the evaluation
process.
Typically, 360-degree evaluations involve making personnel decisions involving promotions, pay increases, assignments,
and selections for training/development programs. 360-degree feedback for evaluation purposes individuals providing feedback
change their minds to affect a particular outcome
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Smither, London, Flautt, Vargas, and Kucine (2003), investigated the association between 360-feedback and participation in
executive coaching – and impact upon subsequent 360-feedback ratings. All found variability in feedback outcomes, which could
be attributed to certain individual differences and/or situational variables. This study contributes to the literature, by investigating
over time the role of self-efficacy and perceptions of the importance of feedback.
Bono and Colbert (2005) highlighted that motivation to change behaviour following 360 feedback is related to personality (core
self-evaluations). Specifically, they found that individuals with high levels of core self-evaluations (those with high self-esteem,
generalized self-efficacy, internal locus of control and low neuroticism) would be most motivated to change behaviour when they
receive discrepant feedback and those with low levels of core self-evaluations will be most motivated when others’ ratings are
most similar to their own. These results suggest the potential value of coaching to assist individuals to understand their potentially
complex feedback and to increase motivation to set developmental goals.
30Research Scholar, P.G. Department of Business Administration, Utkal University, Odisha, India, [email protected]
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The use of multi-rater or 360-degree feedback, the process in which direct reports, peers, team members, and bosses provide
anonymous feedback to managers for coaching, development and performance evaluation continues to grow in popularity (e.g.,
Nowack, 1999).
When appraisals, feedback or decisions are based on a single-source, the organization may find itself in the position of defending
the judgment of a single person. One person (supervisor), no matter how fair, may be subjected to claims of bias. On the other
hand, 360- degree feedback offers stronger legal protection because the model combines multiple perspectives (Edwards, 1996).
Atwater, Roush and Fischthal (19959), opined that subordinates’ ratings of leadership were significantly higher following
feedback from subordinates under which a highly structured session is there where leaders discussed the feedback results with
subordinates.
Anu Wakhlu (2003) clarified that 360-degree appraisal and feedback system is developmental, and it can be linked to the overall
performance of the business plans of the company and the individuals.
Savneet Kaur (2013) highlighted that The 360 degrees performance appraisal and how it can be implemented in organisations.
Various benefits and disadvantages of introducing this method into organisations have also been listed down. The available
literature provides an overview regarding how this method is beneficial for increasing the overall efficiency of the employee as an
individual and the firm as a whole, and as a result performance improves and training and development leads to real opportunities
for promotion within the company. Employees are also motivated and can have a positive knock-on effect in areas like customer
service.
Boyatzis et al., (2002), studied that to discover more about the place of 360-degree feedback in leadership and management
development. The study is set in the higher education leadership environment, and is timely in a period of accelerated age-related
attrition in the global tertiary leadership sector currently, placing pressure on succession leadership planning and development.
Snyder et al. (2007), studied that the higher education management environment, similarly argue the importance of supportive
institutional strategies to ensure appropriate integration of a 360-degree feedback mechanism. It is suggested; the 360-degree
feedback interview should focus on relationship building to create shared meaning and mutual understanding (Lewis and Slade,
2000) and should inspire self-motivation to learn (London, 2002). In a study published in 2004, a team of researchers was
interested to discover the emphasis that raters placed on supportive and developmental forms of leadership.
Rafferty and Neale (2004), investigated that the notions of supportive and developmental leadership by analyzing open ended
comments made by respondents to the quality leadership profile (QLP). The QLP is a 360-degree feedback survey instrument
tailored to leading and managing in the education/knowledge environment, used mainly by both academic and administrative
leaders in Australia and New Zealand (Drew, 2006). The QLP uses a rating scale and a free text section for brief open comments.
The researchers analyzed QLP results over a total of 160 QLP surveys involving 1,445 raters to determine what the open-ended
comments on the QLP revealed as “top of mind” issues for raters. The authors’ Leximancer-based analysis found that followers
appreciate and endorse supportive and developmental forms of leadership, with comments on supportive leadership predominating
over other themes in the analysis. The findings suggest the importance of supportive leadership and, in turn, the benefit of
organisations providing resources fostering supportive and developmental forms of leadership. It is documented that where
individuals as 360-degree feedback participants perceive that support exists for development from supervisors and peers they are
“more likely to participate in development activities and have more positive attitudes toward a developmental feedback
intervention” (Maurer et al., 2002, p. 92)
Newbold (2008) stated that the 360-degree appraisals are classics. 360-degree appraisals are a powerful addition to the
performance management system. It should be in alignment with the strategic aim of the organization. The author also focuses on
the success of the 360-degree feedback. It is a success only because of few factors like the purpose being clear, organization
readiness, employee preparation, the way it has to be run, and finally effective delivery of the feedback.
Alexander (2006) highlighted that how 360-degree feedback affects the employee attitude, effectiveness and performance.
Organizations will be able to get benefit from the 360-degree feedback when the learner or the employee who is imparted training
accepts the feedback and takes appropriate action to make the necessary changes. The right organizational climate helps in gaining
benefit from the implementation of the 360-degree feedback process. The design and the implementation have to be always taken
care properly.
Morse (2007) discussed that about the gender differences within the 360 managerial performance appraisals. It was found in the
study that 360 appraisal systems does not discriminate the female managers in relation to their male counterparts. Here, the view
of superior, sub ordinate, peers are taken and where in it was found that there was hardly any difference. It says that 360-degree
feedback is one of the feedback process in which the process is very genuine giving the accuracy in the data collected. The
limitation of the study was it was conducted on one company, which cannot be generalized.
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Whiddett & Galpin (2002) stated that 360-degree feedback should be designed as per the organizational need as well as its
objectives. It helps the organization to utilize the feedback effectively in the appraisal process and training & development leading
higher organizational performance. Organizations at the same time should be clear about the 360-degree feedback process, its
objectives before its implementation. There are three basic considerations to be made in 360 degree feedback i.e. who should be
rated and by whom and the rating scales to be used.
“What is currently called 360 assessments - or multi-rater, multilevel, full-circle feedback - is a widely used and effective process
for giving and receiving feedback” (Wilson, 1997). The term “360-degree feedback” refers to gathering and processing multi-rater
assessments on an individual and then feeding that person back the results (Bookman, 1999). The process includes tuning into the
observations and perceptions of those around the individual who are in a position to observe behavior and skills. The critical
aspect of 360-degree feedback is to identify gaps between perception and desired performance (Wilson, 1997).
Wilson (1997), highlighted that an honest self-rater will gain much insight from the 360-feedback process; however, those that do
not rate themselves honestly (either higher or lower) will not reap the benefits of 360-degree feedback. A lower or higher rating
will negate the growth of that manager on their career path; thus, no real growth will take place. This self-knowledge will help the
manager be aware of their current level of mastery and develop the steps necessary to increase performance.
Wimer and Nowak, (1998), stated that work groups within the organization and the entire organization might benefit from the
360-degree feedback process. Individuals that work with one another in a group setting are able to share their feelings on an
anonymous platform, which can lead to unburdening oneself of negative feelings. It is the hope of most raters that the feedback
they provide will lead to motivation for others to change. “It’s common for a group’s morale and effectiveness to improve
dramatically after the members have had the opportunity to give others concrete, honest, behavioral feedback and know that their
views have been heard and taken seriously”.
Lewis, (2000), stated that the use of this feedback method for merit raises can undermine trust and may put relationship and
careers in jeopardy. When employees are rating one another for promotions or pay increases, employees act in a manner to
generate good feedback, leading to a popularity contest.
Graham, (2000), highlighted that the 360-degree feedback process is bound to bring out the imperfections of the manager. This
process is difficult for people to focus on their weaknesses instead of improving their assets and the value of their contributions.
Graham has found that some employees use the assessment tool as a means to “get back” at a manager who has angered them. Of
course managers are aware of this and may start reprimanding their employees differently because they know that they feedback
will reflect all behaviour, regardless if they are well intentioned for the company.
Bookman (1999), stated that Anecdotal and hard data have shown that 360-degree feedback, when used for performance
appraisals, creates a new set of problems for the employees and facilitators, including improper rater selection, overrating and
underrating biases, resistance from employees, and the neglect of personal development).
Wimer, Nowack, (1998), stated that 360-degree feedback should not be a substitute for assessing and managing people’s
performance. It is rather a process for helping people gains a rich perspective on how others view their management practices,
interpersonal style, and effectiveness.
DeNisi & Kluger, (2000), stated that continually appraise the 360-degree feedback system to ensure that the proper goals are
being met. There are not many published reports that state the effectiveness of 360-degree feedback; therefore, companies need to
evaluate the effectiveness for their particular organization, based upon their strategic needs and goals.
Antonioni, (1996), discussed that twelve factors important to the design of a successful (that is, effective) 360-degree-feedback
process: (1) Raters prefer the use of 360-degree feedback for developmental purposes as opposed to using feedback for
compensation purposes. Such use of 360-degree feedback could produce negative reactions from participants. (2) Written and
descriptor 360- degree feedback may be more helpful than rating-scale information. (3) Managers prefer accountability for ratings
by the rater. Raters, however, prefer their ratings be anonymous. (4) Direct report raters (subordinates) who were held accountable
for upward feedback (their names were associated with the feedback) gave their managers in higher ratings. Anonymous raters
gave lower ratings. (5) Managers indicated the following about the nature of the feedback they received: 25% was expected
positive feedback, 30% were unexpected positive feedback, 20 to 30% was expected negative feedback, and 15 to 20% were
unexpected negative feedback. (6) Raters estimated that 19% of managers would be surprised by low ratings in the feedback. (7)
Only half of the raters reported that managers had shared summary results of the upward appraisals. (8) Managers who score high
on achievement motivation (that is, want to succeed) and who value feedback is more likely to discuss the results with their raters.
(9) Managers are not likely to develop specific goals or action plans based on 360-degree feedback. (10) Improvement of low
performance ratings is left to the rate. (11) Seventy-two percent of rates reported that supervisors did not follow up on action plans
related to 360- degree feedback. (12) Eighty-seven percent of rates fell raters had not recognized their improvement efforts.
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Budman and Rice, (1994), highlighted that 360-degree feedback as an increasingly used option for performance appraisal and
discuss its use in various organizations. The trend toward using 360-degree feedback (as opposed to exclusively using top-down,
supervisory ratings) allows employees to have control over evaluations. For organizations shifting to the use of 360-degree
performance appraisals, a key factor is how timing affects employee trust in the process. Although managers may desire a new
approach to traditional appraisals, they are often wary and insecure about receiving feedback from peers and subordinates.
Although training can allay some fears, trust occurs only with time and organizational support for using 360-degree appraisal. The
authors discuss various issues related to this method of appraisal: training, impact, managers’ sensitivity to receiving upward
feedback, and format of the feedback assessment.
Budman and Rice, (1994) also discussed that the fairness issues involved with using 360-degree feedback for decision-making.
Many companies use it for development purposes only, because of questions about the fairness of peer and subordinate ratings
linked to pay and promotion. Additionally, users of 360-degree feedback discussed the necessity of including customers’
perspectives on the feedback assessment. Whatever the specifics of the assessment, as organizations become less hierarchical in
structure, top-down performance appraisal will need to be reconsidered. Patience and planning will allow the use of 360-degree
feed- back to be a key process in this reform.
Coates, (1996), Stated that seven suggestions for preventing 360-feedback assessments from losing impact and effectiveness: (1)
Learn the technology before investing in it. (2) Make sure the organization is prepared for the 360- degree process. (3) Use well-
researched and well-constructed survey items. (4) Protect the confidentiality of raters. (5) Use skilled facilitators to implement the
process. (6) Follow up with developmental activities. (7) Separate developmental feedback from personnel and compensation
decisions.
Coates also suggested on seven years of research and development of 360-degree-feedback instruments. Each suggestion is
followed by information that will allow users to resolve issues, evaluate options, prepare well, and increase the probability of
success. The author asserts that experience has shown that 360-degree feedback can be a powerful tool, but it must be used wisely.
He predicts that 360- degree-feedback technology will continue to increase its versatility and accessibility. Careful preparation
will allow users to implement a 360-degree system that will meet organizational needs.
Heisler, (1996), stated that 360-degree assessment implemented in one of the operating divisions of Tenneco. The company
developed a 360- degree assessment to measure nine leadership competencies thought to be necessary to the organization’s
culture. Heisler uses Tenneco’s approach to support the belief that the 360-degreefeedback process must be implemented slowly;
it must be seen as more than a data collection system. Heisler suggests that 360-degree assessments be designed to measure
behaviors and characteristics that relate to an organization’s strategy. The feedback process must also be supported with tools for
the analysis and interpretation of data. Finally, he says that developmental planning for the participants should follow the process.
The purpose of 360-degree systems is not only assessment but also to provide feedback to stimulate improvement and to promote
an organization’s strategic business objectives.
Nowack, (1993), discussed the key issues related to the selection and development of a 360- degree-feedback instrument. He gives
five reasons for the increased use of 360-degree systems for feedback: (1) the need for a cost-effective alternative to assessment
centers, (2) increasing availability of assessment software, (3) the need for continuous measurement in continuous- improvement
efforts, (4) the need for feedback for career-platitude employees, and (5) the need to maximize employees’ potential. Before
deciding to purchase a feedback instrument or to develop one, an organization must first decide what is to be measured. Off-the-
shelf instruments are designed on five basic models: (1) job analysis: measures knowledge, skills, and abilities based on a
traditional analysis of the position of interest (for example, managerial); (2) competency-based: measures behaviors as compared
to high performers and low performers; (3) strategic planning: measures knowledge, skills, and abilities based on an
organization’s strategic plans; (4) developmental theory: measures knowledge, skills, and abilities based on theoretical and
conceptual models of employee growth and development; and (5) personality theory: measures knowledge, skills, and abilities
associated with personality factors. An organization must also decide on issues such as scoring, confidentiality and anonymity,
ownership of results, and instrument validity. Nowack discusses each of these issues and provides examples of various
applications.
Warren Shaver, (1995), discussed on various pitfalls and benefits of using a multi-rate system. First, he talks about the four ways
to implement multi-rater feedback systems: Buy an off-the-shelf instrument, hire outside consultants, build an internal system, or
use a combination of any of these. Regardless of the type of feedback system used, it must be reliable and consistent, valid, easy
to use, and should create positive change. Second, Shaver says that because 360-degree feedback is a relatively new and subtle
technique (that can be potentially harmful), it is important to understand the process of setting up a system for using it. He
provides these five steps: (1) Design and plan the process. Key factors are deciding who will rate and be rated, ensuring fairness,
utilizing timing, and ensuring confidentiality. (2) Design and develop the instrument. Focusing the instrument on the
organization’s vision can ensure that it is relevant to the future of the organization. (3) Administer the instrument. The format of
the feedback system (for example, questionnaire design) affects the overall success of the assessment. (4) Process and report the
feedback. Shaver cautions against problems of inaccurate transcription, editing, and slow processing. (5) Plan responses to the
feedback. Receiving the data is only the first step in a manager’s development process. Creating and adhering to an action plan is
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where the improvement actually occurs. In this regard, there are three sources of help for managers using feedback for
development: one-on-one facilitators, group discussions or workshops, and workbooks.
Manuel London and James W. Smither, (1995), highlighted that how 360-degree feedback can go beyond traditional performance
appraisal by providing information that can be used for behaviour change and employee development. The authors present a
model and seven associated propositions specifying how differences in perceptions of performance between the focal individual
and his or her Co-workers can affect factors such as self-image, goal setting, behaviour, and performance. Components in their
model include personal variables, such as feedback-seeking behaviour, self-monitoring, and impression management. Situational
factors in the model include how the feedback process is implemented and organizational performance standards.
Avolio, (2005), stated that, “To be an effective leader means to reflect, deeply reflect, and on events that surround oneself that
have reference to how you see our own behaviour and actions influencing others.” To reflect, Avolio (2005, p. 194) suggests,
means “to know oneself, to be consistent with one self, and to have a Positive and strength-based orientation toward one’s
development and the development of others.” London (2002), Peiperl (2001) and Rao and Rao (2005) argue the efficacy of 360-
degree feedback to aid reflective practice, particularly to improve interactive engagement in the leadership role.
Garavan et al., (1997), highlighted that, to ensure the success of 360-degree feedback as a developmental tool, supervisors should
provide coaching and the organisations should reward managers for their efforts. Positive results are also obtained when the
feedback process is built into broader strategic human resources activities (Cacioppe & Albrecht, 2000; Lepsinger & Lucia, 1997).
Smither et al. (1995) studied that low- and medium-level performers improved and high performers declined over time. Some of
this result was due to regression to mean, but not all of it was. However, managers who received feedback were no more likely to
improve performance than managers who did not receive feedback.
Mount et al. (1998) studied that each rater’s ratings (self-ratings, two bosses, two peers, two subordinates) were different enough
from each other to constitute a separate method. The implication for 360-degree feedback reports is that the information should be
displayed separately for each individual rater. This would allow the rate to examine patterns of each rater’s ratings across the
skills. However, anonymity would be an obvious concern with this recommendation.
Megha Vashishth (2014) highlighted that 360-degree feedback facilitates the person to know that how he is being perceived by the
related parties. He may have contradictory results from his superiors or subordinates as he usually behaves in different manner
with the different parties. It provides information to the employee from all the channels associated with him. Multi-source ratings
(alternatively called 360-degree feedback) have been used widely as a means of giving managers developmental feedback about
their performance from different perspectives (Brutus, Fleenor, & London, 1998). This paper focuses on the need for introducing
multi-source ratings system in the organization. It also describes the benefits of implementing 360-degree feedback to the
employees and the organization along with some factors for its successful implementation.
Thomas S. Hancock, Lieutenant Colonel, USAF, 1999, studied that Integrity, service, and excellence. These are only three words,
but as core values them serve as ideals that inspire Air Force people to make our institution what it is—the best and most
respected Air Force in the world. Core values represent the fundamental principles that guide our work and everyday lives. They
serve as the heart of our profession. This explains why at a recent CORONA Conference, Air Force leaders reaffirmed their
commitment to these values. Originally included in “Global Reach, Global Power,” they remain intact as part of the new Air
Force strategic vision document, “Global Engagement: A vision for the 21st Century Air Force.” While the vision calls for
integration of instruction in core values throughout Air Force training and education, more can be done to translate Air Force core
values into behavioral change. To help instill core values in airmen and strive for continuous improvement in adhering to them,
the Air Force needs to expand its performance feedback program to include 360-degree feedback. This initiative would offer the
best return on investment for not only teaching core values, but also living and practicing them in day-to-day activities at every
level.
Phongstorn Ermongkonchai, (2008), studied that, as performance appraisal method known as multisource feedback (MSF) or 360°
feedback was popular in Western organizations for decades, it is questionable if the practice will offer similar benefits at
international level. In this article, the literature on multisource feedback and comparative culture is reviewed. Based upon
practices suggested by recent literature, a research was conducted at the two large-size organizations in Thailand. This research
found that managers could accept the multisource feedback for development purpose. Negative cultural implications can be
avoided while maintaining the merits of multisource feedback for employee development.
CONCLUSION
360-degree feedback gives a clear picture of employees and helps to know strength and weakness. 360 Feedback can also be a
useful development tool for people. It is the opinion that for growth and development of personnel and the department will be
more probable with the adoption of 360-degree feedback system. More so, the implementation of 360-degree performance
appraisal systems in the organization is very much essential. 360-degree is the newest alternative for performance appraisals
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measurement system. 360-degree Feedback is usually a sensitive subject. People are often cautious. 360-degree feedback and
takes serious steps to insure the integrity of the process and support of the individual. 360-degree questionnaires can help by
providing a tool to help leaders compare their self- perceptions with the observations or colleagues or others who know well them.
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WORK-LIFE CONFLICTS OF WOMEN SOFTWARE PROFESSIONALS:
AN EMPIRICAL STUDY
Gowsiya Shaik31 Dr. V. Tulasi Das32
ABSTRACT
The Indian Software Industry is the uncrowned king in the outsourcing of software services. They have shifted emphasis to
offshore projects since the on-site software development has virtually come to a standstill. They have started to scout for
newer markets, improve on the per capita efficiency, concentrate on future technologies and revamp their organizational and
marketing structure. More over in Indian software industry, where around 37% of women employees are in the work force,
most of the employees are found to be struggling to manage family and work place. The researchers have to analyses the
work-life conflict of women employees of software industries at Hyderabad. The findings that emerged from the analysis and
interpretation highlighted the pervasive factors that affect the work life conflict of women. The societal role expectations,
women’s career ambitions, and the nature of the software industry challenges the way they manage their professional and
personal lives. While their self-identities primarily lie in their work, they are strongly influenced to perform the roles of
homemaker and dependent care provider given the societal expectations; this does require negotiation both at home and at
work in terms of how and when work can be done. This, in turn, would go a long way in enabling women to perform better at
work, be more committed to the organisations, and ultimately contribute to the growth of the economy and positively impact
society as whole.
KEYWORDS
Software Industry, Dependent Care, Technologies, Work Life Conflict etc.
INTRODUCTION
India's IT industry can be divided into five main components they are Software Products, IT services, Engineering and R&D
services, ITES/BPO (IT-enabled services/Business Process Outsourcing) and Hardware. Export revenues primarily on project
based IT Services continue to drive growth with IT Services accounting for 59% of total revenues followed by BPO and
Engineering services at 22% and Software Products at 19%. Multi-year annuity based outsourcing agreements are expected to
increase going forward. In terms of total export and domestic revenues, Application Development and Maintenance (ADM)
continue to be the bread and butter for Indian IT companies, contributing to roughly 60% of their total revenues. Work–life
balance has been defined as ‘an individual’s ability to meet their work and family commitments, as well as other non-work
responsibilities and activities’ (Parkes and Langford, 2008). Similarly, Hill et al. (2001) defined work–family balance as ‘the
degree to which an individual is able to simultaneously balance the temporal, emotional and behavioral demands of both paid
work and family responsibilities’. It has also been defined as ‘achieving satisfying experiences in all life domains’ (Kirchmeyer,
2000). Some researchers also regarded work–life balance as ‘the absence of unacceptable levels of conflict between work and
non-work demands’ (Greenblatt, 2002). In some cases, researchers have used a related term such as work–family balance (Lyness
and Kropf, 2005; Wierda-Boer et al. 2008) to denote work–life balance.
Work Life Balance Concept was first introduced in America in the year 1986. The reasons for the introduction of the concept was
the American employees were working towards the achievements of corporate goals and could not able to concentrate their time
on their life activities such as family, self-care, social get together, etc. In general, Organizational work for getting salary and
relaxing at home alone do not fulfill one’s life. In general, every man has two types of activities. They are work activity and life
activity. Work activity consists of performing work itself and career growth. On the other hand, life activity consists of self-care,
family care, participating in Religious/Spiritual and community activities. Self-care includes doing exercise, Yoga and
Meditations, engaging in Hobbies. Family care comprises of spouse care children care, elder/dependent care, maintaining good
relationship with friends and relatives and among the members of the family. However, a few women engage themselves in self-
employment to manage their work and family needs. This happens for married woman following their child/children birth. In the
present scenario, the organisations have started caring about the wellbeing of the employees, which insists in the implementation
of work life balance policies.
Work and Family Linkage Theories
Many researchers pay attention to work-family linkage from 1960s.Work and family become one of the important issues in
domain of sociology, organization behaviour, HR management. There are four patterns in work-family linkage. Each one is
related with its theory.
31Research Scholar, Department of HRM, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Andhra Pradesh, India, [email protected] 32 Assistant Professor & H.O.D., Department of HRM, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Andhra Pradesh, India,
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Separate Spheres pattern -Roles theory
The separate spheres pattern sees family and work as distinctive systems, with the family as a domestic haven for women and
work as a public arena for men (Zedeck 1992). Further, family and work should remain separate in order to function properly and
the division of labour by sex should be maintained in order to avoid conflict. Therefore, work and family are separated, absolute
from each other and not effected mutually (Lambert, 1990).
Mutual Pattern-Spill over Theory and Compensation Theory
From the 1970s, some researchers came to study the mutual effects between work and family (Kate- Kahn, 1978). Spill over
theory recognizes that either system may have spillover effects on the other (Staines 1980). Excess work may have an effect on
family (Voydanoff, 1985) and experiences gained from family domain may have effects on work (Belsky et al., 1985).
Simultaneous membership in the two systems often entails strain and overload for individuals, families, and work units. In
general, the spillover effects pattern shifts attention from the effects of social institutions on each other to the effects of family
members on each other, ignoring the social and political consequences of the context in which family and work are located. Spill
over can be positive or negative. Positive spill over refers to fact that satisfaction and achievement in one domain may bring along
satisfaction and achievement in another domain. Negative spill over refers to the fact that difficulties and depression in one
domain may bring along the same emotion in another Domain.
Integration Pattern-Boundary Theory
Work and family linkage presents integration trend in the times of information. Boundary between work and family are more
illegible because of Information Technology. Sue Campbell Clark (2000) who believes there is a boundary between work and
family first brought boundary theory forward. Mental boundary, time boundary, physiological boundary are the three forms. Many
individuals, then, are border-crossers who make daily transitions between the domains of work and home. Boundary theory is
widely used in work and family issues such as work at home, flexible time, etc. (Desrochers and Sargent, 2002). Individuals try to
find a suitable boundary between work and family. Boundary is characterized by permeability, flexibility and blending.
Permeability refers to the bound one role penetrates to another. Flexibility refers to boundary tactility between roles. For example,
telecommuting female also play a mother role. When permeability and flexibility both exit in two or more roles, blending
happens. Based on boundary theory, though it is difficult to change some sides of work and family, individuals can change the
boundary between two domains to some extent (Desrochers & Sargent, 2002). It is indicated that individuals are reactive in work
and family domain.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Greenhaus et.al, (2002) as conceptualized, work and family life are separate domains having no bearing on each other however, it
is now recognized that domestic identities and responsibilities sometimes spill over into the workplace and that organizational
identities and responsibilities often cross into home life (Halford, 1997; Kanter, 1977). Whereas personal or family lives, interfere
with work are associated for fewer hours but work that interferes with life matters (Reynolds, 2005).However, employees‘
attitudes towards their hours of work, and perceptions and complaints about work-life imbalances actually deals with working
time and complaints about time pressure which are unrelated to hours actually worked (Roberts, 2007). Moreover, the prevalence
of management control of the work life balance agenda and management‘s discretion in the operation of work-life issues (Hyman
and summers, 2007).
Buddeberg-Fischer et al (2008) stressed that a well-balanced integration of professional and private life is an essential goal for the
new generation Moreover, informal arrangements and managerial discretion are important in realizing work and care balance
(Burgess et al., 2007).
Valk and Srinivasan (2011) explored the work and family factors that balance work life of Indian women IT professionals. The
study identified factors like familial influences on life choices, multi role responsibilities and attempted to negotiate them. They
also studied about self-identity, work-life challenges, coping strategies, organizational policies and practices and social support as
important from the viewpoint of work life balance. They also discussed about future research in the IT sector, which could focus
on factors that results in conflict and factors that enhances enrichment and further how these two aspects could be integrated.
Vittal (2003) observed that in order to empower women in the IT sector in the real sense, it is necessary to investigate the social
impact of IT sector on the women’s community. The author has indicated the emergence of metro -sexual men, men who are
sharing the responsibility of the family, which might help women to be an active agent in the IT workforce. It is also observed that
the dropout rates of women get increased with their marriage and childbirth. It is because childcare and housework remain
women’s responsibilities, irrespective of her income, educational level or employment. This places a great burden on women and
restricts women’s choices in terms of better job opportunities. Malliga Dasgupta (2010) explored the relationship between
psychosocial variables and emotional intelligence of women employees in Information Technology Industry. The psychosocial
variables included in the study were Quality of Work Life, Work Family Role Conflict and Perceived Happiness of female IT
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professionals. The sample consisted of 30 female IT professionals of Kolkata. The findings positively correlated with Quality of
Work Life and Happiness, indicating that it contributes toward achieving higher Quality of Work Life and greater perceived
happiness and were negatively correlated with both the domains of Work family Role Conflict, indicating that Emotional
Intelligence tunes down the perception of Role conflict and thereby reduces the stress produced by it. Julia Connell and
Zeenobiyah Hannif (2009), in their research to seek the variance between call centers in the outsourced, public and private sectors
have formulated a model for QWL. They found that the public sector Call centers were found to be inferior in terms of job
content, working hours and managerial style and strategies to the private sector call centers. Conversely, the sales plus features a
management model that is more akin to what would be expected in a Call centre operating under professional service model.
Mohan and Ashok (2011) explained that Stress is often developed when an individual is assigned a major responsibility y without
proper authority and delegation of power; inter personal factors such as group cohesiveness, functional dependence,
communication frequency, relative authority and organizational difference between role sender and focal persons. Work stress and
work-life imbalance are correlated with workaholics, regardless of gender (Aziz and Cunningham, 2008). Supervisor support and
work-family culture are related to job satisfaction and affective commitment (Baral and Bhargava, 2010). Dealing with the work -
family-tension results the career as subject of social fascination and family as a factual task (Kasperet al., 2005). There are strong
connections between dimensions of the work place, stress and job satisfaction. However, there is an absence of theory to provide
conceptual understanding of these relationships. (Fairbrother and Warn, 2003). Work-family balance is associated with quality of
life when there is substantial time, involvement, or satisfaction to distribute across roles.
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
In order to help dual-career women to manage the demands of both work and family, it is necessary to explore the origins and
correlates of work stressors and work-family conflict, and to try to find a support system at the level of the family, workplace,
community and government for resolving it. Therefore, the objectives of the present research are:
To study the work-life balance issues in selected IT companies.
To study the factors responsible to work-life conflicts.
To suggest measures for balancing work life conflicts
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Despite glamour and hefty salaries associated with the field, women in the software industry suffer from physical discomfort and
mental tension, even in their plush office environments. A study conducted by Andhra Pradesh State Women's Commission said
that high salaries and social status associated with the IT sector has attracted women to take up these jobs, but many suffer on
account of various factors like late working hours, the time associated with long hours of travel, pressure to submit to deadlines on
projects, constant learning and up gradation needed to keep abreast with the emerging trends in technology and development.
Covering 150 women in the IT sector and 50 others in allied areas, the study found that long working hours at the desk and job
related pressure creates a lot of physical discomfort and mental tension to software employees. The above discussions clearly
stated that women professional in IT sector unable to correlate work – life balances. Thus, researchers through a light on to study
the factors influencing work – life conflicts and formulate the strategies to coup work – life balance of women professional in IT
sector in Hyderabad.
HYPOTHESES OF STUDY
Ho: The women professional are highly satisfied with the work and family life and there are no conflicts in relation to their work –
life balance.
METHODOLOGY OF STUDY
The present study uses descriptive research design, which is typically more formal and structured than exploratory research. In
order to achieve the objectives relevant primary data as well as secondary data are deployed. Primary data are collected from
using the questionnaire developed by the researcher, which has 36 statements relevant to find out the work-life conflicts facing the
women software professionals. Non-probability convenience method has been used to select the sample respondents. Enough care
has been taken to have representation of all types of women employees belong to different levels of management.
The information is collected from 65 respondents. Secondary data are collected from Books, Magazines, Journals, News Papers,
Websites, and other published sources that provide relevant information on current trends in human resources development. The
present study was conducted in the twin cities of Hyderabad, which is center of software companies in Joint state of Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana.
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RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Table-1: KMO and Bartlett's Test for Reliability
Number of Questions Sampling Adequacy
Flexibility in Work 5 .728
Support From Manager / Teammates 3 .721
Work Hours 7 .774
Work Stress 4 .736
Health Issues 7 .755
Dependent Care Issues 4 .616
Family Stress 6 .595
Sources: Authors Compilation
The KMO measure of sampling adequacy is above 0.7 for all the factors, indicating that the present data is suitable for Factor
analysis. Similarly Bartlett’s test of Sphericity is significant (p<0.001), indicating sufficient correlation exists between the
variables to proceed with the analysis.
Factors Relating to Flexibility in work and Support from Manager / Teammates
The mean scores from the below table, on the response patterns of flexibility in work and support from managers are given as the
respondents are highly dissatisfied, where the mean values are below two, it says that the respondents are in not satisfied ,and are
facing troubles often. The statements like Lack of technical support from my manager (1.7) are very low. In addition, the
remaining statement like Lack of flexibility in work creates problems in family life (1.71), my teammates are non-supportive and
non-cooperative (1.8) is causing conflicts in the organization. Some of the statements I am unable to take leave even in emergency
(2.18), my work schedule is difficult to be accommodated (2.23), are in the accepted level, the respondents some-what happier
about this statements.
Table-2
Dimensions Mean Std.
Deviation
Factor
Score
Rank
Lack of flexibility in work creates problems in family life 1.7111 .45579 .869 3
I have problems in my personal life because of unfriendly
climate in the organization 1.8000 .40224 .839
4
I find it difficult to take leave in this organization 1.9556 .36446 .918 1
I am unable to take leave even in emergency 2.1889 .63413 .688 5
My work schedule is difficult to be accommodated 2.2333 .54153 .654 7
Lack of technical support from my manager 1.7000 .54977 .856 6
I am always in problem with my manager 1.9000 .58155 .874 2
My team mates are non-supportive and non-cooperative 1.8000 .52360 .839 4
Sources: Authors Compilation
In order to reduce the number of variables and to make more meaningful factors, which play significant role for variable relations
climate, factor analysis has been attempted. Out of the 8 items presented in the first part of the questionnaire and their loading on
each of the factors, It can be further observed that given by the ranks, the researcher has finally stated that “I find it difficult to
take leave in this organization” has the first reason for work-life conflicts in the organization.
Factors Relating to Work hours and Work Stress
The mean scores from the below table, on the response patterns of Work hours and Work stress are given, the respondents are
dissatisfied with the statements, where the mean values are below two, it says that the respondents are in not satisfied with the
work hours and the stress at work place is high. The statements like “my work is very tedious and takes more time (1.74); I cannot
finish my work within the stipulated time frame (1.74) are highly impacted. These two factors are highly responsible for work life
conflicts in women software professionals, as like other statements long hours of work time, shift periods, going late to home are
some other causes for conflicts in day-to-day working in the software life. I feel stressful in keeping up to date on new
technologies (2.15), are some at the agree level, why because as the time changes they also become up to date and learning new
skills, Meetings/trainings are held at odd times (2.18), as compared to past now the companies are following the latest techniques
like work from home, it gives lenis for the software professionals to work at home and at convenient time. Therefore, that is why
some of the statements are at the accepted level, and the respondents are happier.
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Table-3
Statements Mean Standard
Deviation
Factor
Score
Rank
I have to work on many shifts 1.9222 .42999 .753 6
I work for long hours 1.8444 .42164 .740 7
My work is very tedious and takes more time 1.7444 .57203 .587 8
I go home too late 1.8889 .50713 .505 9
I be away from house for many days 1.9556 .47193 .768 5
I cannot finish my work within the stipulated time frame 1.7444 .57203 .930 1
Meetings/trainings are held at odd times 2.1889 .57854 .769 4
I feel stressful in keeping up to date on new technologies 2.1556 .49517 .879 2
Working simultaneously on more projects due to fewer resources
is taking my time to update my skill 2.2444 .43216 .863 3
Sources: Authors Compilation
In order to reduce the number of variables and to make more meaningful factors, which play significant role for factors for work
life conflicts, factor analysis has been attempted. Out of the nine items presented in the second part of the questionnaire and their
loading on each of the factors, it can be further observed that given by the ranks, the researcher has finally stated that “I cannot
finish my work within the stipulated time frame (.930) got highest factor score, this is the first factor for work life conflicts. As
given in order, the ranks show the impact of each statement on the work life conflict caused by work stress and work time for
software professionals.
Factors Relating to Health Issues, Dependent Care Issues and Family Stress
The mean scores from the below table, from the response patterns of flexibility in work and support from managers are given; the
respondents are dissatisfied with the statements, where the mean values are below two, it says that the respondents are in not
satisfied with the health issues, family stress and family care. Among the mean scores “I am not able to follow any health
management programs (1.67) is very low, The statement reflects that the women software employees are not in position to
following any type of health management practices. As like the statement “My family members miss me a lot (1.53), describes
that they fail in dependent care issues. Likewise, “I have trouble getting along with my family members (1.95), describing that the
women employees are facing stress at family matters. Finally, it can be concluded that the women software professionals are not
in a position to manage or to care the family customs and family related issues.
Table-4
Statements Mean Standard
Deviation
Factor
Score
Rank
Working at odd hours deteriorated my health 2.2667 .49264 .848 5
I depress easily after joining this profession 2.2444 .43216 .847 6
I am not able to follow any health management programs 1.6778 .51555 .644
I do not get proper sleep 1.8778 .36189 .871 3
My work makes me too tired easily 2.1778 .95491 .842 7
I frequently visit doctor for health issues 2.0333 1.04344 .922 1
I get angry at work place and home easily 1.7556 .52598 .631
My family members miss me a lot 1.5333 .52360 .913 2
I face a lot of problems in looking after my parents/in-laws 2.0111 .71098 .658 14
I cannot concentrate properly in my work due to dependent care
issues at home 1.9333 .36102 .741
12
I fail to give proper attention to my dependents at home 1.9333 .36102 .825 9
My family feels uncomfortable due to my work 2.2444 .52598 .830 8
Due to the family problems, I am unable to relieve
tensions originating at work 2.2000 .56489 .766
11
The family life is affecting my self-esteem at work 2.0333 .23464 .781 10
I have trouble getting along with my family members 1.9556 .25577 .634 15
I am unable to express my feelings to my family members 2.0222 .25868 .711 13
I am unable to express my feelings to my family members 2.1889 .47154 .868 4
Sources: Authors Compilation
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Out of the 15 statements from Health issues, Dependent care issues and Family stress presented in the fifth, sixth and seventh part
it is to be observed by combining all these factors, it can be observed that given by the ranks, I frequently visit doctor for health
issues has got first rank, it is to be address that the women software professionals frequently facing health problems. In addition,
the second rank given that the statement “My family members miss me a lot” it describes they are far away from the family.
Finally, the researcher has observed that the work-life conflicts are hidden in the women professionals in software industry.
FINDINGS FROM STUDY
1. It can be noticed that the majority of the respondents had problems from Lack of flexibility in work and it is reflecting
or creating problems in family life.
2. It is to be noticed that because, Lack of technical support from their managers women software professionals facing
troubles in their work.
3. It is observed that lack of co-operation between team members and non-supportive climate in the organization causing
conflicts in work life.
4. It is observed that the type of work carried out by software professionals is very tedious and takes more time that is why
women employees are not in a position to finish their work within the stipulated period.
5. It is to be noticed that the software professionals are work for long hours in a day and also they have to work on many
shifts or odd shifts, it caused conflicts in their personal life as like in the work-life, finally it causes stress in their
personnel life.
6. It is observed that because of the long hours and odd shits in the work life software professionals are not able to follow
any health management programs.
7. It can be noticed that the software professionals are not able to connect with their family members and their families
also missing our beloved family members.
SUGGESTIONS TO MINIMIZE WORK-LIFE CONFLICTS
The study suggested that all IT institutions conduct stress management counseling services for women employees, and a law be
enforced by the government to reschedule working hours. The necessity to keep to deadlines as contracts are taken for foreign
clients is very important to keep contractual obligations. The study also found that this kind of pressure exists for both men and
women and it suggested that women should cope with practical problems of balancing work at home and office in order to climb
up the career.
CONCLUSION
The above data analysis reveals that the Work Family Conflict and Family Work Conflict are the very important factors in the life
of female employees working in Software companies. In addition, the Marital Status, Age and the number of dependents are the
crucial deciding factors addressing the work life issues of female employees. In addition, the work-life balance is an integral and
important part of Corporate Social Responsibility. Good employers need to recognize that part of their obligation to their workers
is to ensure that they are not working so hard to damage their lives outside of work or lead to health problems. Long hours are not
just potentially damaging to the individual employee but also to the company itself. Companies need to understand that long hours
may lead to lower motivation, morale, turnover and productivity of employees and reputation in the labour market. Government
also must be concerned with the social impact of long hours on the labour force, which will ultimately be a burden on taxpayers in
terms of higher health and related costs. There has long been a recognition that happy employees are more productive and less
likely to leave. However, the reality in Hyderabad is that there is often an assumption amongst some employers that simply getting
staff to work longer hours will increase their work output.
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TEACHER’S OCCUPATIONAL STRESS: A REVIEW STUDY IN NATIONAL
& INTERNATIONAL SCENARIO
Naveen Kumar Pandey33 Dr. Abhay Saxena34
ABSTRACT
The aim of this research paper is to critical review the existing literature on occupational stress of a teacher and explores its
findings to develop a new insights and future directions for further research. This research paper has segmented in four
sections Introduction, Review of literature, Comparative Table and Conclusion section. 15 Research paper has been collected
for the review, Out of these ten are Indian work and remaining five from overseas. The researcher has tried to display all the
existing literature findings in a comparative tabular format for the clarity, which assists other for further research in this
particular field.
KEYWORDS
Occupational Stress, Teachers, Professional Burnout etc.
INTRODUCTION
A person, who inspires you, encourages you to strive for greatness and see the best in us is the role model of our life and that
could be anyone but the people who guide us in the right direction is the teacher. Teacher play a vital role in nation building, who
creates , who nurture the talent and we look to them for advice and guidance for right direction.
In today's scenario with the hustle and bustle in life, stress is the most common thing, which we can observe, reasons could be
numerous but sometime the major would be the occupational stress. Stress is something, which make you weak mentally and
physically, and sometime the moment come in life when you see yourself in fall. As researches (Naina Sabherwal and Deeya
Ahuja, 2015), (Sapna, Dr. Ved Prakash Gabha, 2013), (G. Lokanadha Reddy & R. Poornima, 2012) shows that our academic
profession is also get affected by Stress and positive relationship between occupational stress & professional burnout. Stress in
academic level could be harmful if your mind is not properly centered how will you generate and impart the knowledge. In this
research paper researcher try to find out the factors which act as a barrier in pedagogy which affect them physically, mentally and
professionally and also assess what are the limitations of the existing research and database helps others to work on this direction.
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
To explore the existing research regarding occupational stress of teachers for future directions to others.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
After review of literature we have found that lots of work have been done on the occupational stress of a teacher in a different
dimension i.e. (Naina Sabherwal and Deeya Ahuja et al, 2015) has tried to find out the occupational stress among faculty
members in higher education institution and the results showed that the determinants of stress among the administrators are
numerous and varied, with compilation of results, time pressures, lack of infrastructure, student’s indiscipline and poor pay
prospects as a very high ranked stressors. Along with that, findings also revealed that the administrators experienced on an
average a low to moderate level of stress and this did not negatively affect their performance.
(Dr. Ansarul Hasan, 2014) found that the primary school teachers are highly stressed. Moreover, the private primary school
teachers have also found to be highly stressed in comparison to their government primary school teachers counterparts.
(Chaly PE, Anand SPJ, Reddy et. al, 2014) results showed, Out of 504 software professionals and 504 schoolteachers, for 23% of
software professionals and 85% of schoolteachers, stress was Not a Problem in their life. 71%of software professionals and 15%
of schoolteachers were in moderate Stress level. For 6% of software professional stress was a Problem in their life.
(Dr. S.S. Jeyaraj, 2013) worked on government and Aided higher secondary school teachers, with the sample of 185 Aided
schoolteachers and 120 Government Teachers. Result shows that teachers who reported greater stress were less satisfied with
teaching, reported greater frequency of absences and a greater number of total days absent were more likely to leave teaching
(career intention) and less likely to take up a teaching career again (career commitment).
33Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science, DevSanskriti University, Uttarakhand, India, [email protected] 34 Professor & Head, Department of Computer Science, DevSanskriti University, Uttarakhand, India,
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(Ali Qadimi and Praveena K.B, 2013) investigated that teachers with higher age groups had higher burn out scores. In addition,
study shows that there were no significant differences between age groups of schoolteachers with reference to their occupational
stress.
(Sapna, Dr. Ved Prakash Gabha, 2013) reported many factors of occupational stress in engineering colleges i.e. academic
problem, fear, uncertainty, life causes, frustrations, pressures, environment, fatigue and overwork.
(Ms. Rani Ritu, 2012) conducted the comparative study of occupational stress of secondary school teachers in relation to their
demographic variables i.e. gender, types of school and locality. With the objective to compare the occupational stress of male and
female secondary school teachers, to compare the OS of the teachers working in government and private secondary schools , to
compare the OS of the teachers belonging to urban and rural secondary schools. OSI index prepared by A.K. Shrivastva is used
for the data collection. Results showed that there was no significant difference in the occupational stress of secondary school
teachers on gender, type of school and locality basis.
(G. Lokanadha Reddy and R. Poornima, 2012) the results revealed that majority of the university teachers are experiencing
moderate and high levels of occupational stress and 86 percent of teachers have professional burnout. In addition, the analysis
showed strong support for the hypothesis that there is a positive relationship between the occupational stress and professional
burnout of university teachers.
(Mariya Aftab, Tahira Kahttoon, 2012) finding reviles that nearly half of the secondary school teachers experience less stress
towards their job and males displays more occupational stress towards job than the females, moreover the trained graduate
teachers are found to have higher occupational stress than post graduate and untrained teachers. Teachers with an experience of 6-
10 years face occupational stress the most and 0-5 years the least.
(Dhrub Kumar and JM Deo, 2011) explored the different aspects of work life of college teachers in general and to find out
difference in perception of male and female as well as junior and senior teachers with regard to their responses in particular.
Findings revealed that junior college teachers experienced significantly more stress on most of the dimensions of stress in
comparison to senior teachers. However, female teachers experienced more roles overload and inter-role distance stress as
compared to their male counterparts.
Table-1: Comparative Table on Different Factors of a Teacher’s Occupational Stress in National Scenario
S.
No.
Research Title Authors /
Year
Factors of
occupational stress in
teaching profession
discussed in the
paper
Key-points Results Limitations
1 A Study on
Occupational Stress
Among Faculty
Members In Higher
Education
Institutions In Pune
Naina
Sabherwal and
Deeya Ahuja
Et al
(2015)
Time pressures, Lack
of infrastructure,
Student’s indiscipline
and Poor pay prospects
200 faculty
members
Pune
Low to moderate
level stress
But not affecting the
performance of
teacher
According to result
76% respondent were
women so result
cannot be generalized
with all the people.
2 A Study of
Occupational Stress
Of Primary School
Teachers
Dr. Ansarul
Hasan
(2014)
Working Environment,
Nature of Job.
100 teachers
50 each from
government and
private
Laksar, Haridwar
Government Primary
and Private Primary
Teachers Both group
are highly stressed
According to
statistical result both
group are stressed
but researcher have
not mention any
stressors and factors
that affects to both
group for highly
stress.
3 Occupational Stress
Among The Teachers
Of The Higher
Secondary Schools In
Madurai District,
Tamil Nadu
Dr. S.S.
Jeyaraj
(2013)
Personal , and social
characteristics
Working codition.
185 Aided School
teachers
120 government
School Teachers
Madurai, Tamil
Nadu
Government teacher
have low stress than
Aided school
teachers
Inequality in sample
size of both groups.
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4 Influence Of Age On
Job Burnout And
Occupational Stress
Among High School
Teachers
Ali Qadimi and
Praveena K.B
(2013)
Age
Nature of Job.
388
teachers using
stratified random
sampling,
Mysore city,
Karnataka
Professional
burnout and
occupational stress
Age groups of the
teachers did not
influence their
occupational
Stress, but It was
seen that teachers
with lower
age groups had lesser
stress compared to
teachers with
higher age groups
Age factors is a
common factors and
we need to do more
survey in different
city with same
sample size and also
need to do
comparative study
between both group.
5 Evaluation Of
Occupational Stress
Among Software
Professionals
And School Teachers
In Trivandrum
Chaly PE,
Anand SPJ,
Reddy et. All
2014
Working Conditions
And Nature of Job
504 software
professionals and
504 school teachers
Software
professionals were
suffering higher
stress than
school teacher s.
The study did not
find out the gender
wise and age wise
stress variation
among the study
subjects
6 Occupational Stress
Among The
Engineering College
Teachers In Punjab,
India
Sapna, Dr. Ved
Prakash Gabha
(2013)
Academic problems:
Fear, Uncertainty
Pressures
Environment
Fatigue and overwork
Only discussed
theoretical
concepts on
occupational stress
Only factors has been
discussed in this
paper
Any statistical work
should be done in
this topic that gives
more justification
7 A Comparative Study
Of Occupational
Stress Of Secondary
School Teachers In
Relation To Their
Gender, School And
Locality
Ms. Rani Ritu
(2012)
Age
Gender
Working Environment
128
sample from
Rohtak, Haryana
There was no
significant difference
in the occupational
stress of secondary
school teachers on
gender, type of
school and locality
Sample size of a
study is less.
8 Occupational Stress
And Professional
Burnout Of
University Teachers
In South India
G. Lokanadha
Reddy and R.
Poornima
2012
Organizational
Structure
Climate
Reduction in Fund
Amount
9 state university
selected by using
simple random
sampling method,
South India
74% of the university
teachers are moderate
and high levels of
occupational stress
and 86% of teachers
have professional
burnout
The study did not
found the subject
wise, particular
course wise stress
variation among the
university teachers
9 Demographic
Differences And
Occupational Stress
Of Secondary School
Teachers
Mariya Aftab,
Tahira
Kahttoon
2012
Organizational
structure and climate
change
Age
Marital status
Salary Package
608 teachers from
42 schools of Uttar
Pradesh
Teachers experience
less stress towards
their job. Males have
more occupational
stress towards job
than the females,
Trained graduate
teachers are found to
have higher
occupational stress
than post graduate
and untrained
teachers
Findings were good
but the study did not
demonstrate the
categorization of
sample in different
segment. Like how
many sample was
married and
unmarried. And from
urban and rural
10 Stress And Work
Life Of College
Teachers
Dhrub Kumar
and JM Deo
2011
Role Overload
Working Environment
100 teachers
From Bihar and
Jharkhand
Findings revealed
that junior college
teachers experienced
significantly more
stress on most of the
dimensions of stress
in comparison to
senior teachers
Findings were good
but variation in
sample size like
junior teacher 75 and
senior teacher 25 can
affect the result.
Likewise male and
female teacher.
Sources: Authors Compilation
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Table-2: Comparative on Different factors of a Teacher’s Occupational Stress in International Scenario
S.
N.
Research Title Authors
/ Year
Factors of
occupational
stress in teaching
profession
Key-points Results Limitations
1 Occupational
Stress and Its
Related Factors
Among
University
Teachers In
Japan
Mika
Kataoka,
Kazuhiro
Ozawa,
et.al, 2014
Gender,
professional
position,
conditions of
taking paid
leave, job
satisfaction,
job control, social
support, and
coping skills
337
Data analyzed
Tools used:
Work Situation
Questionnaires
(WSQ)
General Health
Questionnaire
(GHQ)
Multidimensional
Scale of Perceived
Social Support
(MSPSS) Coping
Orientation to
Problems
Experienced
(COPE)
findings provide
evidence that in
order to
improve the
mental health of
university,
teachers
need to take their
paid leave freely
The subjects in
this research were
one university, so
To generalization
of the results
would be limited.
2 Effects Of
Occupational
Stress On Job
Performance
Among Public
Primary School
Teachers In
Kuresoi Sub-
County, Nakuru
County
Koech
Jewen
David, 2014
Biological
Psychological
And Social
System
Studylinvolved12
37 public primary
school teachers
from 181 schools
The study
findings indicate
that employer
related factors
significantly
affects job
performance
among public
primary school
teachers in the
Sub-County (β
=0.094, p = 0.042)
The study was
limited to
responses to a
self-report survey
received from
randomly selected
public primary
school teachers in
Kuresoi Sub
County of
Nakuru.
3 The association
between
occupational
stress and
depressive
symptoms and the
mediating role of
psychological
capital among
Chinese
university teachers: a cross-
sectional study
Shen X,
Yang YL,
et.al 2014
Both effort-
reward ratio
(ERR) and scores
of over-
commitment were
positively
associated with
depressive
symptoms,
whereas
psychological
capital was
negatively
associated with
depressive
symptoms among
university
teachers
Completed
questionnaires
were received
from 1,210
participants
Among Chinese
university
teachers,
occupational
stress may be a
risk factor for
depressive
symptoms
The study did not
found other
protective factor
like psychological
capital.
4 Occupational
Stress of
Teachers: A
Comparative
Study Between
Turkey and
Dr. Figen
Eres, Dr.
Tatjana
Atanasoska
2011
Personal Factors ,
Social
Characteristics And Working
Conditions
416 Turkish
teachers and 213
Macedonian
teachers
Turkish teachers
have mild stress
levels and
Macedonian
teachers have
moderate stress
This study
included only two
districts, and thus,
it may have
limited
generalizability.
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Macedonia levels Similar studies
should be done
using larger
samples in
different regions
of Turkey and
Macedonia
5. Occupational
Stress in
Australian
Universities:
A National
Survey
2002
Anthony H.
Winefield
Nicole
Gillespie
et. al
2002
Diminishing
resources,
increased teaching
loads and
student/staff
ratios, pressure to
attract external
funds, job
insecurity,
poor management
and a lack of
recognition and
reward
Approximately
50% of the
Australian
university staff
taking part in the
study were at
risk of
psychological
illness, compared
with only 19% of
the Australian
population
overall
This finding
cannot be
explained in terms
of personality
factors
Sources: Authors Compilation
Table-3
Common Factors of Occupational stress in
teaching Profession (in National /
International Scenario)
Different Factors of Occupational Stress in
Teaching Profession (in National /
International Scenario)
Working Condition Social Characteristics
Work Environment Conditions of taking paid leave
Personal Factors Diminishing resources
Gender factors A lack of recognition and reward
Job Satisfaction and more other factors Pressure to attract external funds
Sources: Authors Compilation
CONCLUSION
After reviewing the different studies, the researcher found few similarities in factors responsible for occupational stress in
teaching environment i.e. working environment age factor and job security besides that paid leave role conflict and technological
changes are the factors, which lead to occupational stress in international scenario. The limitations of the study clearly mentioned
in the comparative table 1.0 and 2.0, which shows the scope for further research.
REFERENCES
1. Qadimi, Ali, & Praveena, K. B. (2013, August). Influence of Age on Job Burnout and Occupational Stress among High
School Teachers. Paripex - Indian Journal of Research, 2(8). ISSN - 2250-1991.
2. Anthony, H., & Winefield, Nicole Gillespie. (et. al.). (2002, July). Occupational Stress in Australian Universities: A
National Survey 2002. National Tertiary Education Union.
3. Chaly, P. E., & Anand, S. P. J. (et. al.). (2014, July). Evaluation of Occupational Stress among Software Professionals
and School Teachers in Trivandrum. IJMDS, 3(2).
4. Kumar, Dhrub, & Deo, J. M. (2011, February). Stress and work life of college teachers. Journal of the Indian Academy
of Applied Psychology, 37, 78-85.
5. Hasan, Ansarul. (2014, April). A Study Of Occupational Stress Of Primary School Teachers, Hasan, A. / Educationia
Confab ISSN: 2320-009X, Vol. 3, No. 4, April 2014
6. Eres, Figen, & Atanasoska, Tatjana. (2011, Special Issue –June). Occupational stress of teachers: a comparative study
between turkey and Macedonia. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(7).
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ISSN (Print):2279-0950, (Online):2279-0969
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7. Jeyaraj, S. S. (2013, January-February). Occupational Stress among the Teachers of the Higher Secondary Schools in
Madurai District, Tamil Nadu. IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM), 7(5), 63-76. E-ISSN: 2278-
487X.
8. Reddy, G. Lokanadha, & Poornima, R. (2012). Occupational Stress and Professional Burnout of University Teachers in
South India. International Journal of Educational Planning & Administration, 2(2), 109-124. ISSN 2249-3093.
9. David, Koech Jewen. (2014). Effects of occupational stress on job performance among public primary school
teachers in Kuresoi sub-county, Nakuru county. Kabarak University: The School of Business in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master of Business Administration (Human Resource Option).
10. Aftab, Mariya, & Khatoon, Tahira. (2012, March). Demographic Differences and Occupational Stress of Secondary
School Teachers. European Scientific Journal, 8(5). ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) E - ISSN 1857- 7431
11. Kataoka, Mika, & Ozawa, Kazuhiro. (et. al.). (2014). Occupational stress and its related factors among university
teachers in Japan, 6(5), 299-305. Retrieved on 20/04/2015 from http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/health.2014.65043
12. Sabherwal, Naina, & Ahuja, Deeya. (2015, March). A study on occupational stress among faculty members in higher
education institutions in Pune. SIMS Journal of Management Research, Volume No. 1.
13. Sapna, & Gabha, Ved Prakash. (2013, January-June). Occupational stress among the engineering college teachers in
Punjab, India. International Journal of Education and Applied Research, 3(1). ISSN: 2348-0033 (Online) ISSN:
2249-4944 (Print).
14. Shen, X., & Yang, Y. L. (et. al.). (2014). The association between occupational stress and depressive symptoms and the
mediating role of psychological capital among Chinese University Teachers: A Cross-Sectional Study. BMC
Psychiatry, 14329. Retrieved from www.biomedcentral.com/1471-244x/14/329 dated 20/5/2015
15. Retrieved from http://www.grin.com/en/e-book/284351/a-study-of-occupational-stress-of-secondary-school-teachers
16. Retrieved from http://www.ripublication.com/ijepa/ijepav2n2_08.pdf
17. Retrieved from http://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/viewFile/90/95
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IMPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT ON JOB SATISFACTION:
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Neetha Mary Thomas35 Dr. Sheelan Misra36
ABSTRACT
Constant changes in employment relationships have posed serious challenges to individuals and organizations. It is being seen
that organizations which are unable maintain a psychological connect with its employees end up nurturing a dissatisfied
workforce. The present study has been undertaken to assess the role of psychological contract as a tool for enhancing
employee job satisfaction thereby ensuring a stable employment relationship. Based on literature research a conceptual model
has been developed linking psychological contract to job satisfaction.
KEYWORDS
Psychological Contract (PC), Job Satisfaction (JS), Employment Relationship (ER) etc.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The work environment has undergone a series of changes in the recent past. With organizational flattening and downsizing,
diverse workforce, the ongoing re-definition of roles and activities, limitless job opportunities, individualization of the
employment relationship, the concept of talent management and talent retention is becoming a great challenge. It is even more
difficult task for managers as they end up supervising more people for shorter durations and pitching in on more of the production
work. A study done by PwC Saratoga India on human capital effectiveness revealed that Indian organizations trail behind their
global counterparts when it comes to retaining talent. According to the survey, 35 per cent of the workforce in India has tenure of
less than two years. It is interesting to note that the future of today’s organizations rests in an information savvy generation, who
are highly educated seeking huge benefits and monetary rewards, who researches the company they intend to work for; whose
organizational commitment and loyalty will be as long as the organization can keep satisfying their needs. Researchers in this field
argue that the creation of an optimal portfolio of HR practices will not be effective without understanding the employee
expectations relating to those practices. It is being seen that organizations are unable maintain a psychological connect with its
employees end up losing their key personnel to competition. Hence, the challenge before the management is to identify effective
ways to create a bonding between employees and their places of work. Psychological contract fulfillment is suggested by literature
as a means to reduce job dissatisfaction (Robinson, 1996; Turnley & Feldman, 2000; De Vos, Buyens & Schalk, 2003; Raja,
Johns & Ntalianis, 2004; Psycones, 2006).
In this study an effort is made to explore the implications of employee psychological contract on job satisfaction, with the hope
that the outcome of the study help more number of change agents to seriously examine the issue and find viable ways to nurture a
contented workforce with a strong intention to stay, who are willing to contribute towards organizational productivity.
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
To study the concept and significance of Psychological Contract.
To study the content of Psychological Contract.
To explore the importance of Job Satisfaction.
To find the implications of Psychological Contract on Job Satisfaction.
The secondary data is collected from annual reports, research journals, government publications, books and web sites and the
findings are populated below:
Objective-1: To study the concept and significance of Psychological Contract
Psychological contract is defined as a person’s perception and expectations about the shared obligation in an employment
exchange relationship (Rousseau, 1989). The psychological contract is individual beliefs or perceptions regarding the terms of
exchange between the individual and organization. The psychological contract looks at the workplace relationship as perceived by
employer and employee. It is the psychological contract that effectively tells employees what they can expect from their job and
what they are required to do in order to meet their side of the bargain. The employer’s expectation could be of above average
35Research Scholar, School of Management, Bharathiar University, Tamil Nadu; Assistant Professor, School of Management,
Reva University, Karnataka, India, [email protected] 36 Professor & H.O.D., Department of Management Studies, New Horizon College of Engineering, Karnataka, India,
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performance, a reasonably longer tenure, reporting on time, uphold companies reputation, be courteous to clients and colleagues,
be honest and show loyalty to the organization, etc. and employee’s expectation could be of opportunities for training and
development, opportunities for promotions, recognition for innovation, feedback, interesting tasks, work-life balance, respectful
treatment, reasonable job security and a reasonably pleasant and safe environment. The state of the psychological contract is
concerned with whether the promises and obligations have been met, whether they are fair and trustworthy. Where the obligations
under the employment contract are formal, precise and physically signed, the obligations under the psychological contract are
informal, imprecise and unsigned. The psychological contract comes into action as soon as the employment contract is signed.
The concept of psychological contract has its roots traced to various theories like Social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), the theory
of equilibrium (Bernard, 1938), Inducement-Contribution Model (March & Simon, 1958). Menninger (1958) was the first
researcher to investigate the concept of the psychological contract, which focused on an explicit and unspoken contract between a
psychotherapist and his/her patient. However, he did not use the term “psychological contract” to describe his technique. Argyris
(1960) was the first to use the term “psychological work contract” to describe the implicit relationship between a supervisor and
his team. Levinson et al. (1962), Schein (1965; 1978) and Kotter (1973) further developed this concept. Levinson et al. (1962) had
constructed the term “psychological contract”. According to Levinson et al. (1962) psychological contract consists of “a series of
mutual expectations of which the parties to the relationship may not themselves be even dimly aware but which nonetheless
govern their relationship to each other”. Kotter (1973) emphasized that the more the employer and employee expectations match,
greater would be the employee job satisfaction. According to Schein (1965, 1980): “a psychological contract implies that there is
an unwritten set of expectations operating at all times between every member of an organization and others in the organization”
(Schein, 1980). Schein (1978) reinforced that the terms of this contract are implicit and unwritten and can be renegotiated over the
passage of time. A phenomenal change in the outlook towards psychological contract came with Rousseau (1989) wherein she
placed greater emphasis on the promissory nature of psychological contract (Conway and Briner 2005) and that it exists ‘in the
eyes of the beholder’. According to Rousseau (1989) ‘the psychological contract is an individual’s belief in the terms and
conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between the focal person and another party. A psychological contract emerges
when one party believes that a promise of future returns has been made, a contribution has been given, and thus, an obligation
has been created to provide future benefits.’ Thus, the focus of psychological contract shifted from a bilateral perspective to a
unilateral perspective, that is, from capturing two parties to the exchange to an individual’s perception of both parties obligation in
exchange. Many other scholars attempted to define psychological contract with focus on subjectivity and reciprocity (Coyle-
Shapiro & Kessler, 1998; McLean Parks et al., 1998; Millward & Hopkins, 1998; Shore & Tetrick, 1994). Professor David Guest
(Guest and Conway 2004) of Kings College London has put forward a model of the psychological contract defining the
application of PC to employment relationship.
Figure-1: A Model of the Psychological Contract (Guest and Conway 2004)
Sources: Authors Compilation
Psychological contracts are dynamic, constantly evolving through organizational experiences. The perceptual and dynamic nature
of the contract makes it common that a violation will occur, which is termed as psychological contract breach. Psychological
contract breach accordingly is defined as the employee’s perceptions regarding the extent to which the organization has failed to
fulfill its promises or obligations (Zhao et al., 2007). Studies in this field demonstrate beyond doubt that improving psychological
contract correlates with improving overall organizational success. Practical researches indicate that the psychological contract
relates to high level apperception, organizational supports, work satisfaction, occupation expectation and sensible promise and low
level turnover intention (Wang, 2007, p.41-46 & Turnley, 2003, p.187-206). Psychological contract breach is negatively related to
changes in job performance over time, and this relationship is mediated by job satisfaction (Bal et al., 2012, Zhao et al., 2007,).
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Objective 2: To study the content of Psychological Contract
The content of the psychological contract refers broadly to an employee’s perception of the contributions they promise to give to
their employer and what they believe the organization promises in return (Conway & Briner, 2005). Important to note is that the
content of the psychological contract is not what employees actually give and get from their employer, but the content is the
implicit and explicit promises around the exchange (Conway & Briner, 2005). The number of items (obligations) that can make up
a psychological contract is potentially indefinite as anything the employee and employer promise each other can be part of the
psychological contract. The previous research has demonstrated that the content areas in psychological contract can be broadly
categorized under employee obligations and employer obligations (Conway & Briner, 2005). There are six content areas are
prevalent in many studies of the psychological contract when looking at the employer obligations (Freese & Schalk, 2008; De
Vos, Buyens, & Schalk, 2005; Conway & Biner, 2002; Coyle-Shapiro & Kessler, 2002, Robinson, Kraatz, & Rousseau, 1994;
Robinson & Rousseau, 1994; Robinson & Morrison, 1995; Rousseau, 1990). First, career development refers to opportunities for
promotion and development within the organization or field of work (e.g. coaching on the job). Second, job content refers to the
provision of challenging, varied and interesting work (e.g. autonomy). Third, Financial rewards refer to the provision of
appropriate rewards (e.g. job security). Fourth, social atmosphere refers to the provision of a pleasant and cooperative work
environment (e.g. support of manager). Fifth, work-life balance refers to the respect and understanding of the employer for the
employee’s personal situation (e.g. determine holidays). Sixth, organizational policy refers to the involvement of the employees in
the policies of the organization (e.g. open communication). When looking at the employee obligations of the psychological
contract, two content areas are mainly prevalent (Freese & Schalk, 2008; De Vos, Buyens, & Schalk, 2003; Coyle-Shapiro &
Kessler, 2002). First, in-role obligations refer to the tasks that are described in the job description (e.g. providing good service to
patients). Second, extra-role obligations refer to the tasks that do not belong to the tasks described in the job description (e.g.
working extra hours).
Objective 3: To explore the importance of Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction may be defined as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job
experiences (Dunnette and Locke, 1976). Schneider and Snyder (1975) on the other hand defined job satisfaction as a personal
evaluation of conditions present in the job, or outcomes that arise because of having a job. Job satisfaction can be defined as an
overall attitude that individuals have towards their jobs (Best and Thurston, 2004). It is the extent to which one feels positively or
negatively about different aspects of the job, e.g., work conditions, co-workers and working hours and includes a complex set of
interrelationships of tasks, roles, responsibilities, interactions, incentives and rewards. High levels of job satisfaction suggest the
likelihood of a correspondingly high commitment to the employment relationship. Job satisfaction supports individual job (Jamal,
1999; Judge et al., 2001) and organizational performance (Judge et al, 2001). As a result, research in this area can be used to
enhance both individual lives and organizational effectiveness (Judge et al, 2001; Saari and Judge, 2004). Judge et al. (2001)
reviewing 301 studies found that the average correlation between job satisfaction and job performance is about .30, with even
higher correlations for more complex jobs (e.g. in professional sectors). Numerous other studies also support the view that there is
a strong link between job satisfaction and withdrawal behaviour such as turnover, absenteeism and early retirement. In the context
of general productivity, absenteeism and turnover have been reported to be influenced by job satisfaction (Hall and Buttram, 1994)
and Spector (1997) observed that job satisfaction could be a reflection of the quality of organizational functioning.
Objective 4: To find the implications of Psychological Contract on Job Satisfaction
There is growing empirical evidence, which reflects a positive relationship between Psychological Contract and Job Satisfaction.
Previous research suggests that the discrepancy between promised and received outcomes is likely to lead to feelings of inequity
and, subsequently, to job dissatisfaction (Turnley & Feldman, 2000). Spector (1996, cited in Lambert, Hogan and Barton, 2001)
argues that the cause of low levels of job satisfaction is the discrepancy between actual outcomes and expected, needed or wanted
outcomes. When an employee for example beliefs that the employer owes him feedback on his work and the employer is able to
very well fulfill this obligation, the employee feels satisfied. However, also the opposite can take place, where the psychological
contract is breached this leads to dissatisfaction. Besides Turnley and Feldman (2000), also Wanous et al. (1992), Bal et al.
(2008), Zhao et al. (2007), Tekleab, Takeuchi & Taylor (2005) and Psycones (2006) confirm the relationship between
psychological contract fulfillment and job satisfaction. The WRDI (workplace relationship development indicator) model of
psychological contract suggests that two major predictors for intention to stay are job satisfaction and affective commitment. The
model suggests that delivery of employee expectations; trust and fairness lead to affective commitment and job satisfaction.
Berman, E.M. and West, J.P (2003) suggested that workload, work schedules, responsibility and authority, quality of work,
working relationship with immediate supervisors, interpersonal relations, specific behaviour of employees and managers,
individually preferred working styles, job security, rewards, promotion, career development, and loyalty could be part of
psychological contract involving employees and employers. P. Devidson (2001) suggested employee expectations involve reward
for work/effort, safe and comfortable working conditions, opportunities for personal development and career progression, and
equitable personnel policies. According to the Employee Job Satisfaction and Engagement Survey Report 2014 by the Society of
Human Resource Management, career development, relationship with management, work environment, compensation, and
benefits were the broad areas for analysis. Thus, if one examines the content of psychological contract, it would be easy to see that
the content of psychological contract and the factors leading to job satisfaction overlap in many cases.
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Conceptual Model
Figure-2: Conceptual Model Showing the Relationship between Employee Psychological Contract and Job Satisfaction
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Psychological Contract Job Satisfaction
Sources: Authors Compilation
IMPLICATIONS
It is pertinent that organizations realize the importance of developing a positive psychological contract. The concept of the
psychological contract is built around an employees’ perception on obligations they have towards the organization and the
obligations organizations have towards them. The strong beliefs regarding the extent to which these obligations exist will be
positively associated with outcomes believed to be supportive of effective organizational functioning, whilst negatively associated
with outcomes considered to be non-supportive of effective organizational functioning. The researcher enumerates that if an
employee is psychologically contented in terms of job, work environment, rewards and recognition, effective communication,
flexibility, trust, respect and fairness, it leads to job satisfaction, which in turn would lead to increased productivity and intention
to stay with the employer. Hence, organizations have a vital role to play in terms of shaping a committed workforce who not only
enjoys the work and workplace but also identifies with it through their actions.
The fundamental state of the psychological contract is concerned with whether the promises and obligations have been met and
whether they are fair and trust worthy. Researchers in this field argue that the creation of an optimal portfolio of human resource
practices will not be effective without understanding the employee expectations relating to those practices. Employers need to
offer pay and conditions that will attract and retain good people. They need to offer flexible benefits, which give employees more
choice, for example, the opportunity to trade some pay for more holidays. Career advancement and opportunity for personal
development is another area for building a psychological connects with the employees. Employees need substantial and adequate
information; hence, communication has a major role to play. According to Woodruffe (1999), achievement, a sense of direction,
respect and recognition, autonomy, balance and a sense of fun are the prime factors affecting job satisfaction. If employees are
satisfied with their job, they are more likely to believe that they are more obligated to the organization, than they are to believe
that the organization is more obligated to them, under the terms of psychological contract. Again, higher levels of job satisfaction
are more likely to affect managers’ beliefs about their obligations toward the organization, than they are to affect their beliefs and
perceptions concerning the organization’s obligations toward them.
The present work environment is characterized mainly by high workload in combination with a shortage of relevant resources, job
stress, and role conflict and role ambiguity. Corporates should focus on helping employees prioritize activities, build trust in
relationships, respect and tolerate individuals for individual differences without compromising on quality, flexibility and fairness.
Building employee psychological contract reduces mismatch in expectations, resources, capability and values. Developing a
positive psychological contract is not instantaneous – it is a journey that requires support from all levels. Even as managers, if
through our actions we could reinforce and strengthen the psychological contract in our subordinates it would manifest itself as
positive work outcomes. Hence, it is the need of the hour for organizations to instill a sense of belongingness in their employees as
they embark on their journey together!
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ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP: A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS
Surya S.37
ABSTRACT
Organizational leadership is about management. Leadership by itself is transformative; it is about shifting priorities in workers
and creating followers through the articulation of a vision and supervision. Organizational leadership is a dual focused
management approach that works towards what is best for individuals and what is best for a group as a whole simultaneously.
It is also an attitude and a work ethic that empowers an individual in any role to lead from the top, middle, or bottom of an
organization.
Northouse (2007) defined “Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve
common goals”. Leadership represents individuals involved with balancing varying interests among managers, employees and
other business stakeholders. Management commonly is defined as the organization and coordination of various economic
resources in a business. While leaders can be managers, managers may not be leaders. Leaders often have specific character
traits that lend their skills more to directing a company than managing resources.
Leadership traits include enthusiasm, conscientiousness, boldness, self-assurance and competitiveness. These characteristics
give individuals intangible business skills for accomplishing tasks and inspiring people to work with the leader during tough
situations This Paper reviews the overview of trends in research on Organizational leadership, Definitions, Similar Concepts,
Origin and various approaches and Styles of leadership.
KEYWORDS
Organizational Leadership, Concepts, Approaches and Styles etc.
INTRODUCTION
Human Capital, which gives competitive edge due to its uniqueness, is one of the resources that work as a pillar for an
organization (Holland, Sheehan and de Cieri, 2007). The focus has therefore shifted to “people”, the employees of the
organizations (Cohen, 2005). Employees play an important role in organizations, they are the greatest resource an organization
can have and it is through their involvement and commitment that the organization can become competitive (Sempane, Rieger and
Roodt, 2002). Leadership is seen as a determinant of several aspects in the way employees behave, so its impact cannot be
overlooked (Randeree and Chaudhry, 2012). Organizational crises, mostly due to the world economic crises, emphasized the need
for leadership and organizational culture development by organizational decision makers (Earle, 1996). Changes occurred in
employment practices and the decision makers needed to get their organizations through the crises by creating trust, influencing
employees to achieve common organizational goals (Leadership) with certain values and beliefs of the organization in mind
(Northouse, 2007).Hence the leaders have an significant role in improving organizational efficiency. Leaders are the persons that
add value to an organization. Managers and leaders are not the same. Leaders possess strategic thinking and not only an
understanding of the vision of an organization, but also the ability to effectively carry out and communicate that vision. Anyone,
anywhere, at any level can be a leader. The cornerstones of leadership are Truth telling, Promise keeping, Fairness, and Respect
for the individual.
CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership Defined
According to Northouse (2007) leadership as a process means that, it is not a characteristic someone is born with, it is an
interaction between leaders and their followers. The leaders influence and are influenced by their followers (a group). Leadership
is available to everyone; it is not limited to the person in power. Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group
of individuals to achieve common goals (Northouse, 2007). In Bass’s (1998) definition, leadership is an interaction between one
or more members of a group. In another more recent definition, leadership is a relationship between leaders and followers where
they influence each other and they intend real changes and outcomes that reflect their shared purposes (Daft, 2005). The leader
restructures the problems, offers solutions to the problems, establishes priorities and initiates developmental operations (Bass,
1990). Leadership was associated with strength of personality (Bass, 1990 and Bowden, 1926). A leader was seen as a person with
many popular traits of personality and character (Bass, 1990; Bingham, 1927).
37M. Phil Scholar, School of Management Studies, DePaul Institute of Science and Technology, Kerala; Assistant Professor, ILM
Arts and Science College, Kerala, India, [email protected]
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Evolution of the Concept
Leadership, and the study of it, has roots in the beginning of civilization. Egyptian rulers, Greek heroes, and biblical patriarchs all
have one thing in common–leadership. There are numerous definitions and theories of leadership; however, there are enough
similarities in the definitions to conclude that leadership is an effort of influence and the power to induce compliance (Wren,
1995). Work environment, the motivation to work, leaders, leadership, leadership style, and a myriad of other work-related
variables have been studied for almost two centuries. The organizational focus of the leader has evolved over this same period.
Early organizations with authoritarian leaders who believed employees were intrinsically lazy transitioned into way to make work
environments more conducive to increased productivity rates. Today, organizations are transforming into places where people are
empowered, encouraged, and supported in their personal and professional growth throughout their careers. As the focus of leaders
has changed over time, it has influenced and shaped the development and progression of leadership theory.
The Industrial Revolution shifted America’s economy from an agriculture base to an industrial one and, thereby, ushered in a
change in how leaders would treat their followers. The Industrial Revolution created paradigm shift to a new theory of leadership
in which “common” people gained power by virtue of their skills (Clawson, 1999). New technology, however, was accompanied
and reinforced by mechanization of human thought and action, thus creating hierarchical bureaucracies (Morgan, 1997).One major
contributor to this era of management and leadership theory was Max Weber, a German Sociologist who “observed the parallels
between the mechanization of industry and the proliferation of bureaucratic forms of organization” (Morgan, 1997, p. 17). The
bureaucratic form routinized the process of administration in the same manner that the machine routinized production. Weber’s
concerns about bureaucracy, however, did not affect theorists who set the stage for what is now known as “classical management
theory” and “scientific management.” Classical theorists focused on the design of the total organization while scientific managers
focused on the systematic management of individual jobs. In contrast to Weber, classical theorists such as Henri Fayol and F. W.
Mooney, staunch advocates of bureaucratization, devoted their energies to identifying methods through which this kind of
organizational structure could be achieved (Bass, 1990; Morgan, 1997). Collectively, these theorists set the basis for many modern
management techniques, such as management by objectives, scientific management, an approach heralded by Frederick Taylor,
was technological in nature (Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson, 1996).
The study of leadership can be dated back to Plato, Sun Tzu and Machiavelli; however, leadership has only become the focus of
contemporary academic studies in the last 60 years and particularly more so in the last two decades. Contemporary leadership
scholars and researchers have often been questioned about the nature of their work, and its place within the academy, but much of
the confusion surrounding leadership as a field of study may be attributed to a lack of understanding regarding trans disciplinary,
inter and multi- disciplinary academic fields of study in general. The discipline (which encompasses a host of sub-fields) is filled
with definitions, theories, styles, functions, competencies, and historical examples of successful and diverse leaders. Collectively,
the research findings on leadership provide a far more sophisticated and complex view of the phenomenon than most of the
simplistic views presented in the popular press.(Doh, 2003 and Dalo,2005) The Ohio State Leadership Studies which began in the
1940s (Khurana,2010) and focused on how leaders could satisfy common group needs. The findings indicated that the two most
important dimensions in leadership included: "initiating structure", and "consideration". The Michigan Studies of Leadership
(Boje, 2010) which began in the 1950s (Katz, Maccoby, and Morse, 1950) and indicated that leaders could be classified as either
"employee cantered," or "job centered." These studies identified three critical characteristics of effective leaders: task oriented
behaviour, relationship-oriented behaviour, and participative leadership. McGregors Theory X & Theory Y developed by Douglas
McGregor in the 1960s at MIT Sloan School of Management. These theories described employee motivation in the workforce.
Both theories begin with the premise that the role of management is to assemble the factors of production, including people, for
the economic benefit of the firm. Beyond this point, the two theories of management diverge. Blake & Mouton Managerial Grid
(1964)-updated in 1991 to the Blake & McCanse Leadership Grid-developed the orientation of "task orientation" and "people
orientation" in leader behaviour. They developed the leadership grid which focused on concern for results (on the one axis) and
concern for people (on the other axis).In addition to these studies, leadership has been examined from an academic perspective
through several lenses trait attempt to describe the types of behaviour and personality tendencies associated with effective
leadership. Situational and Contingency theories of Leadership, Incorporate environmental and situational considerations into
leader behaviour.
Approaches to Leadership
Transactional Leadership Focus on Performance
In the late 1970s, leadership theory research moved beyond focusing on various types of situational supervision as a way to
incrementally improve organizational performance (Behling and McFillen, 1996; Hunt, 1991). Research has shown that many
leaders turned to a transactional leadership theory, the most prevalent method of leadership still observed in today’s organizations
(Avolio, Waldman, & Yanimarina, 1991; Seltzer &Bass, 1990). Transactional leaders lead through specific incentives and
motivate through an exchange of one thing for another (Bass, 1990). The underlying theory of this leadership method was that
leaders exchange rewards for employees’ compliance, a concept based on bureaucratic authority and a leader’s legitimacy within
an organization (Tracey and Hinkin, 1994; Yukl, 1998). Avolio, Waldman, and Yammarino (1991) suggest that transactional
leadership focuses on ways to manage the status quo and maintain the day-to-day operations of a business, but does not focus on
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identifying the organization’s directional focus and how employees can work toward those goals, increasing their productivity in
alignment with these goals, thus increasing organizational profitability. Transactional leadership motives and directs followers by
appealing to their own self-interest. The focus is on basic management processes like controlling, organizing and short-term
planning. This style is more responsive and deals with present issues. It also relies on inducement of rewards, punishment and
sanction for unacceptable performance and the ability of the leaders to motivate followers by setting goals and promising rewards
for the desired performance.
Transformational Leadership Focus on Organization
The literature reviewed suggests that traditional power, derived from a leader’s position in a Bureaucratic, hierarchical structure is
becoming obsolete and that effective leaders work from the “inside out “to transform their organization and workers (Burns,
1978). The job of the transformational leader is not to make every decision within the organization, but to ensure that
collaborative decision-making occurs (Badaracco and Ellsworth, 1989; Book, 1998; Dixon, 1998; Wheatley, 1994). This type of
leadership motivates individuals to work together to change organizations to create sustainable productivity (Dixon, 1998).
Transformational leadership anticipates future trends, inspires to understand and embrace new possibilities and builds the
organization into a community of challenged and rewarded learners. This style also develops others to be leaders or to be better
leaders. Its focus is on being proactive, expecting nothing in return, inspiration and motivation of followers to work for goals that
go beyond their self- interest. Learning opportunities are created and followers are stimulated to solve problems. The leaders
develop strong emotional bonds with their followers and they possess good visioning and management skills.
Styles of Leadership
The authoritarian leadership style or autocratic leader keeps strict, close control over followers by keeping close regulation of
policies and procedures given to followers Direct supervisions what they believe to be key in maintaining a successful
environment and follower ship. Paternalistic Style of leadership, leader works is by acting as a father figure by taking care of their
subordinates as a parent would. In this style of leadership, the leader supplies complete concern for his followers or workers. In
return, he receives the complete trust and loyalty of his people. Workers under this style of leader are expected to become totally
committed to what the leader believes and will not strive off and work independently .These workers are able to go to each other
with any problems they have regarding something because they believe in what they say is going to truly help them. (Erben and
Guneser, Gul and Ayse, 2008).The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making abilities with
group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social (Foster, 2002). This style of leadership
encompasses discussion, debate and sharing of ideas and encouragement of people to feel good about their involvement.
The laissez-faire leadership style is where all the rights and power to make decisions is fully given to the worker. Laissez-faire
leaders allow followers to have complete freedom to make decisions concerning the completion of their work. It allows followers
a high degree of autonomy and self-rule, while at the same time offering guidance and support when requested.
CONCLUSION
Human beings are the most precious part of the organization. In the organization, effective utilization of the capacity of human
resources depends upon the management. Leadership is an essential ingredient for successful organization. The successful
organization has one major attribute that sets it apart from unsuccessful organization that is dynamic and effective leadership.
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EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN: A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY OF PAST & PRESENT
Dr. Manju Lalwani Pathak38
ABSTRACT
Women empowerment is a burning topic for debate. Now-a-days Women have been playing a vital role in shaping the family
and life. In ancient India, women used to enjoy high status of social and personal life but in pre-Vedic period, the situation of
women was changed. The society came under the patriarchal family system where male dominance had observed which is
continuing. Present paper is an attempt to provide a glorious profile of empowered Sindhi women in Independent India. Sindh
is the origin of Sindhi Community where Sindhi women were not harassed by they were under the dominance of males. Due
to partition, Sindhis migrated to free India in huge numbers. Many Sindhis were rehabilitated in Ulhasangar Camp.
For present paper, Sindhi women have chosen as samples from Ulhasnagar, a town of Thane district, Maharashtra as
maximum Sindhi population in Maharashtra found in Ulhasangar. Furthermore, paper compares the status of Sindhi women
based on socio-economic variables and justifies the empowerment of Sindhi women through the progression of Sindhi women
in present time in Ulhasnagar.
KEYWORDS
Uprooted, Displacement, Tash, Kaurhi, Empowered, Paparh, Kitty Party Satsang etc.
SCOPE OF STUDY
A clear focal area of the study is to show the progression of socio-economic status of Sindhi women Ulhasangar from pre-
migration (in Sindh) to post-migration (in Ulhasnagar). This article traces the changing status of Sindhi women form pre-
migration to post-migration period and comparative study presents a unique example of women empowerment among Sindhi
women of Ulhasangar.
LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
This study is limited to only Ulhasnagar. Thus, findings of this article should not be considered as barometer of empowerment of
Sindhi women in other towns of India.
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
This study based on survey method. Primary data have been collected from collected from 100 Sindhi married women samples
through direct and indirect interviews and even by observation method. Samples have been selected randomly. In order to collect
about their lives in Sindh out of 100, 10 samples have been selected from the age group of 75 years and above. Eight socio-
economic variables have chosen to frame the questionnaire for direct interviews. Secondary data have been collected for the
details of Ulhasnagar and Sindh from reference book, journals, magazines, and reports of local governments’ authority.
At rich heritage and enlightened society of India in earlier time, women were getting equal status with men but they faced many
difficulties in post-vedic period. After independence, Constitutional leaders demand equal social position of women with men and
at present women occupied a good position in several fields but truth is that in modern period also women are facing the problem
of secondary status.
Present paper is an attempt to provide a glorious profile of empowered Sindhi women in Independent India. Ulhasnagar has
chosen as sample city for the present paper, which evolved quite recently, but Sindhi of Ulhasnagar migrated from Sindh Province
that had a grim story of Sindhi women of these migrant families those were dominated by male community. As Sindh province
belongs to Indus Valley, Sindhis had great cultural values, women were not harassed but discrimination was rooted. Present paper
shows the progression of Sindhi women in Ulhasnagar comparing their socio-economic status, which they had in Sindh as
maximum Sindhi women are empowered.
Sindhi community is a classic example of a Hindu fragmented community. This community uprooted from their origin Sindh.
Sindh was integral part of united India but entire part of Sindh was given to Muslim community during independence to form
Pakistan in 1947. Pakistan was given to Muslim community, thus lakhs of Hindus migrated to free India. Sindhi is one of the
communities who migrated in significant number in free India. Government of India rehabilitated 20,000 Sindhi families in
38Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Smt. C.H.M. College, Ulhasnagar University of Mumbai, Maharashtra, India,
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several (about 25) camps of Maharashtra. The biggest camp for Sindis in Bombay was Kalyan military camp. This camp was
converted in township and renamed Ulhasnagar on August 8, 1949.
Ulhasnagar one of the urban towns of Thane District situated in West Maharashtra. Ulhasnagar is a Municipal town in Konkan
Revenue Division of Maharashtra, situated in Thane district far from Mumbai about 58 k.m. near Kalyan Junction which on the
route of Kalyan-Pune of Central Railway. Ulhasnagar accounts only 13.74 k.m. sq. feet area. Maximum number of population
belongs to Sindhi Community in Ulhasnagar and maximum Sindhis of Ulhasnagar migrated from Sindh during independence
struggle.
Sindh belongs to Indus Valley civilization, which is oldest civilization of the world. Sindh province was the integral part of united
Indian. This is from the latitude of about 23o to 29o north and from 67o to 71o east longitude. Said by L’Hoste, E.P. Entire Sindh
Province was given to Muslim community by Indian political leader in 1947 and now it became a part of Pakistan. Sindhis had a
strong socio-economic traditional life in Sindh. They had great Socio-cultural values. For many centuries, Sindhi community has
been recognized as an important group of in the World Economy as a representative of South Asian merchants of Indian
subcontinent from Sindh region. Claude Markovists stated in his book that 24 Sindhi firms had about 195 branches in
international countries including India and from these 195 branches of Sindhi firms, 94 trading branches run in 41 countries run
by only 6 Sindhi firms. They had worldwide trading connection and enterprising skills but they were involved in government jobs
also especially in Karachi. This community enjoyed a flourished economic status in Sindh.
In the ancient Sindhi society in Sindh, women were completely under the patriarchal dominance. Women were not allowed to go
out without guardianship of any male. Child marriage was in practice. Purda system and dowry system were also prevalent in
Sindh. Sindhi women were under the shackles of superstition. Literacy rate among Sindhi women in Sindh was very low. They
did not have freedom for higher education and selection of life partner especially in villages. No women could go out for job; they
were restricted to only domestic work. They had no right to take part in decision making for any matter at home. Sindhi women in
Sindh were kitchen-bound women. There was no trend of maidservant in Sindhi household in Sindh. They were involved in
various domestic chores. In addition, even during leisure they kept themselves preoccupied with stitching and embroidery work –
a compulsory cultural tradition. As they were housewives, they traditionally believed in preparing all types of preserved food like
paparh and pickles at home in order to avoid monotony. In leisure, women used to play Tash (play-cards) and Kaurhi for
entertainment. There is necessary to mention that old Sindhi women respondents said that they were in under patriarchy, even they
had a respective life but they were not empowered.
There are many factors those motivated to undertake this research work related to Sindhi women. Most important factor, which
attract to author is living standard of Sindhi women in Ulhasnagar. The review of the status of Sindhi women in Sindh tells a grim
story before independence and migration and present article unearths a fair picture of empowered women of Sindhi community in
Ulhasnagar. Article provides a comparative study of empowerment of Sindhi women in Sindh and Ulhasnagar based on few
socio-economic variables.
Through interview, this article has unfolded a marked improvement in social-economic status of Sindhi women in Ulhasnagar.
Answers received through variables mentioned in questionnaires’ have been analyzed related to Status of Sindhi woman in sample
city is shown in following table with result:
Analysis of variables relating to Sindhi women in Ulhasnagar
Table-1
Variables Yes No
Literacy 100 0
Selection of Education 92 08
Decision about Age of Marriage 68 32
Selection of Life Partner 96 04
Decision about Inter / Other Caste Marriage 06 94
Decision about Selection of Jobs 67 33
Decision about Utilization of Money 42 58
Decision about Purchase of Property 71 29
Decision about Number of Children 09 91
Decision about Outing (Shopping, Kitty Party, Movies & Satsang) 98 02
Sources: Authors Compilation
This research revealed the results indicated in the above table about Sindhi women of Ulhasnagar. After analysis, result is
described as below:
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Paper found that at present as joint family system crumbled in Ulhasnagar, which was found in Sindh. Women got more
freedom as compared to Sindh. ‘Parda’ system was abolished in Sindhi society. This freedom changed the attitude of
female towards education. In Sindh, very few women had an opportunity to go for education. In Sindh literacy rate was
very low though literacy rate is 100% among Sindhi women samples of Ulhasnagar; 92% women have the right to go
for education as per choice; only 8% are depend on the decision of their elders.
Women respondents said now-a-days women are empowered and have given decision-making power. In Sindh,
minimum age of marriage was 7 years, said by 80 years old Smt. Gulabibai U. Jashnani, one of the respondent whereas
now in Ulhasnagar, average age of marriage is 22 years as well as 68% women have right to decide their age of
marriage but 32% women said that this decision takes by head of family.
In case of selection of life partner, all most all the parents ask their daughters about the boy whom they choose as their
life partner and as per their choice they settle the marriage. Only 4% girls are not allowed to select their life partner;
96% girls have freedom to select their life partner as per choice among the samples. Some interrelated answers have
been also reported such as respondents said that widow marriage and marriage of divorcee girl is also allowed in their
society.
To selection of life partner from inter caste or other caste, only 6% of Sindhi girls are allowed where as 96% Sindhi
women said that there is clear cut objection in their families to get married inter/other caste boy. Sindhi women said that
6% Sindhi girls are allowed to go for inter/other caste marriage.
Women participation in employment among Sindhi women is only 32% in sample city. Only 67% women are free to
select the nature of job as per choice whereas 33% women said they have to follow the decision taken by either their
parents or husband.
In Sindh, women were totally under the dominance of the male community and had no rights to spend any money.
However, in Ulhasnagar, money received from either as salary for working Sindhi women or from husband as pocket
money, 58% Sindhi women has to follow the instruction of elders about the way to spend. In this regard, Mrs. Kajal
Ramrakhyani, one of the respondents said that I do not like to depend on my elder family member to spend my own
money. Rest of the 42% respondents said that they are allowed to spend as per their need and choice but many time they
receive negative comments from elders those are in the joint family but this is not the case in nuclear family. Based on
observation method based on body language and face expression of respondents, paper resulted that Sindhi women are
more comfort in nuclear family.
Next variable related to decision making regarding purchase of property gives significant result as 71% women enjoy
the equal right of decision making to purchase furniture, gold, house etc. as men have in Sindhi family but 29% said that
male of their family allow them only to purchase garments; other decision they take; do not involve them. Whereas in
Sindh they were not allowed to take any decision.
Decision related to acceptance of no. of children in Sindh use to take only by men or elder women of the family. After 7
decades in Ulhasnagar, 91% women said that still men are dominating and taking decision about children, only 9%
women have rights to accept no. of children as per their choices and decision will be taken by both.
Last variable related to visit the market, movies, satsang and kitty parties, 98% women are empowered whereas only
09% women said they have to take permission for the same and adjust as per their decision though in Sindh they had no
freedom for the same.
CONCLUSION
This research article provides a significant comparative study of past and present socio-economic status of Sindhi women. Figures
indicate that Sindhi women in Ulhasnagar are empowered compared to Sindh. They have great understanding of survival in
modernized and globalized life. They are influenced by Hindi Cinema in terms of costumes, dance, music and language. They
enjoy in kitty parties, watching the movies, shopping and religious activities i.e. Satsang. However, old generation of Sindhi
Community looked sad with present life style of women as they said that they have cherished cultural values, which were imbibed
in earlier generations in Sindh, are not cultivated among children by present Sindhi women in Ulhasnagar. Even finally on the
basis of primary data, paper concludes that at present Sindhi women in Ulhasnagar observed more empowered compare to Sindhi
Women in Sindh in olden time which is demand of constitution as well as need of an hour in this globalized era because an
empowered women is a positive sign of a civilized society.
REFERENCES
1. E. P. L’Hoste. The Province of Sinde. Journal of a mission to Scinde, 930, 22. Internet dated 22.11.2004
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2. Claude, Markovists. (2000). The Global World of Indian Merchants (1975-1952), Trade of Sindh from Bukhara to
Panama. Cambridge University Press.
3. Malkani, K. R. (1987). The Sindh Story. Delhi: Sindhi Academy. Allied Publishers Private Limited.
4. Thakur, U. T. (1997). Sindhi Culture. Delhi: Sindhi Academy.
5. Ulhasngar Municipal Corporation, Ulhasnagar.
6. Karunakaran, T. K. (1958). A Sociological Study in Urban Development. UOM.
7. Subhadra, Anand. (1996). National Integration of Sindhis. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Private Limited.
*****
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BOOK REVIEW
ON
‘TRAINING METHODOLOGY & MANAGEMENT’
BY
Dolly Malla39
Written by: D, Paul Chowdhry
Published by: Sterling Publishers Private Limited: New Delhi
Year of Publication: 1986
Number of Pages: 291
CHAPTERS INCLUDED
Introduction
Objectives & Principles of Training
Approaches to training
Planning
Organization
The trainer
Training Methodology
Training Aids
Training Plans
Training Evaluation
Action Research in Training
Standards & Accreditation
ABOUT AUTHOR
The Author “D. Paul Chowdhry” is training since 1953 of the Social Education Organizers of the erstwhile Ministry of
Community Development at the Allahabad Agricultural University. He was responsible for planning, organizing and monitoring
the training of Gramsevikas, Mukhyasevikas and other functionaries.
DEALS WITH
This book entitled “Training Methodology and Management” is intended for trainers of social development, particularly those
organizing training in child development, child welfare, social welfare, community development, rural development, both for
functionaries of the voluntary agencies and the government officials, they will not only be benefited by the approaches and
strategies of training but will also hopefully try out in their teaching situations various methods and aids.
In this book, the introduction covers the review of training efforts, training institutions, ad-hoc training programmes, training
methods and new training technology.
The first chapter “Objectives & Principles of Training” describing the objectives of the training, which includes: Acquiring
knowledge of subject matter, Change in attitude & behavior, put the theory into practice, develop knowledge, enhance the
capability of trainees and bridge the gap between the expected level of performance & the actual level of performance.
The second chapter “Approaches to Training” has been discussed in the context of management of training. The chapter is
describing the Informative, Participatory and Experimental approaches to training.
The chapter “Planning” have been devoted to areas such as planning for training programme in which include pre-course
planning.
39Research Scholar (SRF), Punjabi University, Punjab, India, [email protected]
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In the chapter “Organization” the programme schedule, sequence of topics in training design, selection of participants, size of the
batch, inaugural session etc., are discussed.
The fifth chapter “The Trainer” includes the topics like the profile of trainers, categories of trainers, who should be a trainer,
training skills, etc.,
In the sixth chapter “Training Methodology” deals with training strategies, different approaches to training methodologies,
training methods etc.,
The chapter seven “Training Aids” is about then use of effective aids, which kind of aids should be used etc. A chapter has been
devoted to various training aids indicating methods of making these, their advantages and disadvantages.
The chapter eight “Training Plans” gives a dozen of training session plans on different topics by different trainers. In these
training session plans, different topics have been analyzed with reference to use of appropriate training method and aid. Unless we
demonstrate the practical applicability of a method and aid with reference to the particular topic, mere description of training
methods and aids results in theoretical exercise. Moreover, some available books do deal with methods and aids but none of the
books has so far tried to relate methods and aids with topic.
The chapter nine “Training Evaluation” discussing about the Evaluation of training, role of action research in training and the
need and the role of standards and the accreditation of training have been dealt with in three different chapters which further
enhance the usefulness of the book.
In the chapter, tenth “Action Research in Training” deals with areas of research, experiments in action research.
The chapter eleventh “Standards and Accreditation” describing need for standards, accreditation procedure and their steps
In order to give orientation to trainers in training management, a set of Performa on training budget, selection of participants,
evaluation of training, etc., has been appended to the book. The annotated bibliography is used at the end of the book
STRENGTH OF THIS BOOK
The book contains a wide variety of activities & well segmented,
The language of the book is easy,
The book has 12 chapters,
The main focus is on the training,
Each activity is presented in uniform way, keeping in the mind every aspect.
WEAKNESS OF THE BOOK
The interaction between trainer & trainee as it has not been stated at all.
Absence of examples.
WHOM IT WILL BE USEFUL FOR
This book will be very useful for the trainers. The book is a blend of too many activities in one.
IMPLICATIONS IN TRAINING
The Book is useful mainly for trainers. It would help to the training institute for preparation of training events and evaluation of
training. It would also help to the learner for the self-development and training implications.
SUMMARY
The book “Training Methodology & Management” is very helpful to the training function. It emphasized on identification of
training, designing of training, execution of training and assessment after training. There are many books available related to
training. However, this kind of book is very rare. The activities mentioned in this book are specific to bring about change in
people.
*****
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STUDY OF SATISFACTION TOWARDS IMPLEMENTATION OF
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME IN
PUBLIC SECTOR BANKS AND PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS OF MAHARASHTRA
Prajakta Tembhurne40 Dr. Sangita Jiwankar41
ABSTRACT
The importance of human resource department is increasing day by day. The fact that, appoint person with key skills in the
key positions, accelerates the growth of the organization is being understood by the management. All also know the
importance of experienced persons. Then with the changing technology and demand of the customers, availing training and
development programme to the employees is the key of success. Human resource department organizes such kind of trainings
to enhance the skills. Thus, training and development department has to play crucial role in today’s organizations. It happens
many a times that the trainer designs a plan of training and the participants attend the training but the impact of training is not
up to the mark. This indicates the requirement of evaluating the impact of training. There has been considerable emphasis in
recent years upon the development of training policies. It becomes important to know significant dimensions of training and
analyze its impact. The researcher has undertaken the survey of banking industry from Maharashtra and tried to find out the
satisfaction level of trainers as well as participants. Respondents were chosen from both public sector banks as well as private
sector banks. The study involves satisfaction level of 400 respondents for various aspects of training.
KEYWORDS
Training, Development, Public Sector Bank, Private Sector Bank, Participants etc.
INTRODUCTION
The human resource department plays key role of providing appropriate personnel. The need of the generation is to provide
resource who understands new technology. The speed of change in technology is very fast. Therefore, importance of various
training and development activities is increasing. Various literatures are available on training and development. Training context
is defined as those situational factors, which affect the training effectiveness. It includes factors before the starting of the
programme, during the programme and after the programme. The important factors before starting the programme are preparation,
learning motivation and expectations; while during the programme are areas of satisfaction or dissatisfaction, training facilities,
and other facilities; and after the programme are cost, organizational support, or facilitating use of training. The success of any
training programme depends upon many factors in addition to the actual delivery of knowledge.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Jim Lyon1 in 1999, conducted study on Canadian banks. Researcher studied Private Sector Banks Investment in employee training
and education. This industry has responded to heightened competition, major technological change and the trend towards
knowledge-based businesses. Compared with their own past performance and with other Canadian industries the banks investment
in training is impressive. The author clearly state that according to Canadian bankers Association survey of 1997 training practices
and expenditures by 6 major banks and their subsidiaries show a 12.3% jump in training investment over 1995 levels and increase
of 53.2% over 1992.
In 2005 Robert W. Rowden, Clyde T. Conine Jr2 examined workplace learning and job satisfaction in small, commercial US
banks. A survey was conducted and the collected data was tested for correlation. The study found a statistically significant
relationship between the workplace learning variables and the job satisfaction variables. Further the linkages between the
opportunities for learning in the workplace with how satisfied employees are with their jobs. The study also establishes the
importance of informal and incidental learning, rather than formal learning. The author Emphasize the need for managers to make
learning opportunities available to enhance overall job satisfaction. In addition, helps place the need for expenditure on non-
formal learning, not just formal learning where all the money is usually spent. Few studies have looked at the role of workplace
learning in small businesses. Very few have linked workplace learning to the things that make people feel good enough about their
work to stay on with a company. This study also solidifies the need to focus on something besides “training.”
Shahaida P. and Rajendra Nargundkar3 (2006), This paper investigates the possibilities of formally training managers for effective
informal communications in the workplace. Although business communication is taught extensively in most B-schools and in the
corporate world, limited attention is paid to train students or managers on how to deal with informal communication, i.e.,
grapevine activity, rumor, gossip or communication”. Research has conclusively indicated that informal communications can be
40Assistant Professor, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Maharashtra, India, [email protected] 41Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, Dhanwate National College, Maharashtra, India, [email protected]
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any other communication, which does not fall in the purview of “formal which affect decision making in organizations-favorably
or otherwise. In this paper, the role of informal communication is established through extant literature review. After critical
evaluation of variables, conceptual models are proposed for “informal communication” and “training managers in effective
informal communication”. Ron Kaufman’s4, 10 Ways to Maximize the Impact of Training is another work referred to by the
researcher. The author viewed training as an essential investment in today’s changing and competitive environment. The author 's
key guidelines for management and staff interaction to maximize the impact of training (investment) ‘before', 'during' and' after'
the training programme are worth mentioning.
PRESENT STUDY
The researcher conducted a survey of public sector bank employees as well as private sector bank employees. A total of 427
respondents participated in the survey. Out of which 400 were considered. They belong to different banks, different age groups,
and different levels of seniority and expertise and from both genders. The researcher tried to take the mixed group to get overall
understanding. In this study, the researcher tried to compare the satisfaction level of the respondents from private sector and
public sector banks. For the purpose of analysis, the collected data has been quantified. The responses of the participants i.e.
Strongly Satisfied, Satisfied, Neutral, Dissatisfied, Strongly Dissatisfied has been given the numerical values 5,4,3,2, and 1
respectively. The data collected from four questionnaires have been grouped under the various variables. For writing this paper,
the data for Strongly Satisfied and Satisfied is considered as satisfied respondents for that particular aspect. As the number of
respondents from public sector banks is not same as those from private sector banks, percentages are used for comparison.
As discussed above, training context is defined as those situational factors, which affect the training effectiveness. It includes
factors before the starting of the programme, during the programme and after the programme. The important factors before
starting the programme are preparation, learning motivation and expectations; while during the programme are areas of
satisfaction or dissatisfaction, training facilities, and other facilities; and after the programme are cost, organizational support, or
facilitating use of training. The success of any training programme depends upon many factors in addition to the actual delivery of
knowledge. Thus, satisfaction of respondents is compared from this entire different factor for all the three stages and compared
between private sector and public sector banks.
Table-1: Respondents opinion regarding Satisfaction of Training Context: Prior to Training
(All the figures in Percentages)
Public Sector Private Sector
Training Policy 54.1 81.1
Training Need Analysis 45.9 75.7
Staff Participation in Determining their Training 43.2 81.1
Emphasis on developing managerial competencies 63.5 40.5
Emphasis on developing human relations competencies 60.8 73.0
Briefing and Debriefing 56.8 56.8
Sources: Primary Data
This shows that the satisfaction level of respondents from private sector banks is much higher than public sector banks except for
emphasis on developing managerial competency. As well, both sectors satisfaction is at par for briefing and debriefing the
importance of training.
Table-2: Responses towards Learning Motivation
(All the figures in Percentages)
Public Sector Bank Private Sector Bank
Enthusiasm to attend training 92.0 28.8
Training Need Analysis 58.1 21.6
Sources: Primary Data
This shows that in both enthusiasms to attend the training and training need analysis, public sector banks have more agreement
against the private sector banks.
Table-3: Right Understanding on the Training to be Attended
(All the figures in Percentages)
Expectation Public Sector Bank Private Sector Bank
Trainees 77.9 21.2
General Staff 60.8 21.6
Sources: Primary Data
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This shows that the Public Sector banks are having more agreement towards trainees and general staff than that of private sector.
Table-4: Respondents opinion regarding Satisfaction of Training Context: At the Time of Training
Training Management Public Sector Bank Private Sector Bank
Training Facilities 88.5 25.6
Supportive Facilities 77.9 23.1
Sources: Primary Data
This shows that in both factors to provide facilities public sector banks respondents are more satisfied than private sector.
Table-5: Respondents opinion regarding Satisfaction of Training Context: After the Training
Public Sector Bank Private Sector Bank
Cost - Benefit / Economic Viability 81.3 31.3
Training Follow- up 50.0 19.8
Evaluating Training Performance 56.0 27.0
Line Manager’s support in training utilization 40.5 19.8
Provision of reflection time in training utilization 25.7 23.4
Sources: Primary Data
This shows that after training when it comes to implementation public sector respondents are more satisfied than privates sector
bank respondents.
CONCLUSION
The study concludes that at the time of planning the training private sector respondents are satisfied but at the time of conduct of
training or after the training public sector banks respondents are more satisfied. Both sectors should consider this for effective
organization of training programme. The technology is growing its spread and therefore the requirement of more and more
focused trainings will increase.
REFERENCES
1. Jim, Lyon. (1999, March/April). Banks lead private sector in investment in training. Canadian Banker, 106(2), 16.
2. Robert, W. Rowden, & Clyde, T. Conine Jr. The impact of workplace learning on job satisfaction in small US
commercial banks. Journal of Workplace Learning, 17(4), 215-230.
3. Shahaida, P., & Rajendra, Nargundkar. (2006, April-June). Training managers for “Between you and me” experiences.
Vision-The Journal of Business perspective, 10(2).
4. Ron, Kaufman.10 Ways to Maximize the Impact of Training, pp. 1-2. Retrieved from www.speakin.com/articles-
html/Ronkaufman-321.html
5. (November 22). How to measure returns on HR investment. People Management, pp. 48-49.
6. (2001, April). Training mantra of the new millennium. Human Capital, pp. 38-41.
7. Robert, L. Craig. Determining Needs Training and Development, pp. 217-247. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
8. Retrieved from http://docslide.us/documents/training-development-in-banking-sector.html
9. Retrieved from http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/numerical-data/percentages
10. Retrieved from http://www.indusedu.org/IJRMEC/July2012(pdf)/4.pdf
11. Retrieved from http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/5306/9/09_chapter%202.pdf
12. Retrieved from
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/235291512_The_impact_of_workplace_learning_on_job_satisfacti...
13. Retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/13665620510597176
14. Retrieved from http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Respondent's+Brief
15. Retrieved from http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/5306/14/14_bibliography.pdf
16. Retrieved from http://sgo.sagepub.com/content/1/3/2158244011433338
*****
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STUDY OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT AS A SUCCESS CATALYST
Prajakta Tembhurne42 Dr. Sangita Jiwankar43
ABSTRACT
After globalization, organizations have focused their attention to human resources. To sustain in the market organizations have
to adopt new technology or rely on outsourcing. The best way is to accommodate new technology or take it on lease or so. For
not only technology but also the service sector recognized various aspects of dealing with the customers/ consumers initiates
the need of change in approach of the employee. This all requires training and development to the available human resources.
The training could be technical training of handling the machinery or it could be soft skills training to deal with the consumers
or competitors. Every organization has different strategies to arrange training and development programmes. In this paper
researcher tried to study training and development as a success promoter through issues in various industries across the world,
through various research papers.
KEYWORDS
Globalization, Strategy, Technology, Training, Development etc.
INTRODUCTION
The study of human resources is very complicated due to variations in the individuals. Many a times it is observed that the
requirements are similar for the demographic groups. The demand of training or development also changes with the type of
industry. The service sector has to undergo rigorous training of soft skills and if there is launch of new technology then of
technical training. Manufacturing units generally focus on technical training; as to handle the upgraded machinery, you need to
develop the skills of the resources working on that machinery. Different countries have different political and social conditions,
they add for the requirement according to their need. Here the researcher have taken the over view of available literature on
training and development in different countries on various training needs.
According to Geary A. Rummler1 (2001), determining training needs is the process of establishing the critical linkage between
performance needs and knowledge and skill requirements. The author reviewed four approaches to determine training needs viz.,
performance analysis, task analysis; competency studies and training need survey. In addition, the author concluded that
determining training needs' is the starting point of all training efforts. Stéphane Renaud, Lucie Morin, Julie Cloutier2 (2006),
conducted a study to investigate whether gender and managerial status correlates significantly when voluntary participation in
training is expected. This theoretical foundation rests on human capital and systematic discrimination theories. Data come from
the computerized records of a bank's employees. Results show that both gender and managerial status have a differential impact
on participation in voluntary training: women participate more than men and managers' participation is higher than non-managers'
participation. In addition, individual characteristics and productivity-related variables impact differently on participation by
gender and managerial status. The results showed that the probability of participating in voluntary training varies according to
gender and managerial status. This probability is explained in particular by the differential effect produced by the individuals'
productivity-related characteristics that is age, gender, managerial, schooling, organizational tenure and part-time status.
STRATEGIES OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Andrew Crosby3 (2000), in the research paper, ‘Training is Changing Call Centre Perception’, explained how training was
changing the call centre Industry to become mature alongside the expansion of the workforce and the fast moving evolution of call
centre technologies. He criticized some organizations, which paid only lip services to the training of the people. Diane Bailey4
(2000), discussed the process for Identifying training needs, the advantages of a well-planned and effectively conducted training
needs analysis and the various steps to carry out an effective training needs analysis. The author's discussion on his nine key steps
to carry out an effective TNA is worth mentioning. Kishanjit Basu and P. Satish5 (2001), discussed various aspects and strategies
of training in banks. The authors disclosed that while upgraded technology calls for training in hardware as well as software, the
methods and content of training delivery were also likely to undergo change. Computer based training, distance learning, Internet
based training, etc. would be increasingly used in the emerging scenario. The authors also focused the skills and attitudes to be
covered by any bank-training curriculum.
According to Carry Platt6 (2001), Training contributions to the organizations highlighted a range of approaches or options which,
if adopted and developed properly, could contribute not only to the bottom - line of business but also to the core of the business.
The author also discussed competency frameworks and pointed out that competency framework should be defined and agreed
42Assistant Professor, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Maharashtra, India, [email protected] 43Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, Dhanwate National College, Maharashtra, India, [email protected]
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between strategic, tactical, and operational management not picked out of air without much thought. Phil Race7 (2001), evaluating
Training Resources viewed that video is a great medium, but remains one of the least well used. Video can enrich training
sessions, and can cause high learning pay-off for trainees. The author also discussed how people actually learn from video and
how trainers can help them to learn more from it.
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES
Connie Zheng, Paul Hyland, Claudine Soosay8 (2007), explored a range of training practices adopted by multinational companies
(MNCs) operating in Asia. It investigated the level of training expenditure, the nature of training programs offered and the
concerns about training in MNCs. Data were obtained through a survey of 529 MNCs operating in six Asian countries to examine
the average cost spent on training and the type of training programs offered to different groups of employees. The respondents
were also asked to indicate their perceptions on the training provided and how effective the training has on firm performance. It
appears that MNCs invested significantly in training. Training was found to be more widespread in service organizations than
manufacturing organizations operating in Asia. The majority of training emphasized managerial and professional staff
development; and was generally conducted externally. Respondents were concerned mainly with the quality and relevance of
training programs offered externally. The results provide MNCs, especially those headquartered in European and other Western
countries with insights into designing and offering more relevant and better quality training programs to their employees located
in Asian subsidiaries. Changuk Lee, Kye-Sung Chon9 (2000), conducted the study in the restaurant industry dealing with diversity
in terms of its workforce, international customers and multinational business operations. Acknowledging diversity through
multicultural training is beginning to appear in some restaurant companies. This study investigates how franchised restaurants
utilize multicultural training programs from a training cycle approach. The findings indicate that high employee turnover rates are
the primary reason that the majority of companies do not have a cultural diversity-training program. Companies with a diversity-
training program report that such training is successful in improving interpersonal cross- cultural skills.
Training Issues at Oman
AI-Lamki, Salma Mohammed10 (2000), in their paper addressed the issue of Human Resource Management (HRM) and training
with particular emphasis on Omanization (the replacement of expatriate with Omanies) in the Sultanate of Oman. First, the paper
discussed an overview of the -human resource management practices in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries and the
emerging economies of East Asia. This is followed by the specifics of the Sultanate of Oman's experience outlining the national
policies on human resource management & training and government supported Omanization schemes and incentives. Finally, the
author recommends an integrated and holistic three tier strategic framework for human resource management and training in the
Sultanate of Oman.
Training Issues at Poland
Abdelgadir N. Abdelhafiz Elbadri11 (2002), studied about Polish economy. Since the Polish economy shifted to the free market in
1990, Polish companies have had to pay more attention to internal and external training activities to help their organizations
compete effectively and survive in a market-driven system. The aim of this study was to take a comprehensive look at the training
practices and activities after quite a large amount of money has been invested on training and development since 1990. This study
involved a survey of 30 Polish companies. The study described standard training practices and how Polish companies adhere to
accepted practices in determining training needs, developing training programs, and assessing training outcomes. The major
findings were that many companies neglect to assess training needs and fail to evaluate the results of their training efforts.
Recommendations and suggestions for improvement are provided.
Training Issues at Kuwait
Ahmad Al-Athari, Mohamed Zairi12 (2002), examined the current training evaluation activity and challenges that face Kuwaiti
organisations. The study sample was five UK organisations (recognized as best practice organisations in their T&D activities) and
77 Kuwaiti organisations (40 government and 37 private). Interviews and questionnaires were used. The study reveals that the
majority of respondents, both in government and in private sectors, only evaluate their training programme occasionally. The most
popular evaluation tools and technique used by government and private sectors were questionnaire. The most common model used
by Kuwaiti organisations is the Kirkpatrick model, while the most common level of evaluation for both government and private
sector is reaction type.
Training Issues at Nigeria
Orgun13 (2002) has made a study aimed to evaluate the management training programme of Guinness Nigeria PLC. With a view to
determining its effectiveness, a questionnaire titled Management Training and Development questionnaire has been administered
to 50 management staff of a company. Analysis of the data obtained from the field by means of research instrument showed that,
the management staff have perceived the management-training programme provided by the company as relevant, adequate and
effective in terms of their job performance.
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Training Issues at Taiwan
Wei-Chi Tsai, Wei-Tao Tai14 (2003), examined whether employees’ perceived importance of the training program would be one
variable that mediates the relationship between training assignment and training motivation. Data were collected from 184
employees belonging to 18 banks who attended government-sponsored training programs in Northern Taiwan. Participants were
asked to complete two questionnaires: one at the beginning of the training program and the other at the middle. Results supported
hypothesis showed that, compared to those who were volunteers, the employees who attended the training on a mandatory basis
had a higher motivation for training. Moreover, organizations that force their employees to attend a given training program send
out a clear message to employees that such training is important. As employees perceive the training; the achievement of
organizational objectives, their training motivation increases.
Training Issues at India
Riyaz Rainaye15 (2004), This study empirically examines the training policy in two commercial banks, namely, State Bank of
India and Jammu & Kashmir Bank Limited. The focus is on the various facets of training including Management’s attitude
towards training, training inputs, quality of training programmes and transfer of training to the job. Whereas it records that, the
training scenario is largely satisfactory. It evaluates the opinions of the employees of two cadres of both banks: in particular, that
it can be made fully effective only when the training needs assessment and transfer of training to the job are considerably
improved, besides bringing in finer improvements in other dimensions. To be meaningful, training has to be amalgamated with the
overall HRD strategy of the banks. Training programmes must be scientifically evaluated to ensure that both their content and
method are precisely relevant to the needs of the banks, which in them invest effort, time and money.
Purva G.Hegde Desai, Maria Aradhana, Babu P. George16 (2006), this paper attempts to outline the differences in customer
characteristics and demands, along with employee responses across the two service industries, namely banks and hotels. The
authors have conducted a survey-based research on the theme of customer complaints in these two industries. The authors
suggested that memorable experience for the customers could be created only with a continuous search and re-search into the
customer psyche in each sector, rather than placing reliance on generic exploration and mass marketing strategies. Mohammed
AlMadhoun17 (2006), discussed the relationship between obstacles and weaknesses facing the development of MTPs and SMEs.
In recent years, many management-training programmes (MTPs) of an off-the-job nature have been established in Palestine, after
the peace agreement, in order to find a solution for apparent lack of managerial strength, especially amongst SMEs. To
demonstrate the effects of obstacles on SMEs, different but relevant sets of variables were employed. The logistic regression
model was used to determine and analyze the effects of the independent variables on the dependent variables. To a large degree,
the variables established the validity of the research hypothesis that “there is a relation between some obstacles and weaknesses
and SMEs' development”. However, the primary data were generated through a survey of SME managers who have participated in
management development training programmes in Palestine. It can be concluded quite clearly that generally there is a relationship
between the acquisition of some obstacles and weaknesses and the development of SMEs. Moreover, managerial factors are prime
determinants of the development, failure or survival of SMEs. Logistic regression shows that the relation between the
development of SMEs and obstacles and weaknesses is significantly positive. Previous findings and research results can be used
to enhance the strategic planning and hence the performance of small businesses. However, there is much to be done in terms of
managerial development for greater efficiency.
CONCLUSION
Determining training needs' is the starting point of all training efforts. Demographic characteristics affect voluntary participation
in training. Computer based training, distance learning, Internet based training, etc. would be increasingly used in the emerging
scenario. Different modes like audio, video trainings are used in training and development programmes to increase the impact.
Respondents were concerned mainly with the quality and relevance of training programs offered externally. The results provide
MNCs, especially those headquartered in European and other Western countries with insights into designing and offering more
relevant and better quality training programs to their employees located in Asian subsidiaries. Companies with a diversity-training
program report that such training is successful in improving interpersonal cross- cultural skills. Thus, it shows that training and
development can help as catalyst in improving the human resources.
REFERENCES
1. Geary, A. Rummler. Robert L. Craig (Ed.), Determining Needs, Training and Development, pp. 217-247. New Delhi:
McGraw-Hill Book Company.
2. Stephane, Renaud, Lucie, Morin, & Julie, Cloutier. Training practices of multinational companies in Asia. Journal of
European Industrial Training, 31(6), 472-494.
3. Andrew, Crosby. (2000, April). Training is changing call centre perception. Training Journal, 18-21.
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ISSN (Print):2279-0950, (Online):2279-0969
PEZZOTTAITE JOURNALS SJIF (2012): 2.9, SJIF (2013): 5.071, SJIF (2014): 5.97
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4. Diane, Bailey. (2000, April). Training needs analysis. Training Journal, 27-29.
5. Kishanjit, Basu, & P., Satish. (2001, October-December). Training srategies in the emerging Hi-Tech banking
environment. IJTD Journal, 13-19.
6. Carry Platt6 (2001, May). Training contributions to the organizations. Training Journal, 10-11.
7. Phil Race7. (2001, November). Evaluating training resources – II. Training Journal, 22-24.
8. Connie, Zheng, Paul, Hyland, & Claudine, Soosay. Exploring potential factors leading to effective training: An
exclusive study on commercial banks in Cambodia. Journal of Management Development, 26(9), 843-856.
9. Changuk, Lee, & Kye-Sung, Chon. An investigation of multicultural training practices in the restaurant industry: the
training cycle approach. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12(2), 126-134.
10. AI-Lamki, & Salma, Mohammed. (2000, June). Omanization: A three-tier strategy framework for human resource
management and training in the Sultanate of Oman. Journal of Comparative International Management.
11. Abdelgadir, N. Abdelhafiz Elbadri. Training practices of polish companies: An appraisal and agenda for improvement.
Journal of European Industrial Training, 25(2/3/4), 69-79.
12. Ahmad, Al-Athari, & Mohamed Zairi. Training evaluation: An empirical study in Kuwait. Journal of European
Industrial Training, 26(5), 241-251.
13. Orgun. (2002, January-March). Evaluation of Management training and Training and Development programme of
Guinness Nigeria PLC. Indian Journal of Training and Development, XXXII(1), 23-28.
14. Wei-Chi Tsai, & Wei-Tao Tai. Perceived importance as a mediator of the relationship between training assignment and
training motivation. Personnel Review, 32(2), 151-163.
15. Riyaz, Rainaye. (2004). Training Effectiveness in Public Sector and Private Sector Commercial Banks A Micro-Level
Comparative Study. Management & Change, 8(1 & 2), 49-67.
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Volume 4, Number 2, April – June’ 2015
ISSN (Print):2279-0950, (Online):2279-0969
PEZZOTTAITE JOURNALS SJIF (2012): 2.9, SJIF (2013): 5.071, SJIF (2014): 5.97
International Journal of Organizational Behaviour & Management Perspectives © Pezzottaite Journals. 1814 |P a g e
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