Important Features of Effective Adolescent Literacy Instruction · 2016-07-05 · 2 SRA FLEX...

Important Features of Effective Adolescent Literacy Instruction

Nancy E. Marchand-Martella, Ph.D., and

Ronald C. Martella, Ph.D.

2 SRA FLEX Literacy™

Thepurposeofthispaperistodiscusstheresearchevidenceonwhatconstitutesbestpracticesforteachingadolescentstheadvancedliteracyskillstheyneedtosucceedinhighschool,college,andtheworkplace.Anoverviewofthetopicisprovidedalongwithdefinitionsofadolescentliteracyandaca-demicliteracyandthestatisticsofhowadolescentsperforminreading.Further,discussionsareprovidedofthefiveareasofeffectiveliteracyinstructionandhowtheyareaddressedusingcomplextextandotherinstructionalcomponentswithineffectiveadolescentliteracyprograms.

3ImportantFeaturesofEffectiveAdolescentLiteracyInstruction

Overview Withoutadoubt,learningtoreadwithunderstandingisthemostimportantskillstudentscanacquireinschool.Readingistiedtoallotheracademicareas;thinkabouthowdifficultitwouldbetotacklescienceandsocialstudiestextbooksoranadvancednovelwithoutadequatereadingskills.Evenmathclasses,withtheirabundanceofapplication-orientedstoryproblems,posedifficulties,giventhereadingskillsrequiredtocompletethem.Unfortunately,thevastmajorityofupperelementary,middleschool,andhighschoolstudentsstrugglereadinggrade-leveltextwitheaseandunderstanding.Thesereadingdifficultiesareassociatedwithhighschooldropouts,lower-payingjobsorunemployment,andfailuretosucceedincollege(seeBrozo,2009fordetails).AccordingtoGrahamandHebert(2010),“somewherebetweenonehalftotwothirdsofnewjobsinthefuturewillrequireacollegeeducationandhigher-levelliteracyskills”(p.7).Withregardtotheworkplace,40percentofhighschoolgraduateslacktherequiredliteracyskillsemployersdesire(NationalGovernorsAssociationforBestPractices[NGA],2005).Forourstudentstobepreparedfor21st-centuryhighereducationandemploymentopportunities,readingskillsneedtobeexplicitlytaughtthroughouttheadolescentyears(NGA,2005).

Whilesomeproblemsmaystemfromalackofqualityliteracyinstructionintheelementarygrades,itismorelikelythatalackofinstructioninreadingcomplextextthrough-outtheuppergradesandbeyondistheculprit(GreenleafandHinchman,2009).L.CarnineandD.Carnine(2004)noted,“Insomeschools,itiscommontohavesignifi-cantnumbersofclassesinwhich75–80percentofstudentscannotsuccessfullyreadtextbooks”(p.204).SnowandMoje(2010)describedthewidespreadandmisguidedassumptionthatweshouldfinishreadinginstructionbytheendofthirdgrade.Theyusedtheterm“inoculationfallacy”toillustratethenotionthatanearlyvaccinationofreadinginstruction,especiallyingradesK–3,doesnotprotectpermanentlyagainstreadingfailure.Wemustcontinuetoprovidereadinginstructionbeyondthirdgrade.

Whatisadolescentliteracy? Adolescentliteracyfocusesinstructiononstudentsingrades4through12.Adolescentliteracyisconsidereda“veryhot”topicasidentifiedbyreadingexpertssurveyedbytheInternationalReadingAssociation.Infact,thistopic“firstappearedonthesurveyin2001andin2006attained‘veryhot’statusandhasremainedsoeversince”(Cassidy,Ortlieb,andSchettel,2010/2011,p.1).Thefocusofreadinginstructionshiftsforthispopulationofstudentsfromlearning to readingradesK–3toreading to learningrades4andabove(Car-nine,Silbert,Kame’enui,andTarver,2010;TexasReadingInitiative,2002).However,forthosestudentsingrades4andabovewhohavenotlearnedtoread,interventionpracticestakeintoaccountanemphasisonlearning to readcomponents(Kamiletal.,2008).

BiancarosaandSnow(2006)developedguidelinesforeffectiveadolescentliteracyinstructionintheirReading Nextdocument.Thisdocumentwasdevelopedtodescribeinstructionalandorganizationalcomponentsneededforliteracyinstructioningrades4andabove—specifically,beyondthosescientificallybasedpracticesnotedinthefederaleduca-tioninitiativeentitled“ReadingFirst”(forstudentsingradesK–3).Reading Nextaddressed


fifteencomponentsthatdescribebestinstructionalandorganizationalpracticesforadolescentreaders.Thesecomponentsinclude

• direct,explicitcomprehensioninstruction.

• effectiveprinciplesembeddedincontent.

• motivationandself-directedlearning.

• text-basedcollaborativelearning.

• strategictutoring.

• diversetexts.

• intensivewriting.

• technology.

• ongoingformativeassessment.

• extendedtimeforliteracy.

• professionaldevelopment.

• ongoingsummativeassessmentsofstudentsandprograms.

• teacherteams.

• leadership.

• acomprehensiveandcoordinatedliteracyprogram.

Thislistofbestpracticesdemonstratesthatfocusisplacedoncomprehension,motivation,andinnovativewaysofdeliveringinstruction.

Whatisacademicliteracy? Academicliteracyisthekindofreadingproficiencyneededtodrawmeaningfromcontent-areaandadvancednarrativetext(Kamiletal.,2008;Kosanovich,Reed,andMiller,2010;NationalInstituteforLiteracy[NIFL],2007;Torgesenetal.,2007).Academicliteracyalsoincludesstate-assessedreadingproficienciessuchasmakinginferencesfromtext,learn-ingvocabularyfromcontext,makingtextcomparisons,andsummarizingthemainideaswithinatext(Torgesenetal.,2007).Academicliteracyalsoreferstothetypeofknowledgeandskillsrequiredtoreadandunderstandstateassessments.LeeandSpratley(2010)usetheterm“disciplinaryliteracy”todescribethemorespecializedandcomplexliteracysupportandinstructionstudentsneedincontentareas.

TheCommonCoreStateStandards(seewww.corestandards.org)identifyimportantaspectsofacademicliteracyforgradesK–5and6–12.Foundationalskills,literature-basedskills,andskillsdesignedforreadinginformationaltextarenotedforgradesK–5.Literature-basedandinformationaltextskillsareevidentforgrades6–12.Finally,literacyskillsinhistory/socialstudies,science,andtechnicalsubjectsarereportedforgrades6–12.Studentsarerequiredtocomprehendincreasinglycomplextextastheyprogressinschool.“Itisnowwidelyrecognizedthatevenskillfulreadingatearlygradelevelswillnotautomaticallytrans-lateintohigher-levelacademicliteracy”(Greenleafetal.,2011,p.654).


Content-Area/Expository Text

Ingeneral,adolescentlearnerscanreadanddecodesimpletextbutstrugglewithmorecomplicatedcontent-areamaterialssuchasthosefoundinscienceandsocialstudiesclasses(HellerandGreenleaf,2007).Expositorytextistypicallymorecomplexinnature;itspurposeistoinformordescribe.Textcomplexityacceleratesrapidlybeyondtheelementaryyears(GuthrieandDavis,2003).Literacyandlearningwithinthecontentareasofscienceandsocialstudieshavebecomeacriticalfeatureofsuccessforadolescentreaders(Kosanovichetal.,2010).

Studentsencounterexpositorytextacrosstheircontent-areacourses.Expositorytextisfoundinnewspaperandmagazinearticles,scienceandsocialstudiestexts,researcharticles,andprimarysourcedocuments.Theprevalenceofexpositorytextcategoriesvariesbydiscipline.Forexample,chronologicalorderandcause/effectarecommoninhistorytexts.Geographytextsmakefrequentuseofdescriptionandcomparison/contrast.Ifstudentsarenotfamiliarwiththevarioustypesoftextsusedinmiddleandhighschool,theymayencounterchallengesincomprehendingwhattheyread.(NIFL,2007,p.20)

AccordingtoSnowandMoje(2010),wemustincorporatemoreliteracyinstructionintoourcontent-areaclasses.Adolescentreadersneedtodevelopmorecomplexskillstolearnfromtheincreasinglyspecializedandmorecomplicatedtextstheywillencounterinmiddleandhighschool(CarnegieCouncilonAdvancingAdolescentLiteracy,2011;FangandSchleppegrell,2010).

Readingcontent-areatextisdifficultbecausestudentstypicallyhavefewerexperienceswithexpositorytext(Lenski,Wham,Johns,andCaskey,2007).Indeed,thistypeoftextisconsideredquiteformidable(GuthrieandDavis,2003).Thisread-ingmaterialisoftendenserthanthematerialinnarrativetext(Coyne,Kame’enui,andCarnine,2011).Itsorganizationistypicallyhardertofollow(AbadianoandTurner,2002;SáenzandFuchs,2002),andthevocabularyisincreasinglytechnical(AbadianoandTurner,2002;Ediger,2002;Fang,2006;SáenzandFuchs,2002).Multipartwordsfoundinscienceandsocialstudiestextbookscanbeespeciallydifficulttodecode(Fang,2006).Further,therichcontentintextbooksisoftenbasedontheassumptionthatstu-dentshavesomebackgroundknowledgeofthetopicspresented(SáenzandFuchs,2002).

Advanced Narrative Text

Narrativetextdescribeseventsthatoccurthroughtimethatare“relatedthroughacausalorthematicchain”(Brewer,1980,p.223).Ingeneral,narrativetextinvolvesmaterialpresentedasnonfiction(e.g.,biographiesandmemoirs)orfiction(e.g.,novelsandfables)thattellsthereaderwho did what to whom and why(Dymock,2007;HarrisandHodges,1995).“Generally,storiesareeasierforstudentstocomprehendthanexpositorytextbecausethestorystructureismoreconsistentandhasalinearorientation,makingitmorepredictable”(VaughnandBos,2012,p.262).Further,strugglingreadersmaybenefitmorefromcontentdeliveredthroughnarrativetextthatfacilitatesinterestandbuildsbetterbackgroundknowl-edge(WolfeandMienko,2007).


Adolescentstudentsmayhavedifficultyreadingnarrativetext.Narrativetextencompassesvariousgenres,inbothfictionandnonfictiondomains.Asstudentsprogressthroughgradelevels,thenarrativetexttheyarerequiredtoreadbecomesincreasinglycom-plex(Dymock,2007).Moreover,alackofknowledgeaboutnarrativetextstructure,askillgenerallyacquiredduringtheearlyelementaryyears(SteinandGlenn,1979),canbroadlyinterferewithstudentcomprehensionacrossacademicareas(NICHD,2000).Additionally,strugglingreadersmayhavefeweropportunitiestoreadnarrativetextatmoreadvancedgradelevels,andwhatnarrativetexttheyaregivenwillgenerallybecomposedofcontentatanadvancedlevel.Finally,whilelower-leveladolescentreadersmaybenefitmorefromcon-tentdeliveredvianarrativetext(WolfeandMienko,2007),themajorityofacademictexttheywillreadisexpositoryinnature(SáenzandFuchs,2002).

Howdoadolescentsperforminreading? Thechallengesofadolescentliteracyarevast.The2011NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgressfindingsinreadingforstudentsingrades4and8wererecentlyreleased(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics[NCES],2011).Thisassessmentfocusesonread-ingtolearnskillswithinliteraryandinformationaltext.Inthisassessment,studentswererequiredtolocateandrecallinformation,integrateandinterpretwhattheyread,andcritiqueandevaluatethetext.Achievementlevelsincludedbasic(denotes“partialmasteryofprereq-uisiteknowledgeandskillsthatarefundamentalforproficientworkateachgrade”),profi-cient(“representssolidacademicperformance”with“demonstratedcompetencyoverchal-lengingsubjectmatter”),andadvanced(“superiorperformance”)(NCES,2011,p.6).Resultsshowedonly34percentoffourth-gradestudentsscoredatorabovetheproficientlevel,with33percentscoringbelowthebasiclevel.Foreighthgraders,only34percentofstudentsscoredatorabovetheproficientlevel,with24percentscoringbelowthebasiclevel.Interestingly,thosestudentswhoreportedfrequentclassdiscussionsaboutsomethingthewholeclasshadreadscoredhigherthanthosewhoreportedfewerdiscussions.Fortwelfthgraders,38percentwereatorabovetheproficientlevel,while27percentwereperformingbelowthebasiclevel(NCES,2010).

TheNCESdataforgrades4,8,and12highlighttheimportanceofeffectiveandefficientreadinginstructionbeyondgrade3.Threeconclusionscanbedrawn.First,studentsneedincreasedopportunitiestoexamineliteraryandinformationaltextwithacriticaleye.Second,studentsshoulddiscusstextwithinawhole-classsetting.Finally,studentsmustlearnimportantfoundationalreadingskillssotheymaylocateandrecallimportantinformation,integrateandinterpretfindingsfromwhattheyread,andcritiqueandevaluatetext,viewingitfromvariousperspectives.

Approximatelyeightmillionadolescentstudentsexperiencedifficultyreadingattheirappropriategradelevels(ACT,2006;BiancarosaandSnow,2006).Infact,“some70percentofolderreadersrequiresomeformofremediation.Veryfewoftheseolderstrugglingreadersneedhelptoreadthewordsonapage;theirmostcommonproblemisthattheyarenotabletocomprehendwhattheyread”(BiancarosaandSnow,2006,p.3).Wehaveanopportunitytoimprovethereadingskillsofupperelementary,middleschool,andhighschoolstudentswithbetterandmorefocusedexplicitreadinginstruction.Wecannotleavestudentsillequippedtocomprehendthemorechallengingreadingmaterialstheywillfaceinlatergrades(Greenleaf


andHinchman,2009).“Theolderandfurtherbehindthestudent,themoregroundheorshewillhavetocover,impactingtheintensityanddurationofnecessaryintervention”(Roberts,Torgesen,Boardman,andScammacca,2008,p.63).

Whatarethefiveareasofeffectiveliteracyinstruction,andhowaretheyaddressedusingcomplextext? Effectiveadolescentliteracyinstructionincludesfocusedworkinfivegeneralareas:wordstudy,fluency,vocabulary,comprehension,andmotivation(Boardmanetal.,2008;Robertsetal.,2008)(seeFigure1).TheseskillsdifferfromsomeofthegeneralareastargetedinK–3readinginstruction(phonemicawareness,phonics,fluency,vocabulary,andtextcomprehension;seeArmbruster,Lehr,andOsborn,2006andtheNationalInstituteofChildHealthandHumanDevelopment[NICHD],2000fordetails).Phonemicawarenessandphonicsarenotlistedforolderstudents.However,iftheseolderstudentslackthesefounda-tionalandbasicliteracyskills,explicitandsystematicinstructionshouldbeprovided(Board-manetal.,2008).

Areas of Effective Literacy Instruction

Figure 1.Fiveareasofeffectiveliteracyinstruction

Word Study Fluency

Vocabulary

Comprehension Motivation

Word Study

Someadolescentreadersexperiencedifficultysimplyreadingwordsaccurately;theymakeupthesmallestsubsetofthispopulationofreaders(BiancarosaandSnow,2006).Forthesestudents,instructionshouldincludeanemphasisonthebuildingblocksofwordstudy,includingphonemicawareness,phonics,andpreliminaryfluencybuilding(Kamiletal.,2008).TheAllianceforExcellentEducation(2004)estimatesthispercentagetobenomorethan10percentofstudents.Readinginstructionmaybemorebasic,withfocuson


letter-soundcorrespondence,ormoreadvanced,withemphasisonwordpartsand,later,wordmeanings.Thisinstructionreliesonwordanalysisandword-recognitionskillsbenefit-tingreadersofanyagewhenaccompaniedbygrade-appropriatematerials.Mostadolescentreadershavebasicdecodingskillsandcanreadsimplertext;however,asthecomplexityoftextincreases,theyexperiencedifficultiesreadingthewords.Content-areaandadvancednarrativetextaremuchmorecomplex,intermsofboththesubjectmatterandthewordsused(SchummandStrickler,1991).Theabilitytodecodeandcomprehendmultipartwordsiscrucialforunderstandingthemeaningofmostcontent-areatexts(Archer,Gleason,andVachon,2003).

Decoding multipart words.Oneimportantwordstudystrategyshowntohelpolderlearnerswithmorecomplextextinvolvesteachingthemtodecodemultipart(multisyllabic)words.Segmentingwordparts,thekeyaspecttoastrategyfordecodingmultipartwords,allowsstudentstoreadlongerandmoredifficultwordsbeforedeterminingthemeaningsofthewords.Thisstrategyfocusesonbreakingdownwordsintosmallerchunksthatarealreadyknownsothewordscanbereadmoreeasilywithoutusingformalsyllabication(Archeretal.,2003;Boardmanetal.,2008;VaughnandBos,2012).Diliberto,Beattie,Flowers,andAlgozzine(2009)suggestedthatsincemanystrugglingreadersdonothavetheletter-soundcorrespondencemastered,explicitlyteachingsyllablechunkinggivesthesestrugglingread-ersanappropriatetooltousetodecodemultipartwords.Significantword-readinggainsweremadewhensystematicandexplicitinstructionwasprovided.

Fluency

Fluencyinstructiontargetsreadingwords“accurately,quickly,andwithproperex-pression”(MalmgrenandTrezek,2009,p.3).Mostadolescentreaderscanreadwordsaccurately(BiancarosaandSnow,2006);however,manystudentsstrugglewithreadingflu-ency,therebyhinderingtheirunderstanding(Hasbrouck,2006).Whenstudentslearntoreadfluently,theyspendlesstimedecodingandcandevotetheireffortstowardunderstandingwhattheyread(Boardmanetal.,2008).Infact,increasedfluencygoesalongwaytowardin-creasingcomprehension.Fluencyisthebridgebetweensimplyreadingthewordsonthepageandactuallyunderstandingwhatthewordsmean(MalmgrenandTrezek,2009).

Guided oral reading and repeated reading.Fluencystrategiesareimportantbecausetheymakestudentsbetterreaders.Toimprovefluency,Boardmanetal.(2008)recommended(a)trackingstudents’progressinfluencyandprovidingfrequentfeedback,(b)providingmodelsoffluentreadingthroughguidedoral-readingexperiences,(c)allowingstudentstoself-monitortheirfluencyandcharttheirperformance,(d)usingteacher-selectedpassagesthatincludevocabularythathasbeenstudiedandpreviouslytaughtorpassagesthatcanbereadindependently,(e)graduallyincreasingthedifficultyofthepassagesasstudentsdemonstrateimprovedperformance,and(f)usingrepeatedoralreadingwithfeedback.

Thebestmethodofimprovingreadingfluencyisthroughrepeatedoralreading(Hasbrouck,2006;HasbrouckandTindal,2006;Therrien,2004;VaughnandBos,2012).Repeatedreadingtypicallyrequiresstudentstoreadaparticularpassageseveraltimesuntiladesiredgoalismet(e.g.,100correctwordsperminute[cwpm]).Oftentimesstudentslistentoamodeledreadofthepassagefollowedbystudentreadingthatisguidedbyamodel(e.g.,tapeassisted,whisperreading).Listeningtostudentsandprovidingcorrectivefeedbackshouldbeincludedinanyfluency-buildingprogram.Boardmanetal.(2008)recommendedusingreadingpassageswithpreviouslytaughtvocabularyatthestudents’readinglevel.Inef-


fect,repeatedreadingsleadtoincreasedvocabularyrecognitionwithsightwordsandgeneralvocabularywords,providemorepracticeopportunitiesforstrugglingreaders,andareusefulforfluencytimingstomonitorstudents’readingprogress.Followingreadingpractice,hottimingsareconducted.Hottimingsarecomparedtocoldtimingstodeterminecwpmincreases.

Vocabulary

Vocabularyinstructionemphasizeswordmeaning.Whenstudentsunderstandthewordstheyreadandhavestrategiestofindthemeaningsofthewords,theyhavebetterunder-standingofwhattheyread.Strugglingreadershavelimitedvocabulariescomparedtootherstudents;withoutintervention,thesestrugglingreadersarelikelytofallevenfartherbehindinthecontentareas(RupleyandSlough,2010).Vocabularyshouldfocusonwordmeaningbeforestudentsreadconnectedtext(L.CarnineandD.Carnine,2004).Specific-wordandword-learningstrategiesarenecessaryforincreasingstudents’vocabularies(Armbrusteretal.,2006;Boardmanetal.,2008).Teachersmustprepareandplanwordinstructionbaseduponthepassagesbeingread.Also,teachersmustgivestudentsword-learningstrategiestoallowstudentstheopportunitytobuildtheirvocabulariesindependently.Whenvocabularyinstructionisprovided,itshouldbeexplicit(Kamiletal.,2008).

Specific-word instruction.Specific-wordinstructionteachesindividualwordstostudents.Wordsaredividedintothreedifferenttiers(Beck,McKeown,andKucan,2002).TierOnewordsarewordsstudentsarelikelytoalreadyknow(e.g.,big,happy,walk).TierTwowordsarewordsthatappearoftenintextandarecommonandmorecom-plex(e.g.,sturdy,gloomy).TierThreewordsarewordsthatarespecifictodiffer-entcontentareas(e.g.,heterogeneous,reconstruction).Becketal.(2002)suggestedteachersfocusvocabularyinstructiononTierTwowordswhilealsoexplicitlyteach-ingTierThreewordsforrelevantcontentareas.McEwan(2007)offeredseveralguidelinestoteachvocabularytomastery.First,teachersshouldpostthetargetedwordsintheclassroomtoserveasavisualaidforthosewhomayhavetroublepro-nouncingthem.Second,teachersshouldusestudent-friendlydefinitionsofthewordsandsuggestsynonymsandantonymsofthewords.Third,teachersshouldplacethewordsintocontextandmakeconnectionswithfamiliarthings.Fourth,teacherscanusewordgamesandconceptmapstohelpstudentsgainfamiliaritywiththewordsandaconceptualframeworktobuildaroundeachword.Finally,teachersshouldaskquestionsandincorporatenewvocabularyintoeverydaylanguage.

Word-learning strategies.Word-learningstrategies,suchasprefixesandsuffixes,contextclues,andreferenceaids,arewaysofaccessingwordmeaninginanindependentmanner.NagyandAnderson(1984)describedthe“vocabularyexplosion”thatbeginsaroundfourthgrade,dueinparttowordsthathaveprefixes,suffixes,orboth.ThisfindingledWhite,Sowell,andYanagihara(1989)topinpointcriticalprefixesandsuffixesstudentsneedtoknowforreadingsuccess.Byidentifyingwordsbasedoncomponentelementsthatsharecertaincommonalities,suchastheprefixesre-, un-,andnon-orthesuffixes-ing, -ed, and-s/-es,studentscanlearngroupsofwordsandskills,makingunnecessarythememorizationofindi-vidualwordsandmeanings(Hennings,2000).

Usingcontextcluesinvolvesdefininganunknownwordbyusingthesurroundingwordsorsentencestoderivetheword’smeaning(Carnineetal.,2010;Edwards,Font,Baumann,andBoland,2004).Acontext-cluesstrategycanbelearnedandvocabularyin-creasedwhenexplicitinstructionisprovided.


Referenceaidsarehelpfultoolsstudentsusetodeterminewordmeaning(e.g.,glossary,dictionary,oronlinedictionary)(Armbrusteretal.,2006;VaughnandBos,2012).Usingreferenceaidssuchasglossaries,dictionaries,andcomputer-basedresources(onlinedictionary/thesaurus)isahelpfulword-learningstrategyforfindingthemeaningsofunknownwordsoraccessingotherwords.

Comprehension

Comprehensionis“acomplexcognitiveendeavorandisaffectedby,atleast,thereader,thetext,andthecontext”(McKeown,Beck,andBlake,2009,p.218).Readerswhoaresuccessfulinunderstandingwhattheyreadusevariousstrategiestorememberwhattheyreadandtoimprovecomprehensionwhenunderstandingishindered.Atthemiddleschoolandhighschoollevel,readingcomprehensionisarguablythemostimportantcomponentofreadinginstruction(Boardmanetal.,2008).Unfortunately,adolescentreadersoftenlackthestrategiestheyneedtograspthemeaningoftext,torepairmisunderstandings,andtochangethesestrategiesbasedonwhattheyarereading(BiancarosaandSnow,2006).Toimprovereadingcomprehension,Boardmanetal.(2008)andBryant,Ugel,Thompson,andHamff(1999)recommendedteachingcomprehensionstrategiesforstudentstousebefore,during,and/orafterreading.Whencomprehensionstrategiesaretaught,directandexplicitinstructionshouldbeprovided(Kamiletal.,2008).

Activating prior knowledge.Akeystrategytoimprovestudentinterestandcomprehensioninvolvesactivatingpriorknowledgeofthesubjectmatter.Boardmanetal.(2008)suggestedusingstrategiesincludingpreviewingheadingsandconceptsandmakingandverifyingpredictionstoincreasestudents’interest.

Studentsarealsoencouragedtomakevaluableconnectionswiththetext;thesemaybetext-to-text(e.g.,“whatIjustreadremindsmeofanotherbookIread”),text-to-world(“whatIjustreadremindsmeofwhatIheardontelevisionlastnight”),ortext-to-selfcon-nections(e.g.,“whatIjustreadremindsmeofsomethingIexperiencedinsecondgrade”)(Duffy,2003).Makingconnectionsfostersmotivationandreadingengagement(Lenskietal.,2007;Tovani,2000).Further,studentswhomakeconnectionsduringreadingcanbet-terunderstandtherelationshipbetweentheconceptsbeingpresented(Lenskietal.,2007).Manyteachersprovidestudentswithstructuredtext-connectionactivitiestoencouragebetterunderstandingofthematerialandtogetstudentstodiscusswhattheyarereadingatadeeperlevel.Takingthetimetopreparestudentsbeforetheyreadbypreviewingthetext,settingapurposeforreading,andactivatingbackgroundknowledgecanpaybigdividendsintermsofunderstandingandenjoyment(VaughnandBos,2012).

Mental imagery.Mentalimageryteachesstudentstodevelopimagesofthetextintheirheadstobolstertheirunderstandingandmemory(Armbrusteretal.,2006;DeBeniandMoè,2003).Studentswhohavegoodcomprehensionskillsrespondtothetexttheyreadbyusingtheirpriorknowledgeofwordsandtheirowndescriptivelanguagetodeveloppicturesormentalimages(Duffy,2003).

Text structure. Textstructurereferstothewayinwhichtextisorganized(Montelongo,Berber-Jiménez,Hernández,andHosking,2006;NationalEducationAssocia-tion[NEA],2006).Expositorytextisusuallyorganizedinoneofthefollowingways:(a)compareandcontrast,(b)problemandsolution,(c)causeandeffect,(d)orderorsequence,


and(e)description/list.Identifyingtextstructureallowsstudentstointeractwiththetexttodeterminehowthetextstructureandconceptsarerelated(Montelongoetal.,2006;NEA,2006).Authorsusetextstructureinanorganizationalmannertocommunicateinformationtothereader.“Expositorytextscanbemoredifficulttocomprehendbecausethereismorevaria-tionintheirorganization(e.g.,describinganobject,comparingandcontrastingtwoideas,explainingacause-effect)”(VaughnandBos,2012,p.263).Montelongoetal.(2006)foundthatlearningabouttextstructurehelpedstudentsorganizethemostimportantinformationinscienceandsocialstudiestextbooksaswellasidentifythemainideasandrecallvitalfactsfromthetext.

Story structure.Storygrammarornarrativestorystructureis“anattempttocon-structasetofrulesthatcangenerateastructureforanystory”(RaynerandPollatsek,1989,p.307).Narrativestorystructureisusedintheconstructionofbothfictionandnonfictionstories;itisthemostcommontypeofstructureusedintheelementarygrades(Coyneetal.,2011).Innarrativestorystructure,thefollowingcommonelementsareseen—characters,set-tings,events,conflict,climax,andresolution(Duffy,2003;GerstenandBaker,1999;Lapp,Flood,Brock,andFisher,2007).Forexample,identifyingwhathappenedinthebeginning,middle,andendofastoryhelpsstudentsrememberstoryeventsinthecorrectsequence.

Comprehension monitoring.Whenstudentsmonitortheirowncomprehension,theyareabletodeterminetheirunderstandingwhiletheyread,implementingfix-upstrate-gieswhennecessary(Boardmanetal.,2008).Boardmanetal.recommendedstudentslearntoidentifyconfusingorhardwordsandhowtofixtheirmisunderstandingswhenreading.Readingmoreslowlyandrereadingdifficulttextsaretwoadditionalwaysstudentscanimprovetheircomprehension(Robb,1995;Schoenbach,Green-leaf,Cziko,andHurwitz,1999).

Question generation.Studentstypicallyareaskedtoanswerteacher-orprogram-generatedquestionsduringreading;teachersstopatcertainpointsinthetexttoaskthesequestions.Anothereffectivetoolforactivatingstudentengagementwithtextisaskingstudentstogeneratetheirownquestions(Boardmanetal.,2008).Questiongenerationrequiresstudentsnotonlytodevelopquestionsbuttoseektheanswersbasedonwhattheyarereading(HasheyandConnors,2003;Rosenshine,Meister,andChap-man,1996;VaughnandBos,2012).Whenstudentsgeneratequestionsandanswers,theyaretypicallymoremotivatedtoreadthetext,clarifyinformationtheydonotknow,andexhibithigher-orderthinking(Tovani,2000).Evidencealsosuggeststhatwritingquestionsandanswersmakestheinformationeasiertorememberandprovidesmoreopportunitytointeractwiththecontentofthetext(GrahamandHebert,2010).

Summarization.Studentsmustidentify,extract,andcombinethemostimportantinformationinthetextwhentheysummarize(Schoenbachetal.,1999).Explicitinstructionthatteachesstudentshowtosummarizeisanimportantfirststepinimprovingcomprehen-sion.GrahamandHebert(2010)foundthatwritingsummariesaboutwhatwasbeingreadwasassociatedwithimprovementsinreadingcomprehension.Theyalsostatedthatwritingsummarieswasbetterthansimplyreadingandrereadingthetext.Teachingstudentstosum-marizetextgivesstudentsthechancetorecallessentialdetailsencounteredwhilereading(Carnineetal.,2010).

Text features/parts of a textbook.Textfeaturesarecomponentsofatextbookthat


areaddedtoenhanceinterestorunderstanding(Fisher,Frey,andLapp,2008).Textfeaturesincludeheadings,subheadings,atableofcontents,anindex,andcharts,tables,anddiagrams.Withoutanunderstandingofhowtextbooksarestructured,studentswhohavedifficultiesreadingcontent-areatextareleftevenfartherbehind.Modelinghowtousetextfeaturesisaneffectivestrategytoimprovestudentunderstanding(Fisheretal.,2008).

Note taking.Notetakinghelpsstudentsrecordinformationpresentedinatextbookorotherprint-basedsource,alecture,oraclassdiscussion.Writingaboutwhatisreadtheo-reticallyenhancescomprehensionbecauseit“providesstudentsatool”forrecording,con-necting,analyzing,andpersonalizingkeyideas(GrahamandHebert,2010,p.13).Addition-ally,GrahamandHebert(2010)suggestedthatreadingskillsareenhancedwhenstudentswriteaboutwhattheyread.Also,studentsaremorelikelytorememberthematerialtheyreadwhenreviewingtheirnotesbecausemoretimeisspentonthematerial(Robinsonetal.,2006).Researchsuggestsnotetakingiseffectiveinhelpingstudentsrecalllargeamountsofinformation(BoyleandWeishaar,2001).Studentscanthenusethesenotesasstudyguides(Ogle,1996;Santa,Havens,andHarrison,1996).

Motivation

Strugglingreadersoftenarenotmotivatedtoreadandremainpassiveinthereadingprocess(SabornieanddeBettencourt,2009).Manyhavehadnegativeexperienceswithread-ingovertheyears,oftenbeingtoldthisistheyeartheywilllearntoread,onlytobefacedwithlowperformanceinreading-relatedactivitiesonceagain.Theirnegativeexperienceshavebeen“repetitiveandcumulative”(SabornieanddeBettencourt,2009,p.145).Decreasedmotivationhasaspiralingeffectonstrugglingstudents;thelessmotivatedtheyare,thelesstheyread;thelesstheyread,thefartherbehindtheyfall.BiancarosaandSnow(2006)listedmotivationasoneofthefifteencriticalelementsofadolescentliteracy.Basedonasummaryofresearch,Boardmanetal.(2008)discussedfourfeaturestoimprovestudentmotivationtoread.Theseare(a)providecontentgoalsforreading,(b)allowandsupportstudentautonomy,(c)useinterestingtext,and(d)increasesocialinteractionsrelatedtoreading.Themaindif-ferencebetweenmotivationandtheotherelementsofreadinginstructionisthatmotivationisnottaughtexplicitly;wemustpromotemotivationbasedonwhatandhowweteachandtheinteractionsweincludewithtext.Kamiletal.(2008)notedpositiveeffectsinreadingachievementwhenstudentmotivationandengagementinliteracylearningareenhanced.

Studentmotivationincreaseswhenstudentsaresuccessful.Therefore,readingexperi-encesshouldbereinforcing.Ifstudentsareappropriatelyplacedinaprogram,theyaremorelikelytobesuccessful.Ifaprogramisbasedonthetenetsoferrorlesslearning,inwhichstudenterrorratesarekepttoaminimum,studentsaremorelikelytorespondcorrectlyandremainmotivatedtolearn.

Oneapproachthathelpsensuresuccessfulrespondingandkeepsstudentsmotivatedinvolvescomputer-assistedinstruction.“Thecomputerisanidealtoolforhelpingstudentslearnphonologicalawarenessandphonics,buildfluency,increasetheirvocabularyandwordrecognition,andenhancecomprehension”(VaughnandBos,2012,p.253).Computersareinandofthemselvesquitemotivating;game-likeprogramsareoftenusedtomakelearningfun.Computerspromoteactiveversuspassivelearning;they“providehighlyspecializedinstructionandpracticeforrelativelylowcostwithrelativelyhighandconsistentfidelity”(Torgesen,Wagner,Rashotte,Herron,andLindamood,2010,p.42).Errorscanoftenbeim-


mediatelycorrected,andrepetitionscanbebuiltintoensurefirmstudentresponding.Manyprogramshavebellsandwhistlesthatcapturestudents’attention,reinforcecorrectrespond-ing,andkeepstudentsworkingforlongerperiodsoftime.Readingimprovementshavebeendemonstratedwiththeuseofcomputer-assistedinstruction(seeresearchreviewbyHall,Hughes,andFilbert,2000,andtechnologytipsnotedbyVaughnandBos,2012,fordetails).Technologyisconsideredbothafacilitatorofliteracyandamediumofliteracy(BiancarosaandSnow,2006);itshouldbecomeakeydeliverymodeforinstructionin21st-centuryclass-rooms(DaltonandGrisham,2011).

Whatareotherinstructionalconsiderations? Besidesthefiveareasofeffectiveliteracyinstruction,wemustkeepinmindotherinstructionalconsiderationswhenhelpingstrugglingstudentsastheyreadcomplextext.Theseconsiderationsincludeanemphasisonthefollowing:(a)Bloom’sTaxonomyandmetacognition,(b)graphicorganizers,(c)reciprocalteaching,and(d)teacherread-aloudsandtext-baseddiscussion(seeFigure2).

Bloom’s Taxonomy and Metacognition

Thedevelopmentofhigher-orderthinkingskillsispromotedthroughquestionsandactivitiesrelatedtoBloom’sTaxonomy(Andersonetal.,2001).BenjaminS.BloomwrotetheTaxonomyofEducationObjectives,commonlycalledBloom’sTaxonomy(Krathwohl,2002).Originally,thistaxonomycreatedacommonlanguagewithrespecttogoalsineduca-tionanddecision-makingrelatedtocurriculum.Bloom’sTaxonomywasrevisedin2001andisnowdividedintosixcategoriesofcognitiveprocesses:(1)remembering,(2)understand-ing,(3)applying,(4)analyzing,(5)evaluating,and(6)creating.Bloom’sTaxonomyhelpsteacherscreateincreasinglymorecomplexquestionsthatsupportorencouragehigher-orderthinkinginourstudents.Such“higher-levelthinkingmightincludecritiquingtexts,makingcomparisonsbetweenauthors’pointsofview,andsynthesizinginformationacrossmultiple

Other Instructional Considerations

Figure 2.Fourotherinstructionalconsiderationsforeffectiveliteracyinstruction.

Bloom’s Taxonomy and Metacognition

Graphic Organizers

Reciprocal Teaching

Teacher Read-Alouds and Text-Based

Discussion


texts”(CarnegieCouncilonAdvancingAdolescentLiteracy,2011,p.79).Thesetypesofactivitiesincreasestudents’skillsintacklingmorecomplextext.Theypromotemetacognition. Metacognitionistheprocessofthinkingaboutone’sownthinking.(Klingner,Vaughn,Dimino,Schumm,andBryant,2001;McCardle,Chhabra,andKapinus,2008).Studentsthinkaboutwhatcomprehensionskillsandstrategiestheycoulduseundercertaincircumstancesandthenimplementthem.BiancarosaandSnow(2006)andMcCardleetal.(2008)notedstudentsneedtothinkabouttheirunderstandingwhilethey’rereadingandadjustwhennecessary,choosingnewstrategieswhentheneedarises.Successfullearningincontentareasrequiresstudentstobeawareofhowtheyunderstandaconceptandhowto“adjusttheirthinkingtoensurelearning”(Wilson,Grisham,andSmetana,2009,p.709).Contentlearningandmetacognitionoccurthroughrepeatedinteractionswithcomplextextandthroughotherexperienceswiththecontent(Wilsonetal.,2009).

Graphic Organizers

Graphicorganizersarevisualaidsthathelpstudentsremember,organize,andidentifykeyinformationfromtheirreading.Theyarehelpfulinthattheyprovideameanstoprovidemultimodalityinstruction—visualmodality(seeingthegraphicorganizer),auditorymodal-ity(hearingaboutthecomponentsofthegraphicorganizer),andtactile/kinestheticmodality(writinginortypingintothegraphicorganizer).GraphicorganizersincludestorymapsandVenndiagrams;theymayevenincludechartsordiagramsthatillustrateimportantaspectsoftextstructure—causeandeffect,problem-solution,description/list,orderorsequence,andcompareandcontrast. L.CarnineandD.Carnine(2004)recommendedtheuseofgraphicorganizerstohelpstudentsmakesenseoftoughcontent-areatext.Gajria,Jitendra,Sood,andSacks(2007)notedpositiveinterventioneffectsincomprehensionofexpositorytextforstudentswithlearningdisabilitieswhengraphicorganizerswereemployed.

Acrosstheboard,whenthestudentsweretaughttousegraphicorganizers,largeeffectsizesweredemonstratedonresearcher-developedreadingcomprehensionpost-tests.Thus,visualdisplaysofinformationsuchasthoseprovidedbygraphicorganiz-ersenhancethereadingcomprehensionofstudentswithlearningdisabilities,possi-blybyhelpingthesestudentsorganizetheverbalinformationandtherebyimprovingtheirrecallofit.(Kim,Vaughn,Wanzek,andWei,2004,p.114)

Reciprocal Teaching

Reciprocalteachingisamultiple-strategyapproach,developedbyPalincsarandBrown(1984),usedtoimprovereadingcomprehension.“Itappearsthatmultiple-strategytrainingresultsinbettercomprehensionthansingle-strategytraining”(Kamiletal.,2008,p.17).Inthismultiple-strategyapproach,theteacherandstudentstaketurnsleadingadialoguethatcoversvarioussectionsofthetext(VaughnandBos,2012).First,theteachermodelsthestrategyanditsvariousskillcomponentsandthen,overtime,theteacherfadeshisorherroleuntilthestudentsareleadingthediscussion,eitherasafullclassorinsmallgroups.Studentsparticipateinthediscussion,providingcommentsandquestionsonwhatotherstu-dentssay.Studentdiscussionenhancesunderstandingofthetext(PilonietaandMedina,2009). Reciprocalteachingconsistsoffourparts(Stricklin,2011),sometimesreferredtoasthe“fabfour”:questioning,clarifying,predicting,andsummarizing.Questioninginvolvesdevelopingquestionsabouttextandtheiranswers;thesequestionsareposedtotheotherstudents.Clarifyingrequiresstudentstofixupanyquestionstheymayhaveaboutthetext.


Studentsmaylookupdifficultwordsordiscusstougherpartsofthetextrelatedtocomprehension.Predictinginvolvesmakingguessesaboutwhatmighthappennext.Sum-marizingrequiresstudentstocondensetheinformationintoamainidea,orgist.Studentsprogressivelyworkthroughmultipletextsusingthesamereciprocalteachingstrategy(Bi-ancarosaandSnow,2006);thekeyistomovestudentsintoabroaderunderstandingofthematerial(Williams,2010). Positiveeffectsincomprehensionwerenotedinaresearchreviewofstudiesemployingreciprocalteaching(RosenshineandMeister,1994).Further,theNICHD(2000)reportedpositiveeffectsforstudiesemployingmultiple-strategyinstructionsuchasrecipro-calteaching,andBiancarosaandSnow(2006)highlightedreciprocalteachingasan“excel-lentapproach”intheirdirectandexplicitcomprehensioninstructionexampleofclassroomtechniques. Akeypartofreciprocalteachinginvolvesstudentcollaborationorcooperativelearn-ing.Studentslearntoworktogetherinsmallgroups(GuthrieandDavis,2003).Theyneedopportunitiestosharereadingexperienceswithothers.Collaborationinvolvesactivepartici-pationofallgroupmembers;inthisway,responsibilityandconfidencearefostered.Kamiletal.(2008)notedthebenefitsofcollaborativelearninginimprovingreadingperformanceofadolescentlearners.“Researchhasfoundthatcooperativelearningcanimprovereadingcomprehensionandachievementacrossthecontentareasforstudentsintheupperelemen-tarythroughhighschoolgrades”(Biancarosa,2005,p.18).

Teacher Read-Alouds and Text-Based Discussion

Onewaytomakedifficultbooksaccessibletostrugglingstudentsisforteacherstoreadaloudtothestudents(VaughnandBos,2012).

Aseveryteacherknows,thebenefitsofread-aloudsarenumerous.Teachersconductread-aloudstomotivatetheirstudentstoreadandtobuildtheirtopi-calknowledge....Read-aloudtexts,whicharetypicallymoredifficultforchildrenthantheirindependentreadingtexts,areoftenfollowedbyabriefdiscussionoftheeventsandthemes.The“ahhs”thatfollowwhenthesessionisoverandthepromiseofmoretomorrowdemonstratethejoyassociatedwithagoodread-aloud(Fisher,Flood,Lapp,andFrey,2004,p.8).

Teachersmayaskthosestudentswhocanreadthetexttoshareinthisread-aloud.Thisapproachisusedwhenteacherswantstudentsexposedtotoughertextsothatmoreadvanceddiscussiontakesplaceinwhichvocabularyandcomprehensionstrategiescanbetaught. Duringteacherread-alouds,studentsareposedthought-provokingquestionsorparticipateinfocusedcomprehensionactivities.Thefocusisongatheringmeaningfromthetextandgettingstudentstodigformeaningthroughdiscussion(VaughnandBos,2012).Strugglingreadersbenefitfromrichandpromptedtextdiscussion(BeckandMcKeown,2001;Hollenbeck,2011;Williams,2005).Ratherthansimplyreadingtostudents,teachersincorporatestructuredinteractionswithstudentstocreateopportunitiesforrichdiscussion(Santoro,Chard,Howard,andBaker,2008).Infact,theNCES(2011)found“eighthgrad-ershavingmorefrequentclassdiscussionsscorehigher”(p.15)ascomparedtothosewhodiscussedtexttheyreadinclasslessfrequently.Further,Swansonetal.(2011)foundlargegainsinvocabularyandcomprehensionoutcomeswhenteacherread-alouds,withfocusondialogicreading(open-endedquestioningandqualitydiscussion),wereconducted.Indeed,“thereadaloudprocesshasenormousbenefitstoliteracylearning”(MorrisonandWlodarczyk,2009,p.111).


Additionally,teachersshoulddiscusswordmeaning.Thisdiscussionimprovesvocabularydevelopmentandoverallreadingachievement(seeKamiletal.,2008,ontheeffectsofexplicitvocabularyinstruction).Providingavocabularywordoverviewandthenrevisitingwordsuponreadingthetextisaneffectivemeansofstrengtheningwordconsciousness(ScottandNagy,2004).

Summary Readingisthemostimportantskillstudentscanacquireinschool;itistiedtosuccessinallotheracademicareas.Unfortunately,thevastmajorityofupperelementary,middleschool,andhighschoolstudentsfinditdifficulttoreadgrade-levelorhighertextwitheaseandunderstanding.Theproblemmaystemfromthefactthatreadinginstructionisnotcon-tinuedingrade4andbeyond—theterm“inoculationfallacy”isusedtoillustratethefaultynotionthatK–3readinginstructionwillpermanentlyprotectagainstreadingdifficultieslateron.Researchdemonstratesthatinstructionshouldbecontinuedsothatstudentscanbetterhandlecontent-areaandadvancednarrativetext. Adolescentliteracyisconsideredahottopicinreading.Thisisinstructionprovidedtostudentsingrades4–12.Anemphasisisplacedonreading-to-learnstrategiesdesignedtohelpstudentsgatherinformationfromtext.TheReading NextdocumentbyBiancarosaandSnow(2006)outlinesfifteencomponentsthatdescribebestinstructionalandorganizationalpracticesforolderlearners.Thesecomponentsincludedirectandexplicitcomprehensioninstruction,effectiveprinciplesembeddedincontent,motivationandself-directedlearning,text-basedcollaborativelearning,strategictutoring,diversetexts,intensivewriting,technol-ogy,ongoingformativeassessment,extendedtimeforliteracy,professionaldevelopment,ongoingsummativeassessmentsofstudentsandprograms,teacherteams,leadership,andcomprehensiveandcoordinatedliteracyprograms. Adolescentliteracyprogramsshouldfocusonacademicliteracy,withemphasisoncontent-areaandadvancednarrativetextaswellasreadinggearedtowardunderstandingstate-levelassessmentsandmakinginferences.AcademicliteracyskillsshouldfollowthoseskillshighlightedintheCommonCoreStateStandards. Fiveareasofeffectiveadolescentliteracyinstructionincludewordstudy,fluency,vocabulary,comprehension,andmotivation.TheseskillsdifferfromsomeofthegeneralareastargetedinK–3readinginstruction.Wordstudyshouldtargetdecodingmultipartwordsifstudentshavealreadyacquiredbasicphonemicawarenessandphonicsskills.Fluen-cybuildingshouldincorporateguidedoralreadingandrepeatedreadingcomponents.Whenvocabularyinstructionisprovided,anemphasisshouldbeplacedonspecificwordsandword-learningstrategies.Comprehensioninstructionshouldtargetactivatingpriorknowl-edge,mentalimagery,textstructure,storystructure,comprehensionmonitoring,questiongeneration,summarization,textfeatures/partsofatextbook,andnotetaking.Motivationalaspectsincludecontentgoalsforreading,supportingstudentautonomy,usinginterestingtext,andincreasingsocialinteractions.Studentmotivationisalsoenhancedthroughtheuseofcomputers. Otherinstructionalconsiderationsshouldbemadewhendesigningeffectiveliteracyinstructionforadolescents.TheseconsiderationsincludeadherencetohigherlevelsofBloom’sTaxonomyandmetacognition,useofgraphicorganizers,reciprocalteaching,andteacherread-aloudsandtext-baseddiscussion.Infact,reciprocalteachingandtext-baseddiscussionhavelasting,positiveeffectsforstudentsbecauseofcollaborativelearningandteacherguidance.


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