II. Age of Revolution

A. American Revolution

1. Background

a. Tradition of American autonomy before 1863

--“Salutary Neglect”

b. Financial pressures on Great Britain (and King George III) after the French & Indian War (Seven Years War)

--“Oppressive” taxes on colonies

--Oppressive laws…Stamp Act, etc.

--Economic turmoil

c. Disaffection of the intellectuals

--Role of the Enlightenment

2. Major Events of American Revolution

a. Lexington, Concord, “Bunker” Hill

--First shots…no turning back – “Shot heard round the world”

b. Declaration of Independence 1776

--Jefferson

--Ideas of the Enlightenment

c. Saratoga

--Turning point

--Recognition and aid from France came after this victory

d. Yorktown

--British surrender…the revolution won

3. Outcomes

a. Role of Washington

--Political stability at helm

--Precedent

b. The Articles of Confederation

--Unworkable government…very weak

--Power of states…more than the national government

c. The Constitution; written 1787, ratified 1789

--Federalism – A system of government where power is divided between national and state governments

--Separation of powers…3 branches: Legislative, executive, judicial

--Checks & balances – each branch has power over the other branches…prevents one from becoming too strong…were afraid of another monarchy.

B. French Revolution

1. Three Estates – Social Classes

a. The First Estate – The Clergy

--Owned 10-15 percent of all lands

--Did not pay taxes

b. The Second Estate – The Nobility

--Held highest positions in the Church, army, and government

--Exempt from paying taxes

--Collected rent from peasants farming on their lands

--Collected labor dues, collected dues on salt, cloth, bread, wine, the use of mills, granaries, presses, and ovens

--Owned more than 30 percent of the land

--Were involved in banking, shipping, and insurance

--Wanted everyone to maintain their place in society

The Three Estates

c. The Third Estate – Commoners

--About 25 million people…97-98% of the population

--Consisted of the bourgeoisie, peasantry, and urban artisans

--Bourgeoisie had wealth – but no status

--Some did own land

--Felt frustrated and blocked by the nobility

--Wanted all high positions opened up to men of talent…based on merit

--Eventually wanted a parliament and constitution

--Heavily taxed – paid taxes to king, the Church, lords of the manor, as well as on wine, bread, and salt

--By 1789, wages had increased by 22% while cost of living increased 62%

2. Background Information…French Revolution

a. Absolutism

--France had no parliament (like England)

--France did have a semi-representative assembly called the Estates-General that had not met since 1614

--It was virtually a rubber-stamp for royal policy since each estate got equal votes and the 1st and 2nd Estates always out-voted the 3rd Estate 2 – 1

b. Finances

--France incurred debts from the Seven Years War under Louis XV (lost the war)

--France under Louis XVI financed the American Revolution causing it to become near bankrupt

--Many groups did not pay taxes including universities, cities, the Church and clergy, and the nobility

c. Influences: The Enlightenment

--Few philosophes advocated revolution and none advocated violence

--The closest the Enlightenment came was a call for a constitutional monarchy…believed people should have a say in their government

d. Influences: The American Revolution

--Served as an example that revolution could succeed

--Proved the Enlightenment ideals that man could create a society based on the rights of man and on the strength of reason

3. Events of the Revolution

a. Meeting of the Estates-General, July 1788

--Due to the financial crisis, Louis XVI called the meeting

--Members arrived with list of grievances and demands including a constitution

--The Third Estate demanded vote by numbers (giving them advantage)

--The Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly

--The Third Estate was locked out of the meeting hall – they met in an adjacent tennis court

--They took the Tennis Court Oath – vowing they would not rest until France had a constitution

--Calls for it to disband by the king were ignored

--The nobility joined Louis in opposition to the 3rd Estate

The Tennis Court Oath

b. Storming of the Bastille

--Price of bread soared to 80% of a urban worker’s income

--Fears of a plot against the National Assembly caused Parisians to attack the Bastille

--The fall of the Bastille became the great symbol of the revolution

c. The Great Fear (Summer 1789) - Riots were fueled by rumor that an army organized by aristocrats was being formed to kill the peasants

--National assembly revokes all special privileges of the aristocrats

d. Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was adopted by the National Assembly (August 1789)…Louis refused to accept it

e. The Women’s March on Versailles – fishwives and other women march on Versailles demanding bread

--King Louis and his family were forced to leave Versailles and return to Paris with the mob

--The king accepted the Declaration of the Rights of Man

Women’s march on Versailles

f. Escape Attempt…June 1791

--Louis and his family attempt escape to Austria…they are captured and returned to Paris…seen as traitors to the revolution

g. The National Assembly accomplished the following from Oct. 1789 to Sept. 1791:

--Abolished all special privilege

--Subordinated the Church to the state, confiscated Church property, and reduced the power of the bishops

--Wrote a constitution

--Made new administrative districts with standardized courts

--Economic reforms included restrictions on guilds, abolishment of customs, and establishment of standard of weights and measures

h. Radicals gained control of the government due to two factors

--The economic, social, and political discontent of the urban working classes (the sans-culottes) radicalized the revolution

--The sans-culottes saw the imposition of a new upper class based on wealth with them still on the bottom

-- They demanded laws that capped extreme wealth and property

i. Monarchy ended…August to September 1792

--Paris mobs attacked the king’s palace, killing his guards

--King & his family forced to seek refuge with the Assembly

--The monarchy was officially abolished and a republic established

j. December 1792…Louis XVI was tried, convicted, and executed

k. The National Assembly, becomes the Convention, still faces severe problems

--The value of paper currency had fallen 50%

--Continued food shortages

--Holland, Spain, and Great Britain joined Austria and Prussia in war against France…WHY?

l. Revolutionary leadership grew radical

--Girondins (moderates) replaced by more radical group, the Jacobins as leaders of the Convention

--The Jacobins won the support of the sans-culottes

m. Jacobins now firmly in control of the National Convention and France as well

--Jacobins believed only strong leadership could save the revolution

--The Committee of Public Safety established with broad powers…it could arrest and try counter-revolutionaries, and impose government authority

--CPS composed of 12 men led byMaximilian Robespierre

--To preserve the republic, the CPS began the reign of terror…thousands were executed (using the guillotine); among them were counter-revolutionaries, Girondins, priests, nobles, and aristocrats

--Georges Danton, a Jacobin was executed because he sought peace with Europe

--High public moral standards

--Equality in title – “citizen”

--Religion of the state?

n. The Committee of Public Safety saw a temporary dictatorship as necessary to preserve the revolution

--Convention members feared for their safety as the revolution began to eat their own…denounced Robespierre

--Robespierre was beheaded

o. Jacobins lost power

--Relaxation of public morals

--Power passed into the hands of the Directory (5 men)…was very weak

--A new bi-cameral legislature was established

p. Napoleon seizes power (coup d’etat) in 1799...makes himself emperor 1804

q. Results of the French Revolution

--The Revolution weakened the political influence and leadership of the aristocracy

--Privilege now based on property and wealth instead of birth

--Emerged as a modern nation-state

--Emergence of the citizen

--Political reform – rights under law

III. Age of Napoleon

A. French Empire

1. Reaches its peak by 1812. Napoleon controlled most of W. Europe either directly or through alliances

a. From this point, the empire begins to fall

2. Events of the downfall

a. Continental system – Napoleon’s attempt to hurt Britain economically by not allowing mainland Europe to trade with them…didn’t work, in fact in hurt his empire more

b. Invasion of Russia (1812) – was disastrous…lost nearly everyone from his huge invasion force

c. Coalition of European powers defeated Napoleon…exiled him to Elba off the coast of Italy (1814)

d. Napoleon escapes and returns to France…gains power again for a short time…“Hundred Days”

e. Waterloo – Napoleon’s final battle…again defeated by a group of countries…led by Britain’s Duke of Wellington

f. Napoleon is sent into his final exile on St. Helena (1815)

Contrasting Views of Napoleon

B. How did Napoleon change the World?

1. Battle of the Pyramids – Fall of the Mamluks…Muslim world realized their vulnerability to Europeans

2. Louisiana Purchase 1803…sold to America

3. Haitian Revolution 1804

4. Increased nationalist movements…export of revolutionary values

5. Spread ideals of the French Revolution

6. Napoleonic Code…system of laws

C. Congress of Vienna (1815)

1. Meeting of European powers – goal to restore Europe after fall of Napoleon using the principle of Legitimacy

a. Territorial adjustments were made to Europe

b. Maintained relative peace between European powers during nineteenth century thanks to a balance of power…they surrounded France with strong countries

--Didn’t punish France severely

c. Conservatism challenged by new political groups…some people didn’t want to go back to monarchies

2. Liberals

a. Wanted limited state interference in individual life

b. Wanted representation of propertied people in gov’t

c. Wanted constitutional rule and protection for freedom of press, religion, and assembly

d. Wanted economic reforms, protection of private property, and better education

e. Mostly represented the growing middle class

3. Radicals

a. Wanted same as liberals but also wider voting rights

b. Some wanted outright democracy

c. Advocated social reforms on behalf of poorer classes

d. Socialists urged an attack on private property in the name of equality and an end to capitalist exploitation of the workers

Europe 1815