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This page is an excerpt from Focus on Photography: A Curriculum Guide
Written by Cynthia Way for the International Center of Photography
2006 International Center of Photography
All rights reserved.
Published by the International Center of Photography, New York.
Printed in the United States of America.
Please credit the International Center of Photography on all reproductions.
This project has been made possible with generous support from Andrew and Marina Lewin,
the GE Fund, and public funds from the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs Cultural
Challenge Program.
FOCUS ON PHOTOGRAPHY: A CURRICULUM GUIDE
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Focus on PhotograPhy: a curriculum guide
Part IV
resouces
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This section is an excerpt from Focus on Photography: A Curriculum Guide
Written by Cynthia Way for the International Center of Photography
2006 International Center of Photography
All rights reserved.
Published by the International Center of Photography, New York.
Printed in the United States of America.
Please credit the International Center of Photography on all reproductions.
This project has been made possible with generous support from Andrew and Marina Lewin,
the GE Fund, and public funds from the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs Cultural
Challenge Program.
FOCUS ON PHOTOGRAPHY: A CURRICULUM GUIDE
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FFOCUS ON PHOTOGRAPHY: A CURRICULUM GUIDE
Focus Lesson Plansand Actvities
INDEX TO FOCUS LINKS
Focus Links Lesson Plans
Focus Link 1 LESSON1:IntroductoryPolaroidExercises
Focus Link 2 LESSON2:CameraasaTool
Focus Link 3 LESSON3:PhotographicFieldTrip
Focus Link 4 LESSON4:DiscussingImages/DevelopingaProjectTheme
Focus Link 5 LESSON5:CreatingImages/Point-o-ViewActivity
Focus Link 6 LESSON6:EditingImages/ReectionActivity
Focus Link 7 LESSON7:IntegratingtheGalleryVisit
Focus Link 8 LESSON8:LightingTechniques
Focus Link 9 LESSON9:IntegratingtheGuestArtistVisit
Focus Link 10 LESSON10:AssemblingtheFinalProject
Focus Links Focus Discussion Questions and Worksheets
Focus Link 11 BuildingVisualLiteracy:DiscussionQuestions
Focus Link 12 LookingatPhotographs/WhatDoYouSeeinthePictureFrame?
Focus Link 13 LookingatPhotographs/LearningPhotographicTerms
Focus Link 14 TheChoicesThatPhotographersMake
Focus Link 15 WhatIsthePhotographSaying?
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FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
Focus Links Focus Writing Activities
Focus Link 16 Point-o-ViewWritingExercise
Focus Link 17 Story-WritingWorksheet
Focus Link 18 Poetry-WritingWorksheet
Focus Link 19 WordPictureFocus Link 20 WritingCaptions
Focus Link 21 WritingaReviewoanExhibition
Focus Link 22 WritinganArtistsStatement
Focus Links Focus Hands-on Activities
Focus Link 23 PolaroidActivities
Focus Link 24 PhotographicAssignmentList
Focus Link 25 BirdsandWormsTreasureHunt
Focus Link 26 PolapanSlidePresentation
Focus Link 27 PolaroidTransers
Focus Link 28 HandColoringPrints
Focus Link 29 SunPrints
Focus Link 30 Photograms
Focus Link 31 WritingWithLightonFilmorPaper
Focus Link 32 LiquidLightandOtherAlternativeProcesses
Focus Link 33 PinholePhotography
Focus Links Focus Refection Activities
Focus Link 34 CritiqueYourImage
Focus Link 35 Storytelling
Focus Link 36 Speechwriting
Focus Link 37 ArtProjects
Focus Link 38 ResearchProjects
Focus Link 39 ImageBox
Focus Link 40 VisualDiary
Focus Link 41 PicturesandInterviews
Focus Link 42 CreateYourOwnExhibition
Focus Link 43 WhatMakesaGoodPhotograph?
Focus Link 44 SeeingActivity
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FocusLessonPlans
FOCUS LESSON PLANS
TheollowinglessonplansarethebuildingblocksotheFocussamplecurricula
andthecasestudies.Inthissection,thelessonsollowasequenceora10-session
curriculum.Considerotherpossiblesequencesandadaptationsotheselessonsor
yourcurriculum.
Focus Link 1
Lesson PLan: Introductory PoLaroId exercIses
GOAL
Tointroducestudentstophotographyandtotheclassprojectusingslideso
photographicworkandhands-onPolaroidmaterials
MATERIALS
Polaroidcameras(sharedinpairs)
Polaroidflm(use10packs,5shotsperstudent)
Sharpies
Slideprojectorandslides
PREPARATION
Selectslidesohistoricalandcontemporaryartworkthatconnectstotheprojecttheme
andaudienceinterest
DURATION
2hours
ACTIvITIES
Discussing pictures [30 min.]
Beginwithintroductoryquestions:Whatisphotography?Wheredoyousee
photographs?Whataresomeotheusesophotography?
Presentslidesandaskquestionsabouttheartworktobuildvisualliteracyskills
(SeePart 1andFocus Link 11.)
Discussthetopicbyprojectingrelatedslidesandasking:Whatdoyousee?
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FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
Discussthephotographyprojectanditstheme
Repeatwithseveralslides
Makesuretocoverexamplesotechniquessuchaslighting,pointoview,
composition,andraming
Creating images [60 min.]
DemonstratehowtouseaPolaroidcamera(Note:Youcanpre-loadtheflm.)
1 Chooseapointoview
Presstheshutterrelease
Letthepicturedevelop
Givethemtheassignment:
Workinginpairs,eachstudenttakesfveportraitsotheotherpersonrom
dierentpointsoview:
1 Abirds-eyeview
Aworms-eyeview
Mysteryview:Pretendyoureadierentanimalandtakeapictureromthat
pointoview
Youreyeview
5 Surpriseme
WRAP-UP [0 MIN.]
Putallthepicturesontablesordiscussion
Discusscomposition,technique,surprisingaccidents,successes,and
bloopers
FOLLOW-UP/HOMEWORK
Journal-writingexercise:
Havestudentswriteanswerstothesequestionsintheirjournal:Howdo
youseeyourselinthepictures?Describetheexperienceocreatingthe
pictures.Whatdidyoueel?Whatwasenjoyableoruncomortable?
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FocusLessonPlans 5
Focus Link 2
Lesson PLan: camera as a tooL
GOAL
Tointroducestudentstothetoolsandtechniquesoa35mmcamera
MATERIALS
35mmcameras,traditionalordigital(canbesharedinpairs)
Sampleexposedrolloflm
Samplecontactsheet
Sampleblack-and-whiteprints
PREPARATION
Createandmakecopiesoacamera-handlinghandoutromthecamera
instructionbookoraphotographymanual
Testequipmentanduseyourtestflm,contactsheet,andprintsassamples
DURATION
2hours
ACTIvITIES [ HRS.]
Demonstratehowtousethe35mmcamera(Note:Besuretoholdthecamera
soeveryonecanseeit.)
Explainwhatacameraisandhowitworks
Illustrateontheboardorwithahandouthowlighttravelsthroughthelens
Showthesampleflm,contactsheet,andprintsasyoudescribetheprocesso
makingthefnalprint
Passoutthecamerasandahandoutexplainingbasiccameraparts
Showhowtoholdthecamera,usethestrap,andbecareulnottoknockthelens
Gothroughthehandouttoshowthepartsothecameraandhowtheywork
together
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FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
Reviewthestepstocreateanimage,lettingstudentstakeblankpictures
1 Chooseyourpointoview
Checktheexposure:depthofeldandshutterspeed
Focus
Frametheimage5 Presstheshutterrelease
Advancetheflm
Discusscomplicatedtechnicalelementssuchasshutterspeedandaperture
Letstudentsplaywiththecontrols
Showsampleimagesthatdemonstratetheuseoastandslowshutterspeed
andshallowanddeepdepthofeld
Reviewthecontrolsagain
WRAP-UP
Addressanyquestions
Trytodemystiythecameraandmakestudentscomortablewithusingitasa
tool
ALTERNATIvES
Ipossible,bringinanddemonstrateothertypesocamerasromlarge
ormattodigitaltopinhole
Showthatthecameraissimplyabox(SeeFocus Link 33orpinhole
photography.) Turntheclassroomintoacamerabycoveringwindowswithdarkpaperand
allowingasmallholeinonepapertoprojectlightontoanoppositewall
Showanearlydrawingmaderomacameraobscura(SeeAppendix 2: A Brief
History of Photography.)
Showslidesoimagesmaderomarangeocamerastoillustratethe
dierences
(Note:Technicalphotographyhandbooksusuallydescribeexamplesodierenttypes
ocameras.Seethebibliography.)
FOLLOW-UP/HOMEWORK
Passoutemptyslidemounts
Askstudentstopracticelookingthroughtheslidemounttodevelopasenseo
raming
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FocusLessonPlans
Focus Link 3
Lesson PLan: PhotograPhIc FIeLd trIP
GOAL
Topracticecamerahandlingandphotographictechniques,preerablyinanoutdoor
setting
MATERIALS
35mmcameras,traditionalordigital(canbesharedinpairs)
35mmflm(1rollpercamera)
PREPARATION Selectasitethatconnectstotheprojectthemeandisaccessibleinthetime
allotted
Obtainanynecessarypermissions
DURATION
2hours
ACTIvITIES [ HRS.]
Reviewgroundrulesofeldtrip
Discussassignment:
1 Focuson(topicshouldconnecttoclasstheme)
Practicetechniques,suchasshutterspeed,stopmotion,andblur
Reviewhowtousethecameraandgettherightexposure
Handoutcameras
Loadflm(Note:Ishortontime,pre-loadthecameras.)
Proceedtosite
Repeatassignmentguidelines
Letstudentscreateimagesallowthemtoexplorereelywhileassistingwith
questionsandhelpingthemocusontheirassignment
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FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
WRAP-UP
Returntoschool
Rewindflm
Collectflmandlabelorprocessing
FOLLOW-UP/HOMEWORK
Bringinimagesromnewspapersandmagazinesthatcatchyourattentionand
connecttotheprojecttheme
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FocusLessonPlans
Focus Link 4
Lesson PLan: dIscussIng Images/deveLoPIng a Project
theme
GOAL
Todevelopanunderstandingohowpicturescommunicateandclariytheproject
theme
MATERIALS
Slideprojectorandslides
Journals
TapePens
PREPARATION
Assignpriorhomeworkaskingstudentstobringinimagesromnewspapersor
magazinethatconnecttotheprojecttheme
Selectslidesohistoricalandcontemporaryartworkthatconnectstothe
projectthemeandaudienceinterest
Processflmromthelastshootandmake4x6prints
Selectstudentworkasexamplesandpaste4x6printsontoposterboard(oranothersuracethatiseasyorstudentstosee)toshowsuccessesand
bloopers
DURATION
2hours
ACTIvITIES
Critiquing images: [45 min.]
Discusstheselectionosuccessesandbloopers
Reviewexamplesodierenttechniquesandwhatmakesasuccessora
blooperorahappyaccident
Passouttherestotheirprints
Havestudentsselecttheirtwobestsuccesses,pastethemintheirjournal,and
writereections(Focus Link 34)
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10 FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
Assignment:
Whatdoesthisimageshow?
Whatqualitiesdoyoulikethebest?Considerraming,lighting,composition,
andcontent.
Whatdidyouhavetroublewith?Whatwouldyoudodierentlynexttime?
Describetheexperienceocreatingthisimage.Whatdidyoueel?Whatwas
enjoyableorchallenging?
Brainstorming the class project: [30 min.]
Reviewtheimagesthatstudentsselectedrommagazines
Havestudentscreatecollagesintheirjournalandwriteabouthowtheimages
connecttotheclassproject
Discussthecollagesandimages
Putkeywordsromthediscussionontheboardtoclariytheprojecttheme
Developing aesthetics: [30 min.]
Presentslidesshowingrelevanthistoricalandcontemporarywork,techniquestowork
on,andoptionsortheclassproject
WRAP-UP [15 MIN.]
Prepareorthenextshoot
FOLLOW-UP/HOMEWORK
Suggestreadingrelatedtoclassproject(couldbejournalism,Internetresearch,poetry,
fction,historicalreport)
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FocusLessonPlans 11
Focus Link 5
Lesson PLan: creatIng Images/PoInt-oF-vIew actIvIty
GOAL
Toteachtheconceptopointoview,encouragingstudentstomovearoundthe
subjectmatterandcreateimagesthatexpresstheirperspective
MATERIALS
35mmcameras,traditionalordigital(canbesharedinpairs)
35mmflm(1rollpercamera)
PREPARATION Selectasitethatconnectstotheprojectthemeandisaccessibleinthetime
allotted
Getanynecessarypermissions
DURATION
2hours
ACTIvITIES: [ HRS.]
Reviewgroundrulesofeldtrip
Discussassignment:
1 Focuson(topicshouldconnecttoclasstheme)
Practiceramingandpointoview
Takefveimagesoeachchosensubjectromdierentpointsoview:
Fromabove,abirds-eyeview
Frombelow,aworms-eyeview
Fromoneside
Fromtheotherside
Repeatyouravoriteataslightlydierentangle
Reviewhowtousethecameraandgettherightexposure
Handoutcameras
Loadflm(Note:Ishortontime,preloadthecameras.)
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1 FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
Proceedtosite
Repeatdirectionsortheassignment
Letstudentscreateimagesassistwithquestionsandremindthemotheir
assignment
WRAP-UP
Returntoschool
Rewindflm
Labelorprocessing
FOLLOW-UP/HOMEWORK
Findaphotographthatyoulike
Writeinyourjournalromthepointoviewothephotographer(Focus Link 16)
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FocusLessonPlans 1
Focus Link 6
Lesson PLan: edItIng Images/reFLectIon actIvIty
GOAL
Tousediscussionandwritingtoexpandstudentsknowledgeophotographyandto
ocusontheprojecttheme
MATERIALS
Slideprojectorandslides
Loupes
Greasepencilsorsharpies
Journals
Handoutsorthewritingactivity
PREPARATION
Selectslidesohistoricalandcontemporaryartworkthatconnectstothe
projectthemeandaudienceinterest
Processflmandmakecontactsheets
DURATION
2hours
ACTIvITIES
Editing: [1 hr.]
Showslidesanddiscussimagesintermsoeditingcriteria:design(ormaland
technicalqualities)andcontent(subjectandmeaning)(SeeFocus Link 43)
Askquestionsaboutthesubject,thetechniques,andtheormalqualities
Passoutcontactsheetsandloupes
Writeeditingcriteriaontheboard:designandcontent
Haveeachstudentreviewacontactsheetandselectatleastthreeimagesthat
showgooddesignandcontent.Outlinetheseselectionswiththegreasepencil.
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1 FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
Writing exercise: [1 hr.]
Projectaslide
Passoutthestory-writingactivity(Focus Link 16)
Havestudentswriteacreativestoryromtheperspectiveosomeoneinthe
picture
WRAP-UP
Prepareorthenextclass
FOLLOW-UP/HOMEWORK
Createadiaryorthecharacterinthecreativewritingexercise(Note:Useother
illustrativematerialslikeclippings,tickets,drawings,etc.)
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FocusLessonPlans 15
Focus Link 7
Lesson PLan: IntegratIng the gaLLery vIsIt
GOAL
Tobroadenstudentsawarenessotheaestheticsophotographybyshowingoriginal
artworkinagalleryormuseum
MATERIALS
Handoutstouseinthegallery
Camerasandflmtodocumentthetrip
PREPARATION Selectexhibitionsinamuseumorgalleriesthatconnecttotheprojecttheme
andaudienceinterest
Makeareservationwiththemuseumorgallery,notiyingitothenumbero
students,classproject,andgoalsoryourvisit
Arrangeoraguideipossible
Arrangeortransportationandpermissions
Reviewconfrmationmaterials(Note:Ithereareanyprogramchanges,besure
toletthemuseumknowaheadotime.)
Integrating the gallery visit in lessons beore the trip:
Preparestudentsbeorehandbypreviewingthematerialprovidedbythe
museumandbydoingpre-visitactivities(Forexample,showslidesbytheartist
onvieworotherartistsworkrelatingtothecontextotheexhibition.)
Practicediscussingphotographstobuildvisualliteracyskills
Readmaterialrelatingtothecontextotheshow
Askstudentswhattheyexpecttosee
Assignresearchtopicsrelatingtotheartworkonview
DURATION
2hours
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1 FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
ACTIvITIES [ HRS.]
Tour the galleries [1 1/2hrs.]
Workwiththetourguidestocreateaneducationalexperiencethatconnectsto
theclassprojectandaudienceinterest.Speakwiththeguidesbeorehand.Ask
questionsduringthetour,inecessary,toshapetheexperience.
Attheendothetour,reinorcetheideasyoudlikestudentstocomeawaywith
Igoingonasel-guidedvisit,previewtheexhibitionyourselandselectimages
todiscuss.Frameyourvisitwithathemeorquestion.Whenguidingstudents
throughthegalleries,useFocusDiscussionQuestionsorgivetheman
assignmentothreethingstolookorandhavethemwriteintheirjournal.
Document the trip [30 min.]
Askstudentstophotographwhattheyseeinthenewsetting/neighborhood
thatconnectstotheprojecttheme
Documenttheexperienceotakingafeldtripasithepicturesweretoappear
inaschoolnewspaper
Includepicturesshowingtheexperiencesotravelingandviewingthe
exhibition,classmatesexpressions,orteachersinanewcontext
FOLLOW-UP/HOMEWORK
Write a review o the exhibition (Focus Link 21)
Integrating the gallery visit in sessions ater the trip:
Doahands-onactivityrelatingtoatechniqueusedbytheartistsuchas
lighting,Polaroid,orprintingtechniques
Discusstheexhibitionreviews
Havestudentsposeaquestionthattheyhaveabouttheexhibitionoranissueit
raised
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FocusLessonPlans 1
Focus Link 8
Lesson PLan: LIghtIng technIques
GOAL
Tourtherstudentsunderstandingoandabilitytouselightingtechniquesthe
essentialelementinphotography
MATERIALS:
Hotlights(notstrobes)
Lightstands
Reector
Extensioncord
Film
Cameras
TeachingcamerawithPolaroidbackandflm,ipossible
Sampleimages
PREPARATION
Testequipment
Preparesampleimagestoillustratelightingeects(Note:Haveanextralight
bulbonhand.)
DURATION
2hours
ACTIvITIES
Pinupsamplesodierentlightingtechniquesthattheclasswillcover
Havestudentsdiscusswhichdirectionthelightiscomingromanddescribe
thedierenteectsandmoodscreatedbylighting
Setuphotlightsinaspaciousareaintheclassroom.Movechairsanddesks,i
necessary.
Askorastudentvolunteertomodel.Movethelightstodierentlocationsand
heightstodemonstratelightingeects.Addonslowly.Haveanotherstudent
volunteertopracticelightingthesubject.CreateaPolaroidothatscene.
Showtheresult.Repeatuntilyouvecovereddierenttechniqueswithdierent
volunteers.
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1 FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
Reviewandusevolunteerstodemonstratedierentroles:photographer,
model,stylist,props,lightingtechnician,andphotoassistant(whocanholdthe
reectorandhandleothertasks)
Havestudentscalculatetheexposurewiththeircameras
Dividetheclassintoteamsosixsothatstudentscanworktogether
Havethemcreatedierentlightingscenariosorindividualandgroupportraits
Assignroles:photographer,model,stylist,props,lightingtechnician,andphoto
assistant
Thosenotinthepictureorphotographyteamcandocumenttheshootor
reviewhandouts.Or,iyouhaveateachingassistantandequipment,youcan
runtwolightingset-ups.
WRAP-UP
Addressquestionsandreviewtechniques
Prepareornextshoot
ALTERNATIvES
Bringinaguestartisttoassistyouwithtechniquesthatarenotinyourtraining
FOLLOW-UP/HOMEWORK
Reviewmagazinesorsamplesodierenttypesolightingeectsstudiedinclass
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FocusLessonPlans 1
Focus Link 9
Lesson PLan: IntegratIng the guest artIst vIsIt
GOAL
Tobuildanunderstandingoaestheticsandtoexposestudentstotheworkoother
proessionalartistswhoserveasgoodrolemodels
MATERIALS
Slideprojector(Note:Bringanextralightbulb)
PREPARATION
Selectanartistwhoseworkconnectstotheprojecttheme
Callandplanaheadotimewiththeguestartist.Describetheclassproject,the
studentsinterestsandskills,andthegoalortheartistsvisit.Asktheartistwhatheor
shewouldliketodo.Oersuggestionsandguidance.
Iappropriate,preparestudentworkortheartisttorevieworpreparematerialsneeded
orahands-onactivity
Confrmthemeetingplaceandtime.Provideanaccessiblephonenumberoranylast
minutechanges.
Integrating the guest artist visit beore the class:
Reviewtheguestartistsworkandcareer
Askstudentstopreparequestionsortheguestartist
Showworkbytheartistorotherartistsworkinginasimilarmannertosetthe
context
DURATION
2hours
ACTIvITIES [ HRS.]
Introducetheguestartistwhowillpresenthisorherworkandcareer
Encouragestudentstoaskquestionsorconductaninterview
Ipossible,arrangeortheartisttoreviewaselectionothestudentswork
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0 FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
Makesurethattheartistrespondswithbothpositiveandconstructivecritique
Bevigilantaboutthevocabularyusedanddefneanyunamiliarterms
Conductanyactivityplannedwiththeartist
(Note:Arrangingtwoormoresessionswithanartistacilitatesin-depth,activity-based
interaction.)
WRAP-UP
Sumupwhatyoudlikestudentstocomeawaywithromthevisit
Allowtimeorstudentstoapproachtheartistindividually
Integrating the guest artist visit ater the class
Conductanactivitythatconnectstotheartiststechniquesorapproach
FOLLOW-UP/HOMEWORK
Researchtheworkoaphotographer
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FocusLessonPlans 1
Focus Link 10
Lesson PLan: assembLIng the FInaL Project
GOALS
Todrawtogethertheideas,techniques,andaestheticscoveredinthecourse
Toassembleafnalprojectthatcelebratesandsharesthestudentsaccomplishments
withthepublic
MATERIALS
Pinstopostimagesintheroomorbroadtablestoorganizeandviewimages
Foodandrereshmentsortheclasspartyduringthegroupcritique
PREPARATION
Makesurestudentshavecollectedtheirimagesintoajournalorportolio
DURATION
2hours
ACTIvITIES [ HRS.]
Describethefnalproject.Showasampleapublicationorinvitationorevenslidesoaninstallation.Reertowhattheclasshascoveredandthepurpose.
Acknowledgethatstudentshavedonewellandthisisachancetosharetheir
imageswithothers.
Reviewthecriteriaoreditingthefnalproduct:designandcontentrelatingto
theprojecttheme
Havestudentsreviewtheirjournalsandportoliosandpickoutthebest
work(Note:Thisreviewprocesscanalsotakeplaceoutsideoclasstimein
individualmeetings.)
Havestudentsarrangetheirbestselectionsonatableorpinthemuponthe
wall
Thestudentsthencritiqueeachothersimagesandassemblesagroupedit
owhatshouldbeinthefnalproject.Remindthemothecriteriaorthe
fnalprojectsomeworkisbetterorexhibition,someorpublication,and
sometimesagroupshowisstrengthenedbymakingcertainselections.Tryto
ensurethateachindividualreceivesacknowledgementohisorherwork.
Revieweachstudentsselectionsandacknowledgehisorherprogress.Talk
aboutwhichimagesworkbestandwhy.
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FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
WRAP-UP
Announcewhentheinstallationorproductionotheprojectwilltakeplace
Ipossiblewithinyourdeadline,encouragestudentstosignuporjobsproducingthe
fnalproject
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FocusLessonPlans
FOCUS ACTIvITIES
Focus dIscussIon questIons and worksheets
Theollowingdiscussionquestionsandworksheetsaredesignedtoadvancevisual
literacyskills.Discussionscantakeplaceduringaclassroomslidepresentationor
galleryvisit.Worksheetsandactivitiescanreinorceelementsdiscussed.
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FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
Focus Link 11
buILdIng vIsuaL LIteracy: dIscussIon questIons
Tostartadiscussiononaphotograph,beginwiththebasic,introductoryquestionsromLevel1A.Thenchoosequestionsromotherlevelsdependingonhowyour
studentsrespond.Inaddition,youmayfndsomequestionsbettersuitedtothecontent
orsalienteaturesoaparticularimage.
Rememberthatanydialogueowsinunpredictableways,andstudentsmayhave
avarietyoresponsesonmanylevels.Youmayenduprepeatingeachserieso
questionsuntiltheaudienceisreadytomoveon.Thesequestionsoerguidanceto
elicitadiscussionandbuildinterpretativeskills;theyareonlyasamplingothemany
waysthateducatorscandiscussvisualart.
(SeePart I, Chapter 3orwaystoworkwithvariouslevelsovisualliteracyandPart I,
Chapter 2oradescriptionotheelementsophotography.)
Goal:Advancevisualliteracyskillsbasedonthestudentsresponsesandlevel
(Note:AlwaysbeginyourdiscussionwiththesequenceinLevel1A,thenaddonas
appropriate.)
Level 1A: Building observation skills
Whatdoyouseeinthispicture?
Canyoudescribeitmore?
Whatelsedoyousee?
Whatisgoingoninthispicture?
Whatinormationinthepicturemakesyousaythat?
Level 1B: Building vocabulary
Canyouguesswherethephotographerwasstandingwhenheorshetookthe
picture?Abovethesubject,lookingdown?Orbelowthesubject,lookingup?
Thisiscalledpointoview.
Whatisincludedinthepicturerame?Whatisnotincluded?Thisiscalledraming.
Describethecomposition.Whatshapesdoyousee?Whatotherpatternsdo
younotice?
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FocusLessonPlans 5
Level 2A: Building technical knowledge
Whattechniquesdidthephotographeruse?
Whatisthepointoview?
Howisthepictureramed?
Describethequalityothelighting.Whatdirectionisitcomingrom?Doesit
createapatternolightandshadow?
Level 2B: Building an understanding o the choices photographers make
Whatchoicesdidthephotographermake?
Whydidthephotographerchoosetousethattechnique?
Whydidthephotographerchoosetocomposethepicturethisway?
Whatisthephotographerspointoview?Whateectdoesithave?
Whydidthephotographerchoosetoramethepicturethisway?
Whatdoesthecompositionemphasize?
Whatdoesthelightingdrawyourattentionto?
Level 3A: Understanding the context and intended use o the picture
Whatwasthephotographerspurposeortheintendeduseorthisimage(e.g.,
magazineassignment,photoessay,fneartexhibition)?
Canyoutellwhatgenreophotographythisis?
Whatdoyouknowaboutthetimeperiodinwhichthisphotographwasmade? Whatdoesthephotographcommunicateaboutthistimeperiod?
Canyoumakecomparisonstootherphotographersorartistsworkinginthis
timeperiod?
Level 3B: Relating context to subject and meaning
Whatchoicesdidthephotographermake?Canyouguesswhy?
Whatisthephotographerdrawingyourattentionto?Howisthisaccomplished?
Whatisthephotographerspointoview?Whateectdoesithave?
Whatdoyounoticeaboutthesubject?Orthepeopleinthepicture?
Doyouhaveanyquestionsaboutthesubject?Orthestyleothepicture?
Whatisthephotographsaying?Doesanyonehaveadierentinterpretation?
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FocusLessonPlans
Part IV: Resources
Level 4A: Finding meaning
Whatchoicesdidthephotographermake?
Doesthiselementcontributetothephotographsmeaning,orisitdistracting?
Whatwasthephotographerspurposeincreatingthisimage?Whatwasthe
intendeduseotheimage?Howwelldoesitworkinthiscontext? Whatisthephotographsaying?
Level 4B: Relating meaning to creative choices and larger issues
Whatistheimpactothisimage?
Whataresomeissuesitraises?
Howmightyouapproachthistopicmatter?
Level 5: Discussing what the image communicates
Whichtechnicalorormalelementsworkwellinthisphotograph?
Whatdotheseelementsdrawyourattentionto?
Whatisthephotographsaying?
Whatistheimpactothisphotograph?
Howdoesthepicturemakeyoueel?
Whatdoesitmakeyouthinko?
Doesitinspireyoutoworkcreativelyinanyway?
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LookIng at PhotograPhs: what do you see In the PIcture
Frame?
GOAL
Tousedrawingtointroducethebasicelementsoramingandcomposition
WORKSHEET
Studythephotograph.Lookatthelinesandshapesintheimage.
First,drawabox,orrame.
Second,inthebox,drawtheoutlinesoormsthatyouseeinthephotograph.
Third,outsidethebox,drawwhatyouimagineisoutsideotherame.
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Focus Link 13
LookIng at PhotograPhs: LearnIng PhotograPhIc terms
GOAL
Todevelopanunderstandingothephotographictermswhilelookingatandanalyzing
apicture
WORKSHEET
Subject(Who/Whatisinthepicture?)
Setting(Wherewasthepicturetaken?)
background(Whatisbehindthesubject?)
Foreground(Whatisinrontothesubject?)
FocuS(Isanypartothepictureclearorblurry?)
VantagePoint/PointoF View(Wherewasthephotographerwhenheorshetookthepicture?Belowthesubject?Abovethesubject?Veryclose?Faraway?)
comPoSition(Describethelines,shapes,patterns,andcolorsintheimage.)
Lighting(Quality:Isthelightingsotanddiusedorhardandcontrasty?Direction:
Whereisthelightcomingrominthepicture?)
mood(Howdoesthepicturemakeyoueel?)
meaning (Whatdoesthispicturesaytoyou?)
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the choIces that PhotograPhers make
GOAL
Tolearnthatphotographersmakechoicestocreatetheirimageandcommunicatea
message
WORKSHEET
comPoSition:Describetheshapes,lines,andpatternsinthepicture.
FocuS:Whatinormationisclearinthepicture?Whatisblurry?
Framing:Whatisincludedintherameandwhatisnt?Isanythingcropped?
background:Whatinormationisinbackothesubject?
Foreground:Whatinormationisinrontothesubject?
Subject:Whatdoyouknowaboutthesubjectbasedontheinormationthatyouseeinthepicture?
PeoPLe:Clothing:Whataretheywearing?Whatdoestheirclothingtellabouttheir
interests,identity,orsocialgroup?
PoSe:Aretheystandingorsitting?Whatkindobodylanguageandattitudedothey
have?
exPreSSion:Describetheirexpression.Whatmighttheybeeelingorthinking?
action:Whataretheydoing?Canyouguesswhy?
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Lighting:Isthelightingbrightordark?Arethereanyshadows?Isthelightingcoming
romabove,below,ortheside?Whatdoesthelightingdrawyourattentionto?
techniqueS:Whatphotographictechniqueswereused?Whateectsdotheyhave?
(Colororblack-and-whiteflm?A35mmorlarge-ormatcamera?)
Point-oF-View:Fromwheredidthephotographertaketheshot?(Fromabove,below,
theside,oranangle?)Thisisalsocalledthevantagepoint.Howdoesthevantage
pointaectthewayyoureadthepicture?
meaning:Whydidthephotographermakethesechoices?Whatwasthephotographer
tryingtosay?
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what Is the PhotograPh sayIng?
GOAL
Toexaminethephotographorinormationandtheninterpretitsmeaning
WORKSHEET
Whatisthesubjectothispicture?
Whatinormationdoyouseeinthepicturethatmakesyousaythat?
Whatdoyouseebehindthesubject?(Thisiscalledthebackground.)
Whatdoyouseeinrontothesubject?(Thisiscalledtheoreground.)
Whatinormationisclearinthepicture?Whatisblurry?(Thisiscalledocus.)
Whydothinksomeinormationisinocusandsomeisnt?Whatdoestheocusdraw
yourattentionto?
Wherewasthispicturetaken?(Thisiscalledthesetting.)
Describesomeothedetailsthatyouseeinthesetting.Whatdoesthesettingtellyou
aboutthesubject?
Howisthesubjectlit?Isitnaturalorartifciallighting?Howwouldyoudescribethe
qualityolight:sharp,dark,bright,orsot?
Describethemoodcreatedbythelighting.
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Whichdirectionisthelightcomingrom?
Doesthelightingdrawyourattentiontoanythinginthepicture?
Whatisincludedinthepicturerame?Whatisexcluded?
Wherewasthephotographerstandingwhenheorshetookthispicture?(Thisiscalled
thepointovieworthevantagepoint.)
Circleone:
Abovetheperson Belowtheperson
Totherightside Totheletside
Howdoesthevantagepointaectthewayyoulookatthepicture?
Itherearepeopleinthephotograph,answerthesequestions:
Howwouldyoudescribetheirexpressions?
Whataretheywearing?
Whataretheydoing?
Whatmighttheybeeelingorthinking?Whatinthephotographsuggeststhat?
Everything in the picturethe details, composition, technical choices like focus, subject
and setting, lighting, point of view, and the way the photographer sees the subjectall
work together to communicate a message to the viewer.
Whatisthisphotographsayingtoyou?
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FOCUS WRITING ACTIvITIES
Focus Link 16
PoInt-oF-vIew wrItIng exercIse
GOAL
Fostertheunderstandingthatartists(includingstudents)cancommunicate
theirviewpointthroughphotography
Developempathy,anabilitytounderstandothersbyputtingyourselintheir
position
Developwritingskills
WORKSHEET
1Writeastoryromthepointoviewosomeoneinthepicture.
Togetstarted,listanddescribesomeothedetailsyouseeinthepicture.
Thinkaboutwherethepersonisandhowheorshemighteel.(Forexample,isheisoutdoors,isthesunhotonherback?Lookatherexpression.Whatis
sheeeling?)
Whatisthepersondoing?
Whatmighthappennext?
Nowtrytomakeyourstoryasvividasthephotographbyusinglotsospecifc
details.
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Writeastoryromthepointoviewothephotographer.
Imaginewhatthephotographerwasthinkingwhenheorshetookthepicture.
Whydidheorshewanttotakethispicture?
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Focus Link 17
story-wrItIng worksheet
GOAL
Touseapictureasthebasisorastorybyfrstfndingvisualinormation,then
imaginingthebeoreandater
PREPARATION
Selectapicture(inagallery,romtheInternet,aprojectedslideinaclassroom)
WORKSHEET
Listfvethingsyouseeinthepicture:
1
5
Describethesetting:
Action:Whatishappeninginthepicture?
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Whatdoyouthinkhappenedbeorethepicturewastaken?
Whatdoyouthinkwillhappennext?
Character:Describethepeopleinthepicture:theirexpression,clothing,andmood.
Whatarethepeopledoing?Why?
Theme:Thispicturetellsastoryabout
Youhaveeverythingyouneedtowriteyourstory:setting,action,character,andtheme.
Now,writeacreativestorybasedonthispicture.Includelotsodetails.
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Poetry-wrItIng worksheet
GOAL
Tousethephotographasasourceorconcretedetailstowritevividpoems
PREPARATION
Providephotographicsourcematerialintheormoslides,books,magazines,Internet,
postcards,orgalleryexhibitionvisits
WORKSHEET
List10detailsthatyouseeinthephotograph.
1
5
10
Circleoneadjectiveandonenounthatbestdescribethecolorothe
photograph.
Adjectives: gray blue red gold black-and-white
Nouns: smoke rain mud sunshine eathers
Createyourowndescriptivenounsandadjectives:
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Iyoucouldtouchsomethinginthephotograph,whatwoulditeellike?
Describetheobjectandthetexture.
Thinkotwoadjectivestodescribethemoodcreatedbythephotograph.
Describeyourimpressionsothisphotograph.Whatdoesthephotograph
makeyouthinko?Dreamo?
Writeapoembasedonwhatyouseeinthispicture.
Use10wordsromanyoyouraboveanswerssomewhereinthepoem.
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word PIcture
GOAL
Tobuilddescriptivewritingskills
PREPARATION
Projectslidesintheclassroomoruseagoodqualityphotocopyromabook
WORKSHEET
1 Wherewasthepicturetaken?Describethedetailsthatyouseeinthesetting.
Whenwasthepicturetaken?Isthereanyinormationinthepicturethat
indicatestimeoday?Inot,canyouguessbasedonthelighting?
Describewhatthepeopleinthepicturelooklike.Describetheirexpression.
Whatarethepeopleinthepicturedoing?
5 Whatdoyouseeinthecenterotheimage?Onthelet?Theright?Inthe
corners?
Whatisthemoststrikingeatureothisimage?Describeit.
Nowthatyouhavetakennotesonwhatyouseeintheimage,writeaparagraph
describingtheimage.Yourwritingshouldbespecifcandclearsothatyourwords
createapictureinthereadersmind.
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Focus Link 20
wrItIng caPtIons
GOAL
Tobuildlanguageskillsandtodiscoverthethemeoaphotographbywritinganew
captionorthepicture
PREPARATION
Providephotographicsourcematerialthatstudentscanstudycloseup
WORKSHEET
Pretendyouareacuratorandneedtowriteacaptionthattellstheviewerstheessentialinormationaboutthepicture.
Writeanewcaptionorthepicture.
Startbywritingwhatyouseeintheimage.
Isee
Expandtowhatyouthinkthephotographissaying(thetheme).
Thisphotographyissayingthat
Reviseyourwritingtocreateonesentencethattellsthethemeothepicture.
Nowrevisethatsentencetomakesureyourcaptionisconciseandusesclearandspecifclanguage.
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Focus Link 21
wrItIng a revIew oF an exhIbItIon
GOAL
Toevaluateacollectionophotographsandtowriteareviewoanexhibition
WORKSHEET
Agoodreviewoersreadersasenseotheexhibitionandwhattheywillgetouto
viewingtheexhibition.
Whatdidyouseeinthegallery?
Describetheartworkspecifcally.Includeartistsnames,techniquesused,and
intention,idocumented.
Whichwerethestrongestandweakestimages?Why?Whatwasthehighlight
oryou?
Whatwastheexperienceotheexhibitionlike?
Evaluatethecuratorialwork.Howdidyouliketheinstallationthesequenceopictures,walltext,graphics,andtheatmosphere?Didtheinstallationcontribute
totheoveralleectordetract?
Wastheexhibitiongood?
Evaluatewhatyousaw.Howwelldidtheexhibitionexpandyourunderstanding
othesubject?
Wastheexhibitionworthseeing?
Whyshouldviewerscometotheexhibition?Whatwilltheygetoutoit?How
doesitconnecttootherexhibitionsorissuesinart?
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Note:Readreviewsoexhibitions.Noticehowwritersdevelopaleadsomethingto
catchthereadersattention.Sometimesthisisadescriptionoanartworkonview,
aquestionorissuepresentedbytheexhibition,orananalysisohowtheexhibition
comparestoaparticularbodyoworkoraddressesanissueinart.Reviewyour
answerstotheabovequestionsanddiscoveragoodlead.Makesurethereviewis
clearlywrittenandbasedonaccurateinormation.Trytoanswerthequestion:Why
shouldviewersvisittheexhibition?
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wrItIng an artIsts statement
GOAL
Tousewritingtohelpstudentsclariywhattheirprojectsare,whytheyareinterestedin
them,andhowtheyaccomplishthem
WORKSHEET
Anartistsstatementdescribestheartistsintentions,workingmethod,andideas.It
helpsreadersandviewersunderstandwhattheartistthinksandeelsabouthisorher
artworkandthereasonsorcreatingit.
Name:
Describeyourphotographyproject.Whatkindsoimagesarethey?
Whatareyoutryingtoshowandsayinyourimages?
Whydoyoulikephotography?
Whatinuencedyoutocreatetheseimages?Arethereanyotherphotographers,artwork,ortopicsthatyouthoughtaboutwhenyouwerecreatingtheseimages?
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FOCUS HANDS-ON ACTIvITIES
Focus Link 23
PoLaroId actIvItIes
GOAL
TousetheimmediacyoPolaroidmaterialstoteachbasicelementsoimagemaking:
pointoview,raming,lighting,andcomposition
MATERIALS
Polaroid600PlusorSpectracameras(sharedinpairs)
Polaroid,color,orblack-and-whiteflm(5shotsperstudent)
Sharpies
PROCEDURE
Showexamplesotechniquessuchaslighting,pointoview,composition,and
raming.
DemonstratethestepstouseaPolaroidcamera(Youcanpre-loadtheflm.)
1 Chooseapointoview
Presstheshutterrelease
Letthepicturedevelop
Givethemtheirassignment:Takefvepictures
Possibleprojects:
Pointoviewbirds-andworms-eye,tiltedrame,eye-level,surprise
Lightingromtheside,top,bottom,Rembrandt,silhouette
Makeatreasurehunt
Photographcluestoamystery
Thingsthatbeginwiththeletter
Passitontakeapictureinresponsetothepicturetakenbypersonnextto
you(theresponsecanbevisual,ormal,technical,thematic;keepitimmediate),
thenpassthecameraon
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Focus Link 24
PhotograPhIc assIgnment LIst
TECHNIqUES
Stopmotion
Blur
Panning
Focus
Shallowanddeepdepthofeld
Pointoview(birds-eyeandworms-eye,etc.)
Lightandshadow
Framestorameapictureandtofndnaturalramesinwindows,doors,angles
Shapesandtones
Details
Silhouettes
TOPICS
Home
Anotherneighborhood
Peopleyouknow;peopleyoudontknow
Fashion,trends
Tracesohistory
Somethingthatneedstochange
Somethingthatisbeautiul
Anissue
Aquestion
Anidea
Awish
Amystery
Amomentintime
Apeaceulplace
Risk/danger
Dreams
Thefvesenses
Naturalelements:earth,wind,fre,water
Nature/animals
Otherartorms
Pleasure
Humor
Fear
Asecret
Love
Asurprise!
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Focus Link 25
bIrds and worms treasure hunt
GOAL
Tobuildanunderstandingopointoviewandtoencouragestudentstolookata
amiliarsettinginnewwayswiththeeyesophotographers
WORKSHEET
Point o View:Abirds-eyeviewpointisromabovelookingdown,andaworms-eye
viewpointisrombelow,lookingup.
Whatotherpointsoviewcanyoufndandphotograph?
FIND: PHOTOGRAPH:
AStatue FromaWorms-EyeView
AReection FromaBirds-EyeView
ACircle,Triangle,Square FromaWorms-EyeVieworRectangle
ATreeBranch FromaWorms-EyeView
AShadow FromaBirds-EyeView
AFlower FromaWorms-EyeView
AnInsect FromaBirds-EyeView
APerson FromCloseup
AnAnimal FromFarAway
SurpriseMe! FromYourUniquePointoView
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Focus Link 26
PoLaPan sLIde PresentatIon
GOAL
TogivestudentsasenseoprocessusingPolapanflmandaprocessorthat
createsblack-and-whiteorcolorslides
MATERIALS
Polapanprocessor(Note:Itsgoodtohavetwosotheclasscanworkingroups.)
Polapan35mmflm
Slidemounts
Scissors
Lighttable,iavailable(Note:Youcanpurchaseasmallonethatftsonadesk.)
PROCEDURE
CreateimagesusingPolapanflm
ProcessflmusingthePolapanprocessor(Note:Itsdirectionsareeasytoollow
puttheflmandprocessingpackintheprocessor,closethelid,turnthe
switchtothenumberoexposures,andprocess.Ittakesjustaewminutes.)
Removetheflmandcutintoindividualimages Iyoucan,viewonalighttabletoedittheimages
Mounttheimagesbysnappingthemintotheslidemount
Projectyourslideshow
TIPS
Polapanblack-and-whiteflmhasagorgeoustonalrangeusethisprojectto
studypatternsolightandshadow
Selectmusicappropriatetotheclassprojectortheslideshow
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Focus Link 27
PoLaroId transFers
GOAL
TocreateimageswithapainterlyeectusingPolaroidtransersapplyingwet
photographicemulsiontopaper
MATERIALS
Watercolorpaper
Rollers
Polaroidlarge-ormatflmeitherexposedinadarkroomoruseaPolaroidprocessor
tocreateatranserromcolorslidesontoPolaroidlarge-ormatflm
PROCEDURE
Dampenthesheetopaper
CreatethePolaroidimage,eitherusingalarge-ormatcamerathathasa
Polaroidback,orbyusingthePolaroidprocessortogeneratethePolaroid
imageromanexistingslide
PeelapartthelayersothePolaroidflmsheet
Immediatelysettheimageemulsion-sidedownonthepaper
Usingtheroller,applytheimagetothepaper Letdry
TIPS
Demonstratefrst
Organizeseparateworkareasoralargeclass
ItsgoodtohavetwoPolaroidprocessorssotheclasscanbedividedinto
groups
Letallimagesdrydown.Sometimesaccidentslookevenmorepainterly.
RESOURCES
Craword,William.Keepers of Light.NewYork:Morgan&Morgan,1979.
Arnow,Jan.Handbook of Alternative Photographic Processes.NewYork:Van
NostrandReinholtCo.,1982.
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Focus Link 28
hand coLorIng PrInts
Thisactivityharkensbacktothedayswhenhandcoloringwastheonlywaytocolorizeanimage.
GOAL
Toteachprinciplesocolorandthecolorpalettebyaddingcolortoablack-and-white
MATERIALS
Black-and-whiteprintsMarshallsoilsornon-toxicpaintsorexperimentation
Handcoloringpencils
PROCEDURE
Createaworkarea
Applypencils,oils,orpaintstotheimages,ollowingtheproductsinstructions
TIPS
Mattefnishphotographicpaperworksbestorpencils
Usephotocopiesiprintsareunavailable
Mounttheresultingworkonmatboardandhavestudentscontinuetodrawon
thatsurace,pullingoutmoreelementsothedesignandcolor
RESOURCES
Craword,William.Keepers of Light.NewYork:Morgan&Morgan,1979.
Arnow,Jan.Handbook of Alternative Photographic Processes.NewYork:Van
NostrandReinholtCo.,1982.
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Focus Link 29
sun PrInts
Byarrangingobjectsonlight-sensitivesunprintpaperandusingthesunasyourlight
source,youcancreateanimagewithluminouswhiteshapes,ribbons,andstreaks
againstacobaltbackground.Theormsresultbecausethelightdoesnotexposethose
areasothepaperwheretheobjectshavebeenplaced.Thisoutdooractivityrecallsthe
inventionophotographywiththesunprintprocess,whichJosephNicephoreNiepce
inventedin1826,andthepapernegativeorcalotypeprocess,whichHenryFoxTalbot
inventedinthe1839.(SeeAppendix 2: A Brief History of Photography.)
GOAL
Toteachthebasicprincipleophotography,theinteractionbetweenlightandlight-
sensitivepaper
MATERIALS
Sunprintpaper(alsocalledprint-outpaper)
Twowatertrays
Objects(necklaces,toys,fgurines,leaves,owers)
Acetate
Large-ormatnegativesiyouhavethem
PROCEDURE
Placeobjectstobeprintedonthephotosensitivepaper
Exposethepaperwithobjectsonittodirectsunlightoranultravioletsunlamp
Watchthepaperchangetoadarkcolorin3to6minutes
Removetheobjectsandplacethepaperinthewaterbathor5minutes
Drainexcesswaterromtheprintsandplaceonabsorbentpapertowelstodry
Nowthatyouhaveapapernegative,youcanshowthepositiveprocess.
Placetheprintontoanotherpieceophoto-sensitivepaperandputapieceo
glassoverit
Continuetheprocessollowingtheprocedureabove
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TIPS
Handlethepapercareullyandonlyattheedgesduringthewetprocess.The
suraceisragile.
Itheprintscurlwhiledrying,placeheavybooksontoptoattenthem;oriron
them,aterplacingadampclothbetweentheprint(emulsion-sidedown)and
theiron.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIvITIES
Handcolortheprintsusingcoloredpencils,watercolorpaints,andmarkers.
Addstickers.
Createcollageswiththesunprints.Thesunprintscanbecutupandglued
togethertocreatenewimages.Recreatethepositiveandnegativeshapesin
coloredpaperandcollagethemtogetherwiththecut-upsunprints.
Makepencilrubbingsotheobjectsusedtomakethesunprints.Lookatthe
dierencebetweenthetextureotherubbingsandtheormsothesunprints.
Makedecorativeramesoutocardboard.Decoratethemwithsomeotheobjectsusedintheprints.
Makeprintsovaryingsizesevenbodyprintsbypurchasingrollsopaper
oroversizedpaperandcuttingittothedesiredsizesinadarkroom
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Focus Link 30
Photograms
Photogramsareimagescreatedbyplacingobjectsonphotographicpaperand
exposingthepapertolight.Opaqueobjectscreatewhitesilhouettesagainstablack
background.Theormsotranslucentobjectsappearinshadesogray.
GOAL
Tocreateprintswithoutnegativesinthedarkroomandtoillustratewhathappenstoflm
whenitisexposedandprocessedintonegatives
MATERIALS
Enlargingpaper(PolycontrastRC)
Lightsource(enlarger,ipossible)
Darkroomwithsaelight
Chemicals:1traydeveloper,1traystop,1trayfxer,1traywater
Objectsorsubjectmatter
PROCEDURE
Explaintoyourstudentsthattheywillbeusingthefveingredientsnecessary
ortakingaphotograph:(1)camera(inthiscase,thedarkroom),(2)light(the
enlarger),(3)flm/photographicpaper,(4)subject(objectsochoice),and(5)photographer(thestudentsthemselves)
Presettheenlargerstimerto5secondsandthelensapertureto8(Note:You
canalsouseanyotherkindolightsourceandtimer.)
Demonstratetheprocedure
Positionpaperunderareaolightsource
Placeobjectsonpaper
Exposethepapertolight
Processpaperinthedeveloper,stop,andfxer
Washor10minutes
Dry,eitherhangingonaclotheslineorace-uponametalscreen
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vARIATIONS
Experimentwithexposuretimesanddierentobjects
Movethelightsourcetodierentanglessothatitcastsshadows
Createmultipleexposuresbyusingseveralshortexposuretimesononepiece
opaper,movingtheobjectsaroundeachtime
Drawonacetateanduseitasanegativeoverthepaper
ColorthedriedPhotogramwithcoloredpencilsorMarshallsphotooils
Exposeanentiresheetopapertolight;drawanimagewithabrushdippedin
developer;processthroughthefxerandwash
ToneReversal:Putfnished(dry)Photogramacedownincontactwithapiece
ophotographicpaperandexposeor30seconds.Process.
Solarizetheimagebyturningonthedarkroomlightbriey,reversingthetones
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Focus Link 31
wrItIng wIth LIght on FILm or PaPer
Thisactivitycallsupontheliteraldefnitionophotography,writingwithlight.
GOAL
Toillustratethephysicsolightandtoexperimentwithcreatingimageswithouta
camera
MATERIALS
Flashlightorpenlight
Roomthatyoucandarkencompletely(darkroom,closet,bathroom)
Photographicpaper(resincoated),8x10or11x14
Threetrays
Paperdeveloper(Dektol)
Stopbath
Fixer
Tongs
Clotheslineandclothespins
Optional:
Camera
Film
Tripod
INSTRUCTIONS (WITHOUT CAMERA):
Onthewall,markoanareathesizeothepapertobeyourrame
Turnoutthelights,removethephotographicpaperromthebox,andputa
pieceotapeonthebackothepaper
Tapeitsecurelytotherameonthewall
Drawwithlightonthepaper.Experiment!Youcancreatedotsbyturningthe
lightsourceonandoquickly.Or,createstreamsandstreaksbyswingingthe
lightsourceintheair.
Placeexposedpaperinalight-tightbox
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Setuptrayswithdeveloper,stop,fx,andwater
Developor1minute
Stopor30seconds
Fixor3minutes
Washor10minutes Hangprintsbytheiredgestodry
INSTRUCTIONS (FOR CAMERA):
Loadtheflmintothecameraandsetthecameraonatripod
Lookingthroughtheviewfnder,determinetheareaonthewallthatwillbethe
rame
SetcameraonB
Turnoutthelights,thenpresstheshutterrelease
Drawwiththeashlightorpenlightonthemarked-oarea,therame
Processflm
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FocusLessonPlans 5
Focus Link 32
LIquId LIght and other aLternatIve Processes
GOAL
Tocreateimagesonanyatsurace,experimentingjustliketheinventorso
photography
MATERIALS
Liquidlightorcyanotypemixture(store-boughtlight-sensitivemixturethatcanbe
appliedtoanyatsuracetocreateanimage)
Watercolororabsorbentpaper
Objectswithatsuraces(lea,abric,Plexiglas,metalcan)
PROCEDURE
Inadarkroom,applyliquidlighttotheobjectssurace
Letdry
Useanenlargertoprojecttheimageontothesurace
Processintraysandletdry
TIPS
Experimentwithexposuretimesonthetreatedmaterialsthatmakegoodtests,saving
yourbestmaterialsorlast
RESOURCES
Craword,William.Keepers of Light.NewYork:Morgan&Morgan,1979.
Arnow,Jan.Handbook of Alternative Photographic Processes.NewYork:Van
NostrandReinholtCo.,1982.
Coe,BrianandHaworth-Booth,Mark.A Guide to Early Photographic
Processes.London:Victoria&AlbertMuseum,1983.
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5 FocusLessonPlans
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Focus Link 33
PInhoLe PhotograPhy
Thisactivitycallsupontheliteraldefnitionocamera,adarkbox.
GOAL
Tocreateyourowncameraandlearnaboutthephysicsolight
MATERIALS
Anybox:emptyoatmealboxes,photographicpaperboxes,shoeboxes,etc.
Aluminumoil
Sharppin
Blackgaertape
Blackspraypaint(tomaketheinsideotheboxblack)
Roomthatyoucandarkencompletely(darkroom,closet,bathroom)
Photographicpaper(resincoated),5x7,8x10
Fourtrays:paperdeveloper(Dektol),stopbath,fxer,water
Tongs
Clotheslineandclothespins,orablotterbook
PROCEDURE FOR MAKING THE CAMERA
1 Firstpainttheinsideotheboxblack(Blackabsorbslightrays.)
Cutasmall,squareholeintoonesideothebox,whereyouwouldlikethe
lenstobe.Considerthatyourpaperwillbeoppositethislens.Keepthispiece
ocardboardtomakeyourlenscover.
Securelytapetheoilovertheholeontheinsideothebox
Pricktheoilwithaverysmallhole.Considerthatthesizeotheholeaects
theamountolightcomingin,andthereoreyourocus,imagequality,andexposuretime.
5 Takethesquarepieceocardboardromstep2.Tapeitovertheoilonthe
outsideotheboxwithblacktape.Thiscreatesaap,approximatingashutter.
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PROCEDURE FOR CREATING THE IMAGES
Workinginadarkroom(orachangingbox),placephotographicpaperinthe
backothepinholecamera(oppositethelens).Closethebox.
Securetapearoundtheedgesothecameraboxandkeeptheapdownas
youtakethecameraintolight
Gotoyourlocationandsetupthecamera
Exposethepaperbylitinguptheap.Recordyourexposuretime.(Ittakesa
lototestingtodeterminetherightexposure.)
Setuptrayswithdeveloper,stop,fx,andwater
Developthepaperor1minute
Stopor30seconds
Fixor3minutes
Washor10minutes
Hangprintsupbytheiredgestodry,orplacethemintheblotterbook
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FOCUS REFLECTION ACTIvITIES
Theseactivitiesencouragereectionontheimagesthatstudentshavecreatedor
ound.Thisprocesshelpsstudentsunderstandphotographicskills,techniques,and
aestheticsandhowimagescommunicate.
Focus Link 34
crItIque your Image
GOAL
Toposequestionsthathelpstudentsanalyzethequalitiesotheirownimagesin
discussionorwritingactivities
ACTIvITY
Whatdoesthisimageshow?
Whydoyoulikethisimage?
Howdidyoucreatethisimage?
Whatqualitiesdoyoulikethebest?Considerraming,lighting,composition,
content,andsoorth.
Whatdidyouhavetroublewith?Whatwouldyoudodierentlynexttime?
Describetheexperiencesocreatingthisimage.Whatdidyoueel?Whatwasenjoyableorchallenging?
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FocusLessonPlans 1
Focus Link 35
storyteLLIng
GOAL
Todiscoverhowvisualimagestellstoriesandwriteastoryotheirown
SAMPLE ACTIvITIES
Creativestories:
Whatstorydoesthevisualimagetell?Lookingatanimage,discussthe
character,setting,action,pointoview,andtheme.
Writestoriesinresponsetoanimage.Usespecifcdetailsromtheimagein
yourstory.(Focus Link 17)
Alternatives(SeeChapter 14.)
Image-and-text artwork:
Howisthestoryenhancedanddirectedbyatitleorwordswrittenonthe
image?
Howdoestheimageenhanceordirectyourreadingothetext?
Combineimagesandtextinvariousarrangements,somewheretheimage
leadsandotherswherethetextleads
Picture stories:
Sequenceaseriesoimages
Howdoesthestorychangeiyouputtwoormoreimagestogetherina
sequence?
Whathappensinthespacebetweenimages?
Oral stories:
Whatisoralstorytelling?Theoldestormostorytelling,oralstoriestellaboutaperson,
place,oreventusingclearandvividlanguage.Thesestoriesaretoldaloudoverand
overagainuntiltheirormtakesshape.Oten,oralstoriessoundpoeticbecause
storytellerspayattentiontorhythmandrhyme.Asinfction,storytellersusedescriptive
wordstocreateimagestoleadthelisteneralongandhighlightimportantideasto
remember.Also,asindrama,thestoriesaremeanttobeperormedandtotakeshape
astheyarepracticed.
Useamilyphotographsasinspirationoranoralstoryandinterview
Showaamilyphotographtoaamilymemberandask:Whatdoesthe
photographremindyouo?
Askorspecifcsaboutthesituation,people,andtimeperiod
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Begintomapouttheoralstorybymakinganoutlineokeypointsintheorder
youwouldliketopresentthem
Identiykeyimagesthatyoucandescribetohighlightyourmainpoints
Thinkaboutafrstsentencethatintroducesyourstory(considerusingthe
imageasastartingpoint)
Withataperecorderon,begintellingyourstory
Trytousesimple,clearsentences
Whenyoulistentoyourtape,trytoidentiyanypatternsospeech,rhythm,or
rhymethatnaturallyemerged.Bringouttheseelementswhenyoupracticeit
again.
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FocusLessonPlans
Focus Link 36
sPeechwrItIng
GOAL
Todevelopspeechwritingskillsandtospeakaboutpicturestootherstudents
ACTIvITY
Chooseapicturethatyoulikeromaamilyphotoalbum,magazine,history
bookoryourownphotographicwork
Writeaspeechaboutwhatthephotographmeanstoyou
Somehintsonspeechwriting:
Introduction:Trytograbtheaudiencesattentionwithagoodopeninganimage,aninterestinganecdote,themainidea
Body:Includelotsoinormationaboutthephotographandthestorybehindit
Conclusion:Repeatyourmainpoint
Note:Thiscouldalsobeaclassproject.Dividetheclassintopairsandletthem
intervieweachotheraboutthemeaningothephotograph.Eachstudentcouldwritea
speechabouttheotherpersonsphotograph.
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Focus Link 37
art Projects
GOAL
Torespondtoaphotographwithartprojectsandtobuildanunderstandingodierent
media
SAMPLE PROjECTS
Takeaphotographinresponsetothegeometry,color,andsubjectmattero
anotherphotograph(Onestudentcancreateanimage,andthenpassthe
cameraon.)
Createanimageandtextjournalwithphotographsandpersonalstories
Draw,paint,andwritearoundoronaphotographoronacetateplacedontop
othephotograph
Createacollagebycuttingupdierentimages(copiesooriginals).Tapeor
gluethemtoaposterboard.Addpaint,text,anddrawing.
Combinephotographyandwritingpoetry,fction,andjournalism
Combinesoundandvideowithimageprojections
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Focus Link 38
research Projects
GOAL
Tousephotographstolearnabouttopicsinthecurriculum
SAMPLE PROjECTS
Researchtopicsandpeoplewhoareeaturedintheexhibition
Researchcertaintimeperiodsandevents,collectillustrativeimages,andcreate
avisualhistoryoranillustratedtimeline
Investigatethephotographichistoryotopicsstudiedinschool.Forexample,i
youarestudyingscience,youcouldresearchhowphotographerslikeEdward
Muybridge,HaroldEdgarton,andBerniceAbbotappliedphotographyto
studyscience.Or,iyouareocusingontheachievementsowomen,you
couldstudywomenphotographerswhohaveinuencedthemediumsinceits
inceptionin1839.
Createanexhibitioncaption,usingtheworksheet.(SeeChapter 14ormore
inormation.)
Exhibition Caption Worksheet
ResearchaphotographandtheartistbysearchingtheInternet,visitinga
library,inquiringinthemuseumorgallery,orreadingaphotographybook.
Createanexhibitioncaptionincluding:
thetitle
dateocreation
photographersname
photographersbiographicalinormation
techniquesused
photographersintention,iknown
theculturalsignifcanceothephotograph
Makesuretheinormationonthecaptionanswersthequestion:Whyisthisphotographonexhibition?
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Focus Link 39
Image box
GOAL
Tocreateareceptacleorimagesandideasabouthowpicturescommunicateour
history,culture,sel-perceptions,andperceptionsoothers
MATERIALS
Cardboardboxes
Collectionoimagesromvarioussourcesincludingmagazines,newspapers,amily
albums,andpersonalartwork
ACTIvITY
Createcategoriescorrespondingtothemesoraspectsothecurriculum
Decoratetheoutsideothecardboardboxes
Labelboxesaccordingtorelevantcategories
Contributeimagestotheboxesonanongoingbasis
Eachboxwillserveasavaluablevisualresourceormanycurriculartopicsranging
romhistoricaleventstocurrentissues.Studentscanusetheimageboxtobringup
issuesandquestionstheymayhaveonvarioustopics.
SAMPLE PROjECTS
Createillustratedtimelines
Highlighttopicscoveredinclass
Usetheimagesasabasisorbuildingvocabulary,languagedevelopment,and
writingskills
Usetheimageboxasastartingpointorartprojects.Studentsreachinthe
boxandthencreateartinresponsetowhattheyseeinthephotograph.
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Focus Link 40
vIsuaL dIary
GOAL
Tohelptodefnetheimpactovisualimagesonstudentslives
MATERIALS
Notebook,eitherpurchasedorhandmade
ACTIvITY
Introducethetheme
Everyday,weseemanyimagesthroughadvertisements,televisionshows,snapshots,andart.Whatdotheseimagesmeantous?Wheredo
weseethem?Whatdoweseeinthem?
CreateaVisualDiary
Makealistowhereyouseeimagesinoneday,romthetimeyougetupto
whenyougotobed
Pastesomeotheimagesinthediary,ordrawthem
Inthediary,describetheimagesyousawandtheireectonyou
Discusstheimageandtheimpactusingthesequestionsasguidelines
The picture:
Whatdoyousee?
Whenandwherewasthepicturetaken?
Whatisgoingoninthepicture?
Whatstorydoesthepicturetell?
The impact:
Whatdoesthepicturemakeyouthinko?
Howdoesitmakeyoueel?
Whatdoesitmakeyouwanttohaveordo?
Doesitremindyouoanything?
Doesitrightenyou?Doesitinspireyou?
Whatotherresponsesdoyouhave?
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Focus Link 41
PIctures and IntervIews
GOAL
Tocreateimagesandtextthattogethertellthestoryothepersonwhowasinterviewed
Todevelopinterviewing,writing,andphotographyskills
WORKSHEET
PART I: As a reporter, you will need a pad, a pencil, and a tape recorder, i
possible.
Identiypeopleinyouramily,neighborhood,school,orworkplacewhowillcollaboratewithyou.
Askthemtochooseapicturethatchangedtheirlie,inspired,amused,or
rightenedthem.
Interviewthem.Usingataperecorder,askthem,Whatdoesthispicturemean
toyou?Keepaskingthemmorespecifcquestions.Listencareullytothestory
theytell.
PART II: As a curator o your exhibition, you will need a copy o their picture, a
rame or it, and a matching rame or the transcript o their interview.
Putthepictureinarame.(Tocopyit,considerre-photographingit,makinga
photocopy,orscanningandprintingitdigitally.)
Transcribetheinterview.Selectthemosttellingpart.Editittoftononepage.
Createyourexhibition.
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Focus Link 42
create your own exhIbItIon
GOAL
Tocreateopportunitiestopresentstudentworktothepublic
ACTIvITY
Therearemanyoptionsorthefnalpresentationoworkorexhibition.Iyou
cantcutyourownmats,buypre-cutmats,orchoosearamethatdoesnt
requireamat.(Tips:UseNielsenrames,glasscliprames,orboxrames.)
Iyoudonthaverames,youcanalsomountitemsoncardboard.Iyouuse
cardboard,considerusingthesamecolor,butkeepthecolorandthemargins
aboveandbelowthepictureconsistent.Considerusingthickoamcoreandmountingthepicturetotheedgeothesuracesothereisnoborder.Cover
theseimageswithplexiglass.
Createcaptions:Includethepicturetitle,thestudentsname,andipossible
theirage.Printcaptionsonheavycardstockoroamcore.Usingdouble-sided
tapeoruntack,mountthemonthewallnexttotheramedpicture.
Mountthepicturesonawalloyourschool,library,orcommunitycenter.
Considertheaverageheightoyouraudience;keepthemiddleothepictureat
theaverageeyelevelothestudentsinyourclass.
Tips:Whenyoucuratetheshow,lookcareullyathowonepicturelooksnext
toanother.Keepinmindhowtheserelationshipscreatemeaningandhow
thearrangementcreatesmovementthroughthespace;youarecreatingan
experienceortheviewer!Trytogroupthepicturestoaddressaparticular
topic.Arrangethepicturessuchthattheshapesandanglesdrawtheviewers
attentionintothespace,notoutoit.
Createwalltextthatexplainsthepurposeotheproject,liststheartistsnames,
andthankthepeoplewhohelpedtomaketheprojecthappen.Arrangeor
oodandrereshmentsortheopening.
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Focus Link 43
what makes a good PhotograPh?
Photographers make choices from among the elements of photography in orderto get their message across. When creating and editing photographs, focus on
technique and effect. A good photograph is one that works well, communi-
cating a clear, interesting message.
thIngs to thInk about when makIng a PhotograPh
SUbjECT
Whatareyoutryingtosayaboutthesubjectinthisphotograph?
TECHNIqUE
Whattechniquescanyouusetodirectattentiontothesubject?
Howdoyouwanttocomposethephotograph?
Lighting:Whatdirectionisthelightcomingrom?
Point o view:Wherecanyoupositionyourselwhentakingthephotograph?
Framing:Howcanyouholdthecamera?(Vertical,horizontal,paralleltohorizon,or
tilted?)
Timing:Whenshouldyoutakethephotograph?
Motion:Shouldanythingbemovinginthephotograph?Shoulditlookblurryorrozen
inspace?
Focus:Whatshouldbeseenclearlyinthephotograph?
Materials:Whatcamera,flm,andequipmentdoyouneedorthisphotograph?
Tips:Createmorethanonephotograph.Approachthesubjectromdierentpoints
oviewandvaryhowyouholdthecameraandramephotographs.Capturedierent
momentsintime,especiallywhenphotographingpeopleormotion.
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FocusLessonPlans 1
thIngs to thInk about when edItIng PhotograPhs
DESIGN
Technique:Describetheeectsthatthetechniqueshaveontheresultingphotograph.
Composition:Whereisyoureyedrawn?Studyhowthecompositionkeepsyour
eyebusywithitsangles,orms,shapes,andlines.Thinkabouthowthecomposition
createsbalanceandstructure.Doesthecompositionwork,eectivelycontributingto
themeaning?
Framing:Whatisincludedintherameandwhatisexcluded?Isanythingcropped
inthephotograph?Doesthecroppinghelpdrawattentiontowhatthephotographis
saying?Orisitdistracting?
Lighting:Whateectdoesthelightinghave?Doesthelightinghighlightimportant
inormation?Doesitcreateapatternolightandshadowthataddstowhatthe
photographissaying?
Focus:Howdoesocusdirectyourattention?Ithereisblur,isiteective?
CONTENT
Subject:Whatisthesubjectothephotograph?
Concrete Subject:Whatisthephotographo?Thisiswhatyouseeinthephotograph.
Abstract Subject:Whatisthephotographabout?Thisishowyouinterpretwhatyou
seeinthephotograph.
Background:Whatshapes,tones,anddetailsdoyouseeinthebackground?How
doesthebackgroundconnecttothesubject?
Foreground:Describewhatyouseeinrontothesubject.Whateectdoesthe
oregroundhaveonhowyouseethesubject?
People:Fromtheirexpression,pose,andclothing,whatinormationdoyouhaveabout
whotheyareandwhattheyaredoing?
Mood/Feeling:Howdoesthisphotographmakeyoueel?Whatelements(lighting,
colors,shapes,textures,thesubject)makeyoueelthatway?
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Symbol/Metaphor: Canyouseeanysymbolsinthisphotograph?Wouldtheybe
amiliartoothercultures?Isthereanythinginthephotographthatcouldbereadasa
metaphor?
Style & Genre:Whatistheintendedpurposeorthephotograph(e.g.,magazine,fne
artexhibition)?Canyouplacethephotographinagenre:portraiture,stilllie,ashion,
documentary,photojournalism,conceptual,narrative,etc.?
Meaning:Whatisthephotographsaying?
Describehowtheelementsophotographycomposition,photographic
attributes,technique,style&genrecommunicatethismeaning.
Whatquestionsorideasdoesthephotographmakeyouwonderabout?
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Focus Link 44
seeIng actIvIty
Selectaphotograph.Lookatitcloselyandthoughtullyor30seconds.(Timeyoursel;itwilleelmuchlongerthanyoumayexpect.)Thenusetheollowingquestionstoguide
yourseeing,andwriteyourresponsesquicklyandreely.Skipquestionsthataretoo
hardandcomebacktothemlater.Thisactivityshouldtakeabout20minutes.
FIRST IMPRESSIONS
Listtendetailsthatyouseeinthephotograph.
Whatelsedoyousee?
COMPOSITION
Whereisyoureyedrawn?
Describethepattern,shapes,andcolors.
Lookawayandthenlookatthephotographagain.Whatcaughtyoureyefrst?
Whydoesthatstandout?
PHOTOGRAPHIC ATTRIbUTES
Findthepatternolightandshadow.Whatdoesthelightingdrawyourattentionto?
Describewhatisinocus.
Whatotherphotographictechniquesdoyounotice?
Whatisthephotographerspointoview?
CONTENT
Whatisthesubjectothephotograph?
Whatquestionsdoyouhaveaboutthesubject?
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STYLE & GENRE
Useanadjectivetodescribethestyleothephotograph.
Canyouguesswhatgenrethisphotographrepresents?Whatmakesyousaythat?
MEANING
Howdoesthephotographmakeyoueel?Whatdoesthephotographmakeyouthink
o?
Whydoyouthinkthephotographermadetheseartisticchoices?
Whatdoyouthinkthephotographissaying?
LAST IMPRESSIONS
Lookoncemoreatthephotographandfndsomethingyouhaventdescribedyet.
Whatisyourreactiontothisexercise?Didanythingsurpriseyou?
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Whatareasweredifculttoanswer?Photographicattributesandtechnique?
Composition?Content?Styleorgenre?Meaning?
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This section is an excerpt from Focus on Photography: A Curriculum Guide
Written by Cynthia Way for the International Center of Photography
2006 International Center of Photography
All rights reserved.
Published by the International Center of Photography, New York.
Printed in the United States of America.
Please credit the International Center of Photography on all reproductions.
This project has been made possible with generous support from Andrew and Marina Lewin,
the GE Fund, and public funds from the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs Cultural
Challenge Program.
FOCUS ON PHOTOGRAPHY: A CURRICULUM GUIDE
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FOCUS ON PHOTOGRAPHY: A CURRICULUM GUIDE
Appendix 1:Basics of Photography
What Is Photography?
Ever since photographys invention in 1839, people have been using
photography to describe the world around them. The word photography is derived
rom the Greek words: photo, which means light, and graph, which means
writing. Photography is writing with light.
The camera is like a mirror with a memory. Every detail o what you see through
the camera rame is reected and recorded onto the flm. When a photographer
takes a picture, the shutter opens and closes like a door, letting light into the
camera. When the shutter is slow, anything that is moving will leave blurry traces on
the flm. When the shutter is ast, motion is rozen in time and space.
Light traces the image onto the flm. Silver salts in the flm change when they
are exposed to dierent amounts o light. Where there is a lot o light, the silver salts
disappear and the image is white. Where there is less light, the silver salts hardly
change, and the image is dark and dense. With the right exposure, the silver salts
will transorm in various degrees, creating an image rich with detail. In this way,
you can see everything rom the shadows to the highlights, almost as the scene
appears beore your eyes.
Photography seems like magic. But, photographs are possible because o
scientifc processes. Light causes chemical reactions in the flm and the paper usedto make prints. When the flm is taken out o the camera, the image is latentits
there but you cant see it yet. Photographers roll the flm into a light-tight canister
and pour in chemicals, which turn the invisible image into a visible image.
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APPENDIX 1: Basics o Photography
To make prints, photographers must work in a darkroom. The room is lit
only by reddish sae lights, which do not cause chemical reactions on the paper.
Photographers place the negative in an enlarger and shine light through it, projecting
the image onto photographic paper. Then, photographers put the paper into a tray o
chemicals to develop the print. This is when you can watch the image appear beore
your eyes. Photographers put the paper into the stop bath, to stop the developing, and
into a fxer, to make the image last. Now, they are ready to look at the image outside o
the darkroom.
Digital Imaging
Digital imaging still relies on the essential ingredient o photography, light. With
computer technology, we can scan in images or create images with a digital camera,
translating inormation cast by light into digital signals. Pixels on a computer screen are
analogous to the grain on a photograph, or the silver salts. We can manipulate images
using photo-imaging sotware and print out or post the resulting images on the web.
The computer becomes your darkroom!
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FOCUS ON PHOTOGRAPHY: A CURRICULUM GUIDE
Appendix 2:A Brief History of Photography
Mid-Sixteenth CenturyCamera Obscura
Hundreds o years ago, artists discovered the camera obscura. They noticed
that light coming through a keyhole into a dark room cast an inverted image on the
wall. They built a camera obscura by setting a lens into a two-oot square box and
placing a sheet o glass opposite the opening.
With the camera obscura in hand, the artist could set up the equipment in the
eld. Through the camera rame, the artist saw the view that he or she wished to
draw. Then the artist traced the image refected on the glass rame with a high
degree o detail. In this way, artists used an early orm o a camera picture to give
their drawings realistic perspective and detail.
1826Early Experimentation: Heliographs
Joseph Nicephore Niepce o France invented heliographs, or sun prints. This
was the rst experiment that created a prototype o the photograph, removing
the artists hand rom the creation o the image and letting light draw the picture.
Niepce placed an engraving onto a metal plate coated in bitumen, and then
exposed it to light. The shadowy areas o the engraving blocked light, but the
whiter areas permitted light to react with the chemicals on the plate. When
Niepce placed the metal plate in a solvent, gradually an image, until then invisible,
appeared.
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2 APPENDIX 2: A Brie History o Photography
1839The Invention of Photography
On a trip to Paris, Niepce visited the painter and theatrical set designer, Louis
Jacques Mande Daguerre, and showed him the heliographs. Daguerre was intrigued
by the invention, and the two men became partners in photographic experimentation.
Unortunately, ater our years o creating images and testing chemical processes,Niepce passed away.
In 1839, Daguerre invented a process that xed the images onto a sheet o silver-
plated copper. He polished the silver and coated it in iodine, creating a surace that was
sensitive to light. Then, he put the plate in a camera and exposed it or a ew minutes.
Ater the image was painted by light, Daguerre bathed the plate in a solution o silver
chloride. This process created a lasting image, one that would not change i exposed
to light. When set next to a black velvety surace, the metal plate refected the shadowy
areas o the picture and the light areas seemed illuminated. The Daguerrotype rendered
details with such accuracy it was called a mirror with a memory.
At the same time, William Henry Fox Talbot, an English botanist and mathematician,
made a similar invention. He sensitized paper to light with a silver salt solution. Talbot
placed objects such as a lea or lace onto the paper and then exposed it to sunlight.
The background became black, and the subject was rendered in gradations o gray.
This was a negative image, and rom the negative, photographers could now duplicate
the image as many times as they wanted. Talbot made contact prints o this image,
reversing the light and shadows to create a detailed picture. In 1841, he perected this
paper-negative process and called it a calotype, rom the Greek, meaning beautiul
picture.
News o Daguerres and Talbots discoveries sparked the curiosity o the scientist
and astronomer, Sir John F.W. Herschel. In 1839 he perected the process o xing,or making permanent, the negative image. Herschel bathed the negative in sodium
thiosulte to dissolve the silver salts, so that they would not react with light any longer,
and the image became permanent. He also coined the name we use today or these
processesphotography, or writing with light.
Soon, photographers around the world used Daguerrotypes and calotypes to
record architecture and nature with nite detail, to document historic events, and to
create portraits o literary and social gures, riends, and amily members.
1851The Glass Negative
In 1851, Frederick Scott Archer, an English sculptor, invented the wet plate. Using a
viscous solution o collodion, he coated glass with light-sensitive silver salts. Because
it was glass and not paper, this wet plate created a more stable and detailed negative.
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APPENDIX 2: A Brie History o Photography 3
However, the wet plate needed to be developed and xed beore it dried. In order to
process the pictures quickly, the photographer had to carry a portable darkroomwith
cumbersome black boxes, trays and tongs, bottles o chemistry and ragile glass
plateseverywhere he or she went.
1850sTintypes, Cartes de visites, and
Stereo Views
Throughout the 1850s, there were various technological improvements in paper,
lenses, and cameras. These advancements made it easier or the general public to
become involved in photography. Tintypes were pictures made on thin sheets o metal.
Cartes de visites were small albumen prints on paper cards. A popular pastime was
viewing pictures with a stereoscope that created a 3D eect. Because these pictures
were inexpensive to make, they became common ways to carry pictures o scenic
views, amilies, and individuals.
1860sRealism and Fantasy
Newsworthy events were communicated with the aid o photography. In the 1860s,
many photographers, such as Matthew Brady, William Fenton, and Timothy OSullivan,
became interested in documenting war. These photographs were seen in exhibitions,
mounted in books, and used as sources or engravings or newspapers. They provided
the most realistic and compelling records o the cruelties o war available at the time.
Many photographers explored the natural landscape with cumbersome camera
equipment in tow. William Henry Jackson traveled or miles over backbreaking terrain to
document the crystal mountain peaks and black lakes o hitherto unknown reaches o
the American landscape. He was the rst person to photograph the Old Faithul Geyser
in Yellowstone Park, and his work helped to preserve some o Americas wilderness.
Photography enabled artists to create a representation o the physical world that
was aithul to reality, but it was also seen as another medium or rendering allegories
and works o art that ollowed the traditions o painting. Julia Margaret Cameron
purposely blurred the image, using radiant lighting and sot ocus to evoke the spiritual
quality o the subject. She employed this method whether photographing social guressuch as Lord Alred Tennyson and Charles Darwin or portraying allegories with models
who were oten amily members. Lewis Carrol photographed Alice Grace Weld, his
riend and the inspiration orAlice in Wonderland, dressed up as Little Red Riding
Hood. Henry Peach Robinson combined several negatives to re-enact dramatic scenes
in myths and stories.
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APPENDIX 2: A Brie History o Photography
1870sCapturing Motion
In 1869, Edward Muybridge invented a way to reeze motion. He created a shutter
inside the camera: two boards slipping past each other at the touch o spring. The
lm recorded the actions that took place during the split-second when the shutter
was open. Muybridge conducted a series o studies on motion, photographing menvaulting over poles and horses galloping on a track. His work not only assisted artists in
studying anatomical orm in motion, but it was also a precursor to motion pictures.
1880sTechnological Advancements:
The Dry Plate and the Hand-Held Camera
In 1879, experiments resulted in the dry plate, a glass negative plate with a dried
gelatin emulsion. Dry plates could be stored or a period o time. Photographers no
longer needed the cumbersome and time-consuming portable darkroom. In act,
photographers began hiring technicians to develop their photographs, and the art o
photo nishing was born. In addition, dry processes absorbed light quicklyso rapidly
in act that the tripod could be stored in the closet and the camera held in the hand.
With the speed o the lm and the infux o hand-held cameras, action shots became
more easible.
In 1888, George Eastman, a dry plate manuacturer in Rochester, NY, invented the
Kodak camera. For $22.00 an amateur could purchase a camera with enough lm or
100 shots. Ater use, it was sent back to the company, which then processed it. The ad
slogan read, You press the button, we do the rest. A year later, the delicate paper lm
was changed to a plastic base, so that photographers could do their own processing.(Now we have a resurgence o this company-processed invention with the disposable
camera.)
The Turn of the CenturyPictorialism &
Straight Photography
Many photographers were interested solely in the aesthetic possibilities o the
medium. Pictorialists, such as Gertrude Kasebier and Alvin Langdon Coburn, tookphotographs that imitated the style o paintings. Using symbols, shimmering light, and
sot ocus to create impressionistic dots and streaks, pictorialists depicted a world that
was one step removed rom reality.
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APPENDIX 2: A Brie History o Photography 5
Alred Steiglitz, a New York-based photographer, was actively involved in writing,
editing, lecturing, photographing, and organizing gallery shows to establish the
reputation o photography as a ne art, rom Pictorialism to avant-garde methods.
Finally in 1924, the Museum o Fine Arts in Boston collected Steiglitzs photographs; it
was the rst time that photographs were collected in a museum in the United States.
At the same time, many photographers became interested in photography as
a tool to record customs and manners, the acets o their culture that they elt were
disappearing at the turn o the century. With Kodak hand-held cameras and rolls o
gelatin lms, photojournalists burst onto the scene. They elt compelled to record lie as
it unolded beore their eyes, to bear witness to the world and their place in it.
1920s and 1930sExperimentation
In 1925, the invention o the Leica camera liberated photographers. Because the
Leica was small, light, and quick, they were now able to capture the activity o street liewith greater accuracy and imagination. In responding to the momentous changes in the
world around them, photographers experimented with dierent m