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Engiteering and polat pd Occupations Reprinted fromthe Occupational Outlbok Handhook,.1978-79Edition.Bureau' of Labor.Statistics 0.04. WashingtonBull-1955-20 ,

7425p.i Photographs in-this document vill ot reprodwelt% Eorgrelated,documents see CF 017 756-797Superintendent Documents, U.S. Governaent Printoffice, Washington, D.C. -20402 ($0.50 per reprint-S4.00 for set of 42)'

117-$0.83 HC-$1:67 Pla Postage-.Aerospace Industry; Agricultural EngimeOrikg;Broadcast Industry; ceramics; civil Engineering;Drafting; Elearical Occi pations; *13mplo7sentOpportunities; *Eaployment Projections; *EmployaentQualifications; Employment TrAnds; *EngineeringTechnicians; *Engineers:Alum% Engineering;Induitrial Technology; Information Sources; JobSkills; Job Training; mechanical Design lechniciMetallurgy;.*Occupational Information; Occapatio-mobility; ocean Engineering; Petroleum Industry:-Promotion (occupational) ; Salaries; Wages; WorkEneirommernt

Focusing on engineering and related °coupe_ -n:

docueentis'apein a.series of..fortyone.reprintS2fr04-the.Occupational Outlook Handbook providing current inforaation andemployment projections forlildivideal occupations and industriesthrough 1985; The specific occufations)coiered,in this documentinclude aerospace engineers, agricEltural-engineers, biomedical-engineers, Ceramic engineers, chealcaI engineers, civil engineers,electrical engineers, industrial 'engineers-, Medhanical engineers,aetalldrgical engineers, mining engineer's' petroleum,engineets,broadcast technicians, drafters, engineering and science technicians,and surveyors. The following. information is 1r4mented for eachoccupation or occupational axet1'a code numh4r referenced to theDictionary of,Occupational Titles; a description, of the nature of thework places of employment; training, other-qualifications, andadvancement; employment outlook; earningS and 'corking conditions; andsources of additional infOreation. In addition to the forty-onereprints covering individual occupations or occtiational areas. (CE017 757797), a companion 'document (cE 017 756) VreSents employmentprojections for the total later market and discusses the relationshipbetween lob prospects and education. (BS)

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*** ********* *********************** *** ************Reproductions supplied by EDES ark the best that can be made

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Occupati6nal qutItiok Handbook,978-79:EgiitiOn.

U5. Department of Labor 'Bureau. of Labor Statistics1978

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ENGINEERS

T110 work of engineers affects ourlives in thoussinds of different' ways.Their past abcomplishrtieran have en-abled us to drive safer automobiles,reach the moon, and even_ prplonglife through special machinery. Fit;lure accomplishments could heincrease energy supplies, .develop

e pollution-free powerplants, aridscience's fight against

dilease.In 1976, more than. 1.1 million

persons were employed as engineers,the second largest profelsional occu-pation, exceeded only by teachera.Most engineers specialize in one ofthe more than 25 specialties recog-nized by professional societies. With-in the major branches_ over 85minor subdivisions. Structural, envi-ronmental, hydraulic, and highwayengineering, for example, are subdi-visions of civil engineering. Engi-neers slso may specialize in the engi-neering. problems of one industry,such as motor vehicles, or in a par-ticular field of technology, such aspropulsion or guidance systems. Thissection, which contains an overalldiscussion of engineering, is followedby separate statements On 12 branch-es of the professionaerospace, ag-ricultural, biomedfcal, ceramic,chemical, civil, electrical, industrial,mechanical, metallurgical, mining,and petroleum engineering.

Natura of the Workh

Engineers apply the theories and; principles- of science and tnathemae

ics to practical technical problemi.Often their, work is the link betw n

a scientific discoVery° and its usefulapplication. Eniineere design. ma-chinery, products, systems, and pro-cesses' for efficient and economicalperformance. They develop' electric ,pOwer. water supply, and ,ovate dis-posal systems to meet the prdblemeof urban : :rig. They design industrial rnachin and equirrMent used tomanufaetur goods; and heating, air-conditioninl, and, voctilatibn equip.ment for more cor:nfortable living.Engineers also develop scientificequipment to probe outer space andthe ocean depths, design defense and

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2

weapons, systems for the ArmedForces, and design, plart,',Und super-

einse the construction of buildings,highways, and rap_id transit systems.They design and develop consumerproducts such as automobiles, televi-sion sets, and refrigerators, and sys-tems for control and automation ofmanufacturing, business, and man-agement processes.

Engineers must consider many fac-tors in developing a new product. f orexample, in developing new devicesto

f= duce automobile exhaust -was-

.sions, engineers .must determine thegeneral way the device will work, lie-sign and \test all components. and fitthem together in an integrated plan.They must then evaluate the overaeffectiveness of the new device, iiswell as its cost and reliability. T sfactors iipphy to most produceluding those as different as medicalequipment, electronic coraj3uters,and industrial machinery. /

In addition to design an develop-ment, many engineers w rk in test-ing, production, operation, or mein-

,tenance., They supervise theoperation/of production processes.determiue 'the cause of breakdowns,and perform tests oiewla manufac-tured penducts to enture that qualitystamlarda are maintained. They alsoestimate the time needed to com-plete engineering projects and theirCost. Still-Others are in iikletinistrativeand management jobs were an engi-neering;baiekground is necessary, orin sales here- they discuss the tech-

pects of a product and assistning its .installatiorin or use.atement on Manufacturers'

sal rkers eisewhe'ie in the flanb k.) Engineers with considerableducation or experience- sometimesork as consultants. Some with ad-

vanced degrees teach in the engi-neering schools of colleges and uni-versities.

Engineers within each of thebranches may apply their speoielizedknowledge to many fields. Electricalengineers, for example, work inmedicine, computers, missile guid-ance, or electric power distribution.

Because en ineering p oblems areusually complex, the ork in some .

fields cud across traditionalbranches'. Using a approach to

otsolve roblems, gineers in onefield en work ly with special-ists in other sc ntific, engineering,and business o cupations.

P1 cc of EmplOymeht

More an half all engineerswork in manufacturing industriesmostly n the electrical and electron-ic eq pment, aircraft and parts, ma-chin ry, chemicals, scientific instru-me ts, primary metals, fabricated

products, and motor vehicledustries. Over 340,000 were em-

ployed in nonrnanufacturing indus-fries in 1976, primarily in construc-tion, public utilities, origineeririg andarchitectural services, and businessand management consulting services.

Federal, State, and local govern-ments employed about 150,000 engi-neers. Over half of these worked forthe Federal Goiernment, mainly inthe Departments of Defense, Interi-or, Agriculture, Transportation, andin the National Aeronautics andSpace Administration. Mostneers in State and local governmentagencies worked in highway and pub-lic works departments.

Colleges and un'iversitie -s em-ployed about 45,000 engineers in re-search and teaching jobs, and a smallnumber worked for nonprofit re-search organizations.

Engineers are employed in everyState, in small and large citiesand inare! areas. Some branches of engi-neering are concentrated in particu-lar- industries and geographic areas,as discussed in the statements lair inthis chapter.

Trainhig, Other Qualificationand Advancement

A bachelor's degree in engin clingis thegenerally aqmsted educ tionalrequirerrient for beginping eii 'neer-ing jobs. College graduates tea ned inone of the natural sciences or athe-manes also may qualify for:so a, be-ginning jobs_ Experienced Oink.claps with some eng-inieringeducation are occasionally i.bR to

advance to some types of engineeringjobs-

Many colleges recently have estab-lished 2- or 4-year prrigrams leadingto degrees in engineering technology.These programs prepare students forpractical design and production workrather than for jobs that reqdire moretheoretical scientific andical knowledge. Graduates of 4-yearengineering technology programsMay get jobs similar to those ob-tained bjr engineering bachelor's de-gree graduates. However, the statusof those with the engineering, tech-nology degree is still not clear. Someemployers regard them as havingskills soinewhere between those of atechnician and an engineer.

Graduate training is being empha-sized for an increasing number ofjobs; it is essential for most beginningteaching and research positions, andis desirable for advancement. Somespedialties, such as nuclear engineer-ing. are taught mainly at the "graduatelevel.

About 250 colleges and universi-ties offer a bachelor's degree in engi-neering, and over 50 colleges offer abachelor's degree in engineeringtechnology. Although programs inthe larger branches of engineeringare offered in most of these institu-tions, some small specialties aretaught in only a very few. Therefore,students desiring spetialized trainingshould investigate curriculums be-fore 'selecting a college. -Admissionsrequirements for undergraduate en-gineering schools usually includehigh school courses -in advancedmathematics and the physical scienc-es.

In a typical 4-yeaecurricelum, thefirst 2 years are spent studying basicsciencesmathematics, physics,chemistry, introductory ea.gineer-ingand the humanities, social sci_ences, and English. The last 2 yearsare devoted, for the most p tospecialized engineering couSome programs offer a general gi-neering currieulum, permitting thestudent to choose a specialty 'in'graduate school or acquire it on thejob.

Sorne,engineering curriculums re-qeire more than 4 years to complete.

A number of colleges and Universi-ties new offer 5-year master's degreeprogrants_ In addition, several engi-neering schools have formal arrange-ments with liberal arts collegeswhereby a student spends 3 yaats in alibefal arts college. studying pre-engi-_neering subjects and 2 years in anengineering school and receives abachelor's degree

norn each. ,

Soe schools ye 5- or even 6-year cooperative_ tans where stu-dents coordinate classroom studyand practical work experience., n ad-dition to gaining useful experience,students can finance part of theireducation: Because of the need tokeep up with rapid advances in tech-nology, engineers often continuetheir education throughout their ca-re

All 0 States and the District ofColumbia require licensing for engi-ricers whose work may affect life,health, or property, or who offertheir services to the public. In 191p,there were over 300,000 registeredengineers. Generally, registration re-quirements include a degree from anaccredited engineering school, 4years of relevant work experience,and the passing of a State examina-tion.

Engineering graduates usually' be-gin work under the supervision. of ex-perienced engineers. Some compa-nies have speaal programs to

acquaint new engineers with specialindiistrial practices and to determinethe s'peciallies for which they are bestsuited. Experienced engineers mayadvance to .positions of-greater re-sponeibility and some engineers!woe _ _ apagement or administra-tive positi

l̀Its after several years of

engineering. Some engineers obtaingraduate` degrees in business admin-istration to improve their advance-meat opportunities, while stillaathersobtain law degrees and become pat-ent attorneys. Many high level execu-tives in privati indpstry who /begantheir careers as engineers. i

Engineers should be able to workias part of a team and shotuld have

creptivity, an analytical mind, and acapacity for detail. They should beable to express their ideas well orallyand in writing.

Employment 0 tlook

Employment opportunities for en-gineers are expected, to be goodthrough the mid-I980's in most spe-cialities. In addition there may besome opportunities for collegegraduates from related fields in cer-tain engineering jobs.

Ernploymenefeequirements for en-gineers are expected to grow slightly.faster than the average for all occu-pa tions through the mid-980's.

Growth and replacement needs are expected providemany job openings for engineers

Selected engineering occupationsAterage annual openings, 1978-85 (in thousands)

- -

11111 Growth IN Replacement

will stem frominaelt the' de-and sconces.

ie needed in the'on of factories,

office buildings, andott systems, as well as in

_the developrinetat and -Manufacture ofdefense-related products, scientific

Meats. industrial machinery,ebensies1 produces, and motor vehi-cles.*

engineers will be required in ener=gy-related activities developingsources of energy as well as designingenergy-saving Systems 40r automo-biles, hornet, and other buildings.Engine**, also will be needed- tosolve eniirenrnental probleins.

The level of expenditures in someof these Areas, particularly _defense,however, has fluctuated in the past,

cting the requirements liar engi-neers, and may do so in the future.The outlook for engineers given' hereis based on thelassumption that de-fense spending will increase from its1976 level but will still be lower thanthe peak levels of the 1960's. If, how-ever, defense activity is higher Orlower than the level assumed, the de-mand for engineers will be higher orlower than ,now expected. Further, ifthe dernaitd for Their specialty de-clines, engineers may lose their jobs.This can be a particular problem forolder engineers, who may face diffi-culties in finding other engineeringjobs. These difficulties can be mini-mized by selection of a career in oneof the more stable industries and en-gineering specialties, and by continu-ing:education to keep up on the lat-est technological developments.

Despite these problems, over thelon run the number of people seek-ing j bs as engineers is expected tobe in balance with the number of jobopenings.

(The outlook for various branchesis discussed in the separate -state-ments later in this section, )

In

Earnings and WorkingCooditIons

According to the College Place-' ment Council, engineering graduates,

with -a bachelor's degree and no ex-perien4e were offered average start-ing salaries of S 14,800 a year in pri-

4

vats industry in 976; those with amaster's,degree and no ,almost $16400 a year; and-Alonewith a Pb. D. over 121,000. Startingoffers Tor those with the acheloes

,

degree vary - by branch as shown inthe Accompanying

Starting sagaries for engineers,by branch, 1976

BranchAverage Stara

salaries

Aeronautical engineering,_.., 514.268Chemical engineering 16,212Civil engineering . . .... 13,764Electrical,engineering....,_. 14.448Industrial engineering 14,368Mechanical engineering 14,964Metallurgical engineering 15,600

In the Federal Government in1977, engineers vtith a bachelor's de:gree and so experience could start at$9,303 or $11,523 a year. dependingon their college records Thoa master's could$11,523 or ,097. Those having aPh D degree could begin at $17,056or $20,442. The average salary forexperienced engineers ie _the FederalGovernment was about $25,900 in1977.

For a 9-month academic collegeyear in 1976, faculty members with 5years' experience beyond the bache-lor's degree received about $15,150;those with 18 to 20 yeart experiencebeyond the bachelor's degree re-ceived about $21,150. (fsie state-

,ment on college and university teach-ors elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Engineers can expect an increasein earnings as they gain experience.According to an _Engineering Man-power Commission survey, the aver-age salary for engineers with 20 yearsof experience was $26,000 in 1976.

school requirements, courses ofstudy, and salariesis availablefrom:Engineers" Council for Professions! De

race:, 345 E-47th St., New York. N.Y.10017'.

Engineering Mattpoweilosmmission of 'Erni.neen Joint ,343 E. 47th StNewYork, N.Y. 10017

National Society of Prot Iona! Engineers.2029 K St.NW, aehington. D.C.,20006.

For information about gradUate- Study, contact:

American Society for Erigineenng Education.One Dupont Circle, Suite 400, Washing-ton, D.C. 20036. -

SOCietial,repieSelnirtg tl e. individ.ual branches of the engineering pro-fession are listed later inthis-chapter.Each can provide information aboutcareers: in the particular branch.Many other engineering organiza-tions are listed in the following publi-cations available in most libraries or.rem die pubtuher

Directory of Engineering !Societies, publishedby Engieels Joint Council, 345 E. 47thSi., New York, N.Y, 10017.

Scieni4I'k and Tech-tilealSocieties of the UnitedStates and Canada. publiihed by the Na-tional Academy of Sciences. National Re-search Council, 2101 Cdnatitutien Ave_NW.. Washington, EPC. 20418.

Some engineers are members oflabor unions. Information on engi-neering unions is available from:International Federation, of Professional and

technical Engineers; 1126 16th St_Washington. D.C. 20036.

Some in mmuch highe

Many en

nagement positions hadearnings.

ineers work indoors inoffices and research laboratories.Others, however, spend time in moreactive workin a factory or mine, ata construction site, or some otheroutdoor location_

Sourca of AdditionalInformation

General information on engineer-ing careersincluding engineering

AEROSPACE ENGINEERS

(D.O.T. 002.081)

Nature of the Work

Aerospace engineers design, de-velop, test.- and help produce com-mercial and military aircraft, mis-siles, and spacecraft. They play animportant role in advancing the skate.of technology in commercial avi-ation, defense systems, and space ex-ploration.

Aerospace engineers often special-ize in an area of work like structural

aerospace engineer cheeklna out part IN a apaceereik

design, navigational guidance andcontra, instrumentation and com-MtlniCatiOn, or production methods.They also may specialize in:one typeof aerospace product such as passen-ger planes, helicopters, satellites, orrockets.

Places of gmAreent

About 50,000 aerospace engineers'were employed in 1976, mainly inthe aircraft and parts industry. SomeWorked for Federal Governmentegenc 3, 'primarily the NationalAerona ics and Space Administra-tion and he Department of Defense_A few worked 'for commercial air-lines, consulting firms, and collegesand'universities.

Employment Outlook

Employment of aerospace engi-neers is expected to grow more slow-

I

ly. than the Uverage for all occupa-tions through- the mid-1980's.EmployrnentcOf aerospace engineersis largely det4rmined -by the level ofFederal expenditures on defense andspace programs: in the past, rapidchanges in spending levels have usu-ally been accarn,panied by sharp em-ployment nuctnations. Expendituresfor the space program are expectedto increase only slightly, from 1976 to

mid-1980's, while defense spend-ing will prithably increase mly. Although few jobs will-be cre edby employment growth, many w k-ers will be required to fill openingscreated by deaths, retirements, andtransfers of workers to other occupa-tions: (See introductoty section ofthis chapter for discussion of valuingrequirements and earnings. See alsostatement on. aircraft, missile andspacecraft manufacturing elsewherein the Handbook)

I 4

Sources of AdditionalinfOrmatIon

ricae leathete of Aeneteutim and. Ametier, Inc., 1390.Avenue of the Amer-km, New York N.Y. 10019.

AGRICULTURALEyGINEERS

013.081)

Nature of the Work%

Agricultural engineers design Auk,chinery and equipment, and develoPmethods to improve efficiency in theproductios, processing, and distribu-tion of food and other agriculturalproduct' s. They also are concernedwith the conservation and manage-ment of energy, soil, grid water re-sources. Agricultural engineen workin research and development, pro-duction, sales, or management.

Place, of Employment

Most of the 12;000 agriculturalengineers employed in 1976 worked?or manufacturers of farm equip-ment, electric utility companies, anddistributors of ram equipment andsupplies. Some worked for engineer-ing consultants who supply servicesto farmers and farm-related indus-tries; others were independent con-sultants.

About 450 agricultural engineersare employed in the Federal Govern- "ment, mostly in the Department ofAgriculture; some are employed iscolleges and univenitites; and a fewwork in State and local governments.

Employment Outlook

Employment of agriculturalneers is expected to grow faster anthe average for all occupationsthrough the mid-1980's. Increasingdemand for agricultural producmodernization of farm operationincreasing emphasis on `conservationof resources, and the use of agriOul-tural products and wastes'as jpdustri-

-al raw materialishould provide addi-tional opportunities for engineers.(See introductory part of this section

for information on training require-ments and eamiap. See also state-ment on agriculture elsewhere in theHandbook.)

ISOUrelia Of AdditionalInformation

one Society of Agricultural Engineers,2930 Niles Rd., St. Joseph, Mick. 49085,

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERS

Pieter* pR Hie Work

Biomedical engineers use engi-- peering principles` to solve medical

arid health-related proble&s. Martydo research, along with life scientists,chemists, and members of the medi-cal profession, on the engineering as-pects of the biological systems ofman and animals. Some design anddevelop needicalinstrumants and de-vices including artificial hearts andkidneys, lasers for surgery, and pace-makers that regulate the heartbeat.Other biomedical engineers adaptcomputers to medical science, anddesign and biiilc systems to modern-j,lee laboratory. hospital, and clinicalprocedures. Most engineers in thisfield require a sound background in

6

one of the major engineering disci-plines (mechanical, electrical, indus-trial, oe chemical) in addition to spe-cialize& biomedical training.

Place. of E loylmeet

There were about biomedi-cal engineers in 1976. Most teachand do research in colleges arid uni-versities. Some work for the FederalGovernment, primarily in the No-tional Aeronautics and Space Ad-ministration, or in State agencies. Anincreasing number work in privateindustry developing new devices.techniques, and ysterns for improv-ing health care. ome work in salespcisitions.

ErnPlo anent Outlook

Employment of biomedical engi-neers is expected to grow faster thanthe average for all occupationsthrough the mid-I 980's, Out thesactu-al number of openings is not likely tobe very large. T_hose who have ad-vanced degrees will be in demand toteach and to fill jobs resulting fromincreased expenditures for medicalresearch. Increased research fundscould also create new positions inantrumentation and systems for thedelivery of health senrices. (See in-troductory part of this chapter for

Many blomeelleei engineers Sr. Involved In rose h.

information on trains kensand earnings.)

$ourgart of Adak,Information

Alliance for Engineering ire Medicine and Biol-ogy, Suite 404.4403 Rut -West Highway,

. Md. 20014.

Biome I Engineering Society. P.O. Box2399. Culver City, Celli 90230.

CERAMIC ENGINEERS

(D_O_T. 006.081 ).

Nature of the Wolk

Ceramic engineers develop newceramic materials and rnethcmaking ceramic materials into use fuproducts. Although to some, theword ceramics means pottery, cc-relics actually include all motatal-lic, inorganic materials which requirethe use of high temperature in theirprocessing. Thus, cyanic engineerswork on diverse products. such asglassware, heat-resistant materialsfor furnaces, electronic components.and nuclear reactors. They also de-sign and supervise the constructionof plants and equipment to manufac-ture these products.

Ceramic engineers generally spe-cialize in one product or morefor -example, products of refractories(fire-and heat-resistant materialssuch as firebrick); whitewares (por-celain and china dinnerwareor highvoltage electrical insulators); struc-tural materials (Such as brick,, tile_and terra cotta); electronic ceramics(ferrites for memory systems and mi-crowave devices); protective and re-fractory coatings for metals; glass;abrasives; cement technology; or fuelelements for atomic energy.

Places of Employment

About 12,000 ceramic engineerswere employed in 1976, mostly in thestone, clay, and glass industry. Oth-ers work in industries that produce oruse ceramic products such as the iron

Most ceramic engineers are employed In the atone, clay, and glass Industry.

and steel, electrical equipment, aero-space , and chemicals industries,Some are in colleges and universities,independent research organizations,and the Federal Government.

Employment Outlook

Employment of ceramic engineersis expected to grow faster than theaverage for all odcupations throughthe mid-1980's. Programs related tonuclear energy, electronics, defense,and medical science will provide jobopportunities for ceramic engineers.Additional ceramic engineers will berequired to improve and adapt tradi-tional ceramic products, such aswhitewares and abrasives, to neviuses. The development of filters andcatalytic surfaces to reduce pollu-tr8n, and the development of ceramicmaterials for energy conversion and

-conservation, should create addition-al openings for ceramic engineers.(See introductory part of this sectionfor information on training require-ments and earnings. )

Sources of AdditionalInformation

American Ceramic S y, 45 Ceramic Dr.,Columbus_ 43219.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERS

( 008.081 )

Nature ofthe WorkChemical engineers are involved in

many phases of the production ofchemicals and chemical products.They design equipment and chemicalplants as well as determine methodsof manufacturing the product. Often,they design and operate pilot plantsto test their work and de velop'chemca I processes such as those to removechemical contaminants from wastematerials. Because the duties ofchemical engineers cut across manyfields, these professionals must havea working knowledge of chemistry,PhYsics, and mechanical and elixir i-

enginee ring.

fi

This branch of engineering is sodiversified and complex that chemi-cal engineers frequently specialize ina particular operation such as oxidation or polymerizition. Others spe-cialize in a particular area such aspollutiqn 'control or in the- produc-tion of a specific product like plasticsor rubber.

Places of ,Employment

Most of the 50,000 chemical engi-neers working in 1976 were in menu-factuiririg industries, primarily thoseproducing chemicals, parole tun, andrelated products. Some worked ingovernment agencies or taught anddid research in colleges and universi-ties. A small number worked far in-depensinterindepe

ent research institutes and en-Ong consulting firms, or asdent consulting engineers.

g ployrnent Outlook

Employment of chemical engi-neers is expeAed to grow about asfast as the average for all occupationstfrough the m id-1980's. A major fac-tor underlying this growth is industryexpansionthe chemicals industry inparticular_

.The growing complexity and auto-mation of chemicafprocesses will re-

ire additional chemical engineersto desigii build, and maintain thenecessary plants and equipment.Chemical engineers also will beneeded to solve problems dealingwith environmental protection, de-velopment of synthetic fuels, and thedesign and development of nuclearreactors_ In addition, development ofnew chemicals used in the manufac-ture of consumer goods, such as plas-tics and synthetic fibers, probablywill create additional openings. (Seeintroductory part of this section forinformation on training requirementsanrearnings. See also the statementon chemists and the industrial chemi-cal industry elsewhere in the hand-book _)

urces of AdditionalInformation

American Institute of Cherni6al En-345 East 47th St . New York10017_

Y.

7

IChsmlcel engineer checks 'undue

CIVIL ENGINEERS

(D.O.T. 005.08 I )

Nature ofthe Work

Civil engineers, who work in theoldest branch of the engineering pro-fession, design and supervise the con-struction of roads, harbors, airports,tunnels, bridges, water supply andsewage systems, and buildings. Majorspecialties within 'civil engineeringare structural, hydraulic, environ-mental (sanitary), transportation (in-cluding highwhys and railways), geo-technical, and soil mechanics.

Many civil engineers are in super-visory or administrative positionsranging from supervisor of a con-struction site \o city engineer to top-level executive. Others teach in col-leges and universities or work as con-sultants.-

Places of Employment

About 155.000 civil engineerswere employed .in 1976. Most work

on Instructions at churn eel RIsn

for Federal, State, and local govern-ment agencies or in the constructionindustry. Many work for consultingengineering and architectural firmsor as independent consulting engi-neers. Others work for public utili-ties, railroads, educational institu-tions, and manufacturing industries.

Civil engineersvork in all parts ofthr country, usually in or near majorindustrial and commercial centers.They often work at construction

- sites, sometimes in remote areas or inforeign countries. In some jobs, theymust often move from place to placeto work on different projects.

Employment Outlook

Employmint of civil e-ngineers isexpected to increase about as fast asthe average for all occupationsthrough the mid-1980's. Joh oppor-tunities will result from the growingneeds for housing, industrial build-ings. electric power generatingplants, and transportation systems

ticreated by a growing population andan expanding economy. Work relat-

.ed to solving problems of environ-mental pollution and energy self-sufv.ficiency will also require additionalcivil engineers.

Many civil engineers also will beneeded each year to replace thosewho retire, die, or transfer to otheroccupations. (See introductory partof this section for information on-

Ming requirerneps and carnings,)

Sources of AdditionalInformation

American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E.471h St, New York, N-Y. 10017.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS

(0.0.7. 003,081 151, and .187)

Nature of the Work

Electrical engineers design, devel-op, test, and supervise the manufac-ture of electrical and electronicequipment_ Electric equipment in-cludes power generating and trans-mission equipment used by electricmotors, machinery controls, andlighting and wiring in buildings, andin automobiles and aircraft. Elec-tronic equipment includes radar,computers, communications equip-ment. missile guidance systems, andconsumer goods such as televisionsand stereos.

Electrical engineers generally spe-cialize in a major areasuch as inte-grated circuits, computers, electricalequipment manufacturing, commu-nications, or power distributing'equipmentor in a subdivision ofthese areasrnicrowaVe communi-cation or aviation electronic systems,for example. Electrical engineers de-sign new products and specify theiruses and write performance require-ments and maintenance schedules.They also, test equiprnertl, solve oper-ating problems, and estimate thetime and cost of engineering proj-ects. Besides employment in re-search, development, and design.many aid in manufacturing, adminis-tration and management, technicalsales, or c.ollege teaching.

s 1 . a a.6 OM&

s4_

B D a a..* a

sm"1'en&,41

14,

4;4?

ass.,as 44

,

r.

Most civil engineers work for construction compengovernments.

Places of Employment

Electrical engineering is the largestch of the profession. About

C

and Fe

I

rel. State and local

300,000 _electrical engineers wereemployed in 1976, mainly by manu-facturers of electrical and electronicequipment, aircraft and parts, busi-

_ness machines, and professional and-oscientitic equipment. Many work, fortelephone, telegraph, and electric

'light and power companies. Largenumbers are employed by giavern-ment agencies and by colleges anduniversities. Qthers work for con-struction firms, for engineering con-sultants, or as independelit consult-ing engineers.

Employment Outlook

Employment of electrical engi-neers is expected to increase about asfast as average for all occupationsthrough the mid-1980's. Although in-creased demand for computers, corn-

'munications, and military, electronics,is expected to be the major contribu-tor tio this growth, -demand for elec-trical and electronic consumergoods. along with increased research'and deuelopment_ in new types. of

,power generation, should create ad-ditional jobs. Many electrical engi-neders also will 'be needed to replacepersonnel who .retire, die, or transferto other fields of work.

The long-range outlook for electri-cal engineers is based on the assump-tion that defense spending in themid-1980's will increase from the1976 level, but will still be somewhatlower than the peak level of the late1960's. If defense activity is higher orlower than the projected level, thedemand for electrical engineers willbe higher or lower than now expect-ed.

(See introductciry part of this sec-tion for infdrrnation on training re-quirements and earnings. See alsostatement on electronics manufac-turing elsewhere in the Handbook.)

---Satirces of AdditionalinforrnatIon

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engi-neers/United States Activities Board.2029 K St N.W., Washington, D.C.20006.

Electrical engineer developing aprelatiaea ebsetrleat equIpmerd.

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERS

(D.O.T. 012.081, -A 68, and .18

Nature of the Work-

,Industrial engineers determine themost effective ways for an organiza-tion to use the basic factors of pro-ductionpeople, machines, and ma-terials. They are more concernedwith people and methods of businessorganization than are engineers inother specialties who generally areconcerned more with particularproducts or processes. such as met-als, power, or mechanics.

To solve organizational, produc-tion, and related problems most effi-ciently, industrial 6ngineers designdata processing systems and applymathematical concepts (operationsresearch techniques). They also de-velop management control systems

',to aid in financial planning and costanalysis, design production planningand control systems to coordinate ac-tivities and control product quality,and design or improve systems iforthe physical distribution of goods andservices. Industrial engineers alsoconduct plant location surveys,where they look for the best combi-nation of sources of raw materials,transportation, and taxes. and devel-

10

Pleoneot EmOlOyment-

About 200,000 induitrial engi-neers were employed in 1976; morethan two-thirds Worked in manufac---turing industries. Because their skillscan be used in almost any type ofcompany, the9 are mere,wiciely dia-ributed among industries than are

e in other/branches of engineer-ing. For example, home work foOn-,,surance companies, banks, constiye-tion and Mining firms, and publicutilities. Hospitals, retail organiza-tions, and other large business firmsemploy industrial engineers to im-prove operating efficiency. Still oth-ers work for government agenciesand colleges and univeriities. A feware independent consulting engi-neers.

Employment Outlook

op swage and salary administration Employment of industrial engi-systems and job evaluation programs, neers is expected to grow faiter thanBecause the work 0 closely related, the average for all occupationsmany industrial engineers move into through the mid-I 980's. The increas-management positions. ing cpmplexity of industrial opera- \

lndustrlit rngIna.r rnviewing film of production process to check for problems.

and the (mansion of automatedprocesses, along with industrygrowth, are factors contrib ting toemployment growth. Incre d rec-ognition of the importance scien-tific management and safety engi-neering in reducing costs andincreasing productivity, and the needto solve environmental problem's,should create additional opportuni-,ties. . -

Additional numbers; of industrialengineers will be required each yearto replace those who retire, die, ortrarefer to other occupations. (Seeintroductory part of thii section forinformation on gaining requirementsand earnings.)

Sources of Additionalinformation

American Institute of Industrial Engineers.t Inc.. 25 Technology Fark/Ailanta, Nor-

cross,,Ga. 31092.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

(D.O.T. 007.081,1151, .168, and.187)

Nature of the Work

Mechanical .engineers are con-cerned with the production, trans-mission, and use of power. They de-sign and develop power-producingmachines such as internal combus-t,ion engines, steam and gas turbines,and jet and rocket engines. They alsodesign and develop power-using ma-chines such as refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment, elevators,machine tools, printing presses, andsteel rolling mills.

The work, ©f mechanical engineersvaries by ins:Mary and function sincemany specialties have developedwithin the field. Specialties includedare motor vehicles, marine equip-ment, energy conversion systems,heating, ventilating and air-condi-tioning, instrumentation, and ma-.chines for_ pecialized industries,such as etr leum, rubber and plas-tics, and co struction.

Large-numbers mecbanigineera do research, teat, and designwork. Many are administrators Irmanagers, while othersx.votk irrinsfin-

"tenance, technical sales, and prochae-non operations. Some teach in col-leges and universitie oFr work as-consultants.

Pipeee of Eniiployallent

About_ 200,000 mechanical engi-neers were employed in 1976.most-three-fourths were employed inmanufacturingmainly in the pawls-ry and fabricated metals., machinery,transportation equipment, and elec-trical equipment- industries- OthersWorked for government agencies,educational institutions, and consult-ing engineering firms.

Employment Outlook

Employment of mechanical engi.neers is expected to inc rease about BLS

fast as the average for all occupationsthrough the mid-1980a. The growingdemand for industrial machinery andmachine tools and the 'ncreasingcomplexity of industrial alachineryand processes will be major factorssupporting increased employmentopportunities. Mechanical engineerswill be needed to develop new energysystems and to help solve environ-mental pollution problem's.

Large numbers of mechanical en-gineers also will be required eachyear to replace those who retire, die,or transfer to other occupations.(See introductory part of this sectionfor information on training require-ments and earnings. See also state-ment on occupations in the atomicenergy field elsewhere in the Wand-book .)

Sources of Addltlemlinform anon

The American Societyneers, 345 E 47th St_ New 'Yon,10017.

of hlecbaslical Erigi-

1

METALLURGICAL'ENGINEERS

(u.0.7. 011481)

Nature of the Work

kletallirgical engineers developmethods to process and comvert net-aid into useful products. Most ofthese engineers generally work inone is the dace main Ihringlies ofmetal urgy---extractive or chemical,physical; and mechanical. Extractivemotalltargist$ tare concerned,Wifit ex-tracting metals from ores, and term-ing aid alloying then to obtain use-ful metal- Physical metallurgists dealWith the mature, structure, and phys-ical properties of metals and theiralloys, and with methods of convert-ing retiree metals WU, final products.[Mechanical metallurgists developmethods to work wad shape metal,such as casting, forging, rolling, anddrawing. Scientists working in thisfield are known as rnetallurights ormaterials thieruists, but the (liable-tabu between scientists and engineersin this field is small.

NACOS of Employment

The metalworking Malstriespri-manly the iron and steel and nonfe #-rous metals industriesemployedover one-half of the estimated1 7,000 metallurgical and materialsengineers in 1976. Metallurgical en-gineers also work in industries thatmanufacture machinery, electricalequipment, and aircraft and parts,and in the mining industry. Somework for government agencies andcolleges and univ-e

E mpleyrnonl Outlook

Employment of metallurgical andmaterials engineers is expected togrow faster than the average for alloccupations through the. maid-198431s..An increasing number of these engi:neers will be needed by the metal-working industries to develop newmetals and alloys as well as to adaptcurrent ones to new needs. For ex-

I1

aiselisingicsl 'noniron

ample, communications equipment,computers, and spacecraft requirelightweight metals of high purity Asthe supply of high-grade ores diminishes, more metallurgical engineerswill be required to develop new waysof recycling solid waste materials inadd7 ition to processing low-grade Oresnow regarded as unprofitable tomine. Metallurgical engineers alsowill be needed to solve problems as-sociated with the efficient use of nu-clear energy. (See introductory partof this section for information ontraining requirements and earnings.Also see statement on the iron andsteel industry elsewhere in the Hand-book.)

tudy this physics! properties of meet.

urees of Add luuliplInformation

The Metallurgical Society of toe A..Institute of Mining, Metallurgu,al, sodtroleurn Engineers. 145 E. 47th St NewYork. N,Y. 10017.

Anlericso Society for MOhio 44073.

dtk,

12

MINING ENGINEERS

(13 0 T 010.081 and .187 )

Nature of the Work

tot i..i.ig engineers find, extract, andprepare minerals for manufacturingindustries to use. They design thelayouts of open pit and undergroundmines. supervise the construction ofmine shafts and tunnels in under-ground operations, and devise meth-ods for transporting minerals to pro-cessing plants. Mining engineers, areresponsible for the economic and ef-ficient operation of mines and minesafety, including ventilation, watersupply, power, communications, andequipment maintenance. Some min-ing engineers work with geologistsand metallurgical engineers tolocateand lic-ocaise new ore deposits. Oth-ers develop new mining equipmentor direct mineral procelsMg opera-tions, which involve separating min-erals from the dirt, rocks, and othermaterials they are mixed with. Min-ing engineers frequently specialize inthe mining of one specific mineralsuch as coal or copper.

With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many mill-ing engineers have been working tosolve problems related to mined-landreclamation and water and air pollu-tion.

PlaCet et Employment

About 45,0130 minting 'engineerswere employed in 1976. Most .vdrkin the mining industry. Sonic workfor firms that produce equips-tient forthe mining industry . w bile otherswork in eolleges and universities, ingovernment agencies, or as indepen-dent consultants.

Mining engineers are usually em-ployed at the location of mineral de-posits, often near small communities.However, those in research, teach-ing, management, consulting, or salesoften are located in large metropoli-tan areas.

E nuDloyMent Cuflloolk

Employment of mining engineersis expected to increase faster thanthe avetilge for all occupationsthrough the mid- 19114s. Efforts toattain energy self-sufficiency shouldspur the demand for coal, and there-fore for mining engineers in the coalindustry. The increase in demand forcoal will depend, to a great extent, onthe availability and price of other do-mestic energy sources such as petro-leum, natural gas, and nuclear ener-gy. More technologically advancedmining systems and further enforce-ment of mine health and safety regu-Wienrs also will increase the need for,mining engineers. in addition, ex plo -ration for all other Mine rats: is alsoincreasing. Easily ruined deposits arebeing depleted, creating a need forengineers to devise *more efficientmethods for mining low-grade ores.Employment opportunities also willarise as new alloys and new uses formetals increase the demand for less

widely used ores. Recovery of metalsfrom the sea and the dlevelopinerit ofoil shale deposits could present ma-jor challenges- to the mining' engi-neer. (See introductory part of thissection for information on trainingrequirements and earnings. See alsostatement on nn ining elsewhere in theHandbook. )

s.

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technictons set up, [maintain, and re=pair electronic broadcasting equip-ment Atari) control technicians regu-late sound pickup, transmission, andswitching, and video control techni-cians regulate the quality, brightness,and contrast of television pictures.The lighting of television programs isdirected by lighting tehnicians_ Forprogram', onginating outside the studio. /rad technicians het up arid openalG bfoadcat,i, frig equipincnt. Record/Lug tech liii 4aIL,5 d.ipcfdic and nialiumnsuLUI. fcctrid1114 C

rdirix re.h rii,raft operate coldmaintain video tape re/cording equiptnC tit s.ula.iiiics the ter illtiter' -17 7141511.111116d 4(11 tech

in IQtele,V1,ititl S1al14)1111 ill IY7ci PVI.di., 3(0II,1_),1 c.111p1,,y t v.C1 )11011

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IcJ.L.L it)broadcast technicians ani those in1016C ti ..sipul 1 (0111 clay,ciy YYJJ ygy.

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evitti J It till. 7ii.,tt ,17, c1,611 14..

ca16.14c,.;) It1g ,..1x14, iii,--.,,,0114,c1 lug d

,'though broadIi.

are beaten iii large 4.iettor,,litani, 1.,611. (xa, aii6 1.1,1511.

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tot the bet's in!t ,.14.s ve.lc, tinh;a1 4: till zg,, 4( ,11111114,

IS an advtAritrAgc to, ,tio:sc woo hopeti. advairwe Lt.1 41b,11), pt,c ill thinOf to the mot.; spe,,,ialir.c. I Jobs inla. ge ttie ue1, inky

1PC atil)116 with ht l lli it aLIN.T1 IL aZ

who get entry jobs ale insiructtuand :advised by the chief togthec. itby other experienc-ed

Ic rrrlt erent

tFic I,4(.1,,,,11 111 Si &ia11 hiatic_me. 14e ylita ilE1116 (tit! thrliOitill1.C1 und hi..111011.1ig Uttie 1 technical du

a tailet Irish peliodAs they ata4trire more experience andk ,,,?,biglied to iticJic IC

1k)1), I tits. deii.ouit 1,41c at ),,,4=: cl agc ability may..it., ,. Et 1111114,.al i.,tiSI

as INt)I y tcat,:kAailA k Olit=g:e JOgiCkff, ni

crigincciing is be, &lining ink, reasinglyim, taro supervisory ano executive positions

A

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t. .1 can a.liCi i th ofekci a ex4,4ed3 the nurnbc,

pit;.11111gN osp,...t.s may heitc I nifl I,, Nia,A ,ItiC5 to, peciil,A 1 Lti ti, pr..pilaLe I. molog Iri t_Iectton

t.... la 4;1, 1 t Ill, lAtSc

LIM ci tr1 aVel a. c tail all ocupationsthiotigh the nod 1980's lost Jobopciting will 1,.N4,114 noel

ilia tiCCti ttl to Viale t ApC IlL114,C.a1c-, Lit die Lai hail.

ILI Lt.) OttIA 1 a...),,O,tpati.)i.

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..mien televisl ,u stations go tin tilt air

Di land for brOaticast techniciansalso will increase as cable televisionstations broadcast more of their ownprograms. At the same time, techno-logical developments are likely tolimit future demand; such laborsav-ing technical advances as automaticprogramming, automatic operation,logging, and remote control of trans-mitters all hold dhwn demand forad-ditional technicians.

Earnings and WorkingConditions

saiali,s of. beginning techniciansin comnicriai radio and televisionranged from about S 155 to $215 .aweek in 1976 and thOse of experi-enced technicians from about $200to $1 ,S0, a,.cording to the limited infoil-nation available As a rule, tech:moans' wages arc highest in largeclues and in large Mations cotini-

employed by television stationssidedusually are paid man those whoth oil., for radiovisloit W t)/ k is i

s because tele-tally more cum

Alex. Technicians employed by qdt.i-ca (lonal broadcasting stationsgenerally cant less than those whowork. for ontmereial stations

Most tzLhinivians hi large stations,,nk a 31) hoot weak with overtone

pay to, additional taints Somebroadcast technicians in the largercities woo, a 37 hoot Neck In smallstutithi, many technhAans work 4 tot 2 hours of oveithitc ciao. weekLv rung ..Ight work

IS 51IiLC 5,44any

Sla (1011.5 al., L,a1 the an OS mall) as 24hoot May 7 Jaya a vieek Ne twqtr Itt,.1,incians have towoik iritt,lticivaly for many hours41141 i..idet great pt,A,bti!,z Ili 01,101 it)oleo. broadcast deadlines

c hit le latis generally WO.k iiio.aars in pleasa,it sot rounoings t -hework is interesting, and the duties are

When remote pickups aremade howeva tcchaicians haywork t, it sit Joule at bottle dIbtalleCIt OM the studios, ui.cier less lavorable,onditions

ul AJJltiuniiInk- motion

iattnination abouta a. III, operator's examinations, and

guide, to study fur them. write to,

15

Federal Communications Corn rnissio- h=/ington,13C 20554

For information on careers forbroadcast technicians, write toNational Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N

St. NW , Washington, D C 20036

Corporation 'fur Public fraitcaaing, III1611. St: NW., Washington, Dk: 20113o

DRAFTERS

(Ii 07 001 2t11 002 4810651,8 I, 007 2S1, 01

014 281. and 1117

Nature u

Whets building stirsi-e xut,,,television set, or b. lOge, wt.),kct follow drawings that shove (tic cxii,_t dimenseuns and specttioistiosis of sheentire object. and each ot its partsWorkers who draw thcse 4(taatndrafters

Drape,., po-k,./.._based bn rough sketches, specificstains. arid salolarions 104d.. by N4-.1011111S1S, C1114101:C11-4. 41,,httc,u, araisigners they also 4,411541+1ECstrength 4114111) 44,411111y 41.441 . tatof mate' ials 1-11-14.11 dr ow ings out 1111

detailed sic,* of the ohter...1 ii no,sides as well as specir 'cations for i.latcrlals to be usedlowed. and Oillti ini4irrtistitin to :=arry out Eric job

In pi eparing .1.. 1, .

corn passes dis it.Lk s 111 t,!,angles, anal other drafting je,r eaThey also ,iNC 1i4 .4 41

tst)tiks tdbi,b and ealcir tail 4+ I. 4,_ II

solve techitieol problemsDrafters are classified a..

the work they Jo or (Hell ,,rresponsibility_ Serliot 4fajr,,1late an engineer's or ,,n_hitcot a pi curinary plans into design' "la,(scale drawings of the object to h,built) Detaile,3 draw caxt,shown on the layout, and give Jsirens, materials. and other inforrilalion to make the di-Awing dIcal andcomplete Chet:kepi carefully e-arilInc drawings for errors in coripartirg,or recording dimensions and apcLillcations, Under the supervision of experienced drafters. /racers make nilnor corrections and trace drawings

-4-

Drafters may apecializo In maichanical, asectncai, aaural drafting.

ICJ/ t on Raps. 01 plastic

D1,44,t-afield of 411k, 5111;11 as

,liarrical eletronic. aeroauprical Atf%1,14i141, 4ii .14-111ICEL11 41

drafting

v,,,,tik.1 .5ts.i s inose than OUT, t31

pt I, ate 11.dostly Eng*1,16 4411 1 1,1111.C,,iital N11,1 CM,1 ti k 3 ,Jut. of ate In Other

i+4444,41 , 114_114,-; thc tab,-kaced atctals el. ctrical eAulprnent,oruar,are.ry1,I1CN

At .4 1..1

hidus

41141 boi 41 gout iiiI 'I /0 boat in at =tars tit the

t-,icral ,-cr, .kicili sorkc.1 I01 thetr,,_t,hse Illit 11i 111,14NC In S+41C

slid 111,4.i go velamcit,A 41, taainlyla high, aiid publk. orks its pal t

atN Al.uttik,t scyci41 thousanddialici_, woii.sesi lot xollegcs and urna el 3iticn arid nonprofit orgaroz.atiOns

t 4.4 4,a,,

an.. AdviLncternent

, I 1i1 14,- 44.111162 It 1.4 4.4. 1 44,11111e the necessary

1,Atiti.tes, junior,d oor.ln,uully oolleges, extension

divesisnrs of uni,ersities. arid voca-tional a11,1 tc,hulta1 high schools

nautical, stmeturel, or tirchltoe-

Some persons receive training andexperience in the Armed Forces:Others qualify through on-the:jobtraining programs combined withpartztime schooling or 3- to 4=yearapprenticeship programs

Training for a career in drafting,whether in a high school or posthighschool program, Should includeco SSSSSS in mathematics, physical sci-ences, mechanical drawing, anddrafting Shop practices and shopskills also are helpful since manyhigher level drafting jobs requireknowledge of manufacturing or construction methods Many technicalschools ; r cor4ses strwa4ral design, areh tural drawing, and engi-neering Of industrial rechnologj

Theist planning careers in dfOtting41101Ald 'be able to do freehand draw-trigs of three - dimensional objects Andalso detailed work requiring a highdegree of accuracy They shouldhave good eyesight and manual destcri(y In addition, they should beable to function as part of a learnsince they work directly with enginears architects and skilled workers Ai tishc- ability is helpful Ili somespecialized fields.

High school graduates uAiiAlly stditAMA as tracers, Those having posthighschool technical training may beginas junior drafters After gaining expe-rience, they may advance to check-ers. detailers, senior drafters, or so-per v iso rs'. Some may becomeindependent designers Courses inengineeririrand mathematics some-times enable drafters to transfer toengineering positions

Employ l int Outlook"

Employment of drafters is expect-ed to increase faster than the averagefor all oc9upations. This growth,along with the need to replace those

retire, die, or rriOve into otherfiltls of work, should provide -favor-

°ahle job opportunities through themid-I 91i0's. Holders of an associate(3 -year) degree iii, drafting will havethe best prospects Islany large ernplayers already require [Jo stsc ondary technical education, thoughwell-qualified high school graduateswho have studied drafting may findopportunities in some types of jobs.

Emplcryment of drafters is expect-d to rise rapidly as a result of the

increasingly comities dcsign plot"!ems of modern products and proees_ses In addition. in ors so pipci3oim41 will be netled die cotploynmcrtt of ettglitects rind 2 ,Ici=t1sL,grows Motoreproduc (Ion of di ,aings and expanding use of lo (row,drafting equipment and k_oiliptoeiShowever, will reduce the need forless skilled diartels

ItsMi ION fj Mo.* ass.),,

Colidllis nu

ect ah_rut a8,400 a 1; 111

trhils 11101e; d di Wts.eraged between 59.g00 and $ I 2 o(a yeardIA:ykit Is 1

Senito dollt,ts5 Sou a can Ira I is ft., U., Ott:-

average espe.i;riccf art,about one and klitt;11$1.1di as thc ak,,gc, s oi ai itNslipc=l iscrty Nut ikci s in pi Rat,. liAt.=Ltry, except tanning

he Federal ,,,J, anti having gleestarting salaries 0f $8 316 a yc.atr tea

1977 =I hose with toss educction orexporionce gene, ally stay teti at$7.408 Itr, average r dotal to y

et illrliCfI( .Nai4,y for an dta'iter +a as

about Si 1.000 a yearAlthough drafters us,adi, , s

well lighted and Vs di V

rooms, they ,rten sit for longperiods of time doing szry detailedwork Oceasionally, chart is Mayvisit other offices 0, cOtibt Isites to gaud first band info' triationabout a certain assignin_nt

rsources of Additional

Information

treneral information on careers Itifdrafters is available fromA inefiCail insert is for Dem anti ntaiiing

3119 Price Ito , Okla 74003

Iitt.errertionitl Federati on of Professional andiea _meal Engineers. 1126I6th St NWWashington D 20030

See Souis,c--N Additional 1111,11in the statement on engineer

setunce technicians elsewilt re ill the itepoltrook

"tNGINLtrtrt,r4.A AN°SCIENCE TECHNICIANS

s ss

is digs;

la ,iustr al machinery, and techni,1 flre,v .ss enables trigitiee ring

It e tetnnicians to work in all..t l} aSitlieNN and government.

to nitsnnt,o fit t-sc ,rty_ls and des Igo,lac it, log sale,, and customor1,,c alit. rogh men jobs atelinsaft in s=ops, and more practicallyoilented than those of engineers orscientists. teeirriteiana often apply thetlicotts.11,,a1 knowledge developed by

algal Ss; iCririNiN trs actaal,tioations I e,firtittois tiearueiatly

mpl, ele,:tronic and roechanis=al experimental labs)! a

equipment and drafting [milsrael,ts Almost all techniciansjr a ihc.1 in this Aaternent most beable to us . teanical handbooks and

devices such as slide idlesand calculating rirachinos

In research and development, oneth-e largest areas of employments

Sc. 171ii, halts Set lip experiments andcalculato the rcsul N using complexlastiainears They/also assist erigi1(re. Fs and NsisilliN in developingpet iittetind a duip lfisr 0E4 nest

ittarclatg disiwings an skchfrequently by doing utine

k

tians usually1,,Ilow the plans Mid general (inceiions ..f engineer_ and scientists, but

ellby

Ign

often without close skipervistoritI Theymay prepare specifications foi mate-\rials, devise tests to insure productquality, or study ways to improve theefficiency of an operation, They of-ten supervise production workers tomake sure they follow prescribedplans and procedures. As a product isbuilt, technicians check to see thatspecifications are followed, keep e,n-gineers and scientists informed as toprogress, and investigate productionprubli its

As'sales woe keis or field represen=(doves- for manufacturers, techni-cians give advice on installation andmaintenance of complex machinery,and may write specifications andtechnical manuals. (See statement ontechnical writers elsewhere in theHandbook )

It riYasjcavolk in the fieldsengineering, physical science, or

lite science Within those generalFields, job titles may 'describe thelevel t biological aide air biologicaltechnician), dutics (qoality controltechnician or time study analyst), orarea of work (mechanical, electrical,or chemical)

As an engincedirg technician onei work tit any cat the tollowing

aleda

4, it= / r,clans in this in cu work with engineersand scientists to design and produceaircraft. rackets. guided missiles, andspacecraft Maio, aid engineers inprepanng design layouts and modelsOf structures, control systems, orequipment installations by collectinginformation, making computations,and performing laboratory tests, For

in pie, a technician might estimateweight factors, centers of gravity,and oil, er items affecting load capac-ity of an airplane or missile. Othertechnicians prepare or check draw-ings fur technical accuracy, practica-bility, and economy

Act onautical technicians frequent-ly work as manufacturers" field ser-vice representatives, serving as thelink between their company and themiliiary services, commercial air-lines, and other customers. Techni-cians also prepare technical informa-tion for instruction manuals,bulletins, catalogs, atiNtl other litera-

17

lure. (See statements on aerospaceengineers, airplane mechanics. andoccupations in aircraft, missile, andspacecraft manufacturing elsewherein the Handbook.)

Air- Conditioning, Heating, and Re-frigeration Technology. Air-condi-tioning. heating, and refrigerationtechnicians design, manufacture,sell, and service equipment ta.regulate interior temperatures. Teani-cians in this field often specialize inone area, such as refrigeration, irfndsometimes in a particular type of ac-tivity. such as research and development.

When working for firmsmanufacture tern ure-control=ling equipment, t= -hnici ns generallywork in research eng'ne- ng dopartrnents, whet- they engineers and scientistsTh the de n andtesting of new equipment o produccif-3n methods For example, a techrocian may construct an experimentalmodel to test, its durability and °poiacing characteristics. Techniciansalso work as sales workers for equip-ment manufacturers or dealers, andmast be able to supply engineeringfirms and other contractors that de-sign and, install systems with informationon installation, arainEenanCC, tipcrating costs, and the performancespecifications of the equipment 0ther technicians work -dfor contractors,where they help design and prepareinstallation instructions tor air condi-tioning, heating. or refrigeration sys-tems Still others work in customerservice, and arc .espoirsibie for supervising the installation and otailltenance of equipment (See statementon refrigeration and air-conditioningmechanics elsewhere in the Hand-twok.)

Civil trigs --hnicians in this area assist cirri engi-neers in planning. designing, andconstructing highways, bridges.dams, and other structures. They of-ten specialize in one area such ashighway or structural technology.During the planning stage, they esti-mate costs, prepare specifications forrnaterials, or participate in surveying.drafting, or designing. Once con-struction begins, they assist the con-

Is

tractor or superintendent in schedul-ing c.onstruc.tion activit,es orinspecting the work to assure con-formance to blueprints and specifications. (See statern,ents on civil engi-neers, drafters, and surveyorselsewhere in the Handbook )

Electronics Technology Techniciansin this field develop, manufacture,and service electronic equipmentand systems The types of equipmentrange from radio, radar, sonar, andtelevision to industrial and medicalmeasuring or control devices, naviga-tional equipment, and electroniccomputers. Because the field is so,broad, technicians often specialize inone area such as automatic controldevices or electronic amplifiers Fur-thermore, technological advance=merit is constantly opening up newareas rib work. For example, the de-velopment of printed circuits stimu-lated the growth of miniaturizedelectronic systems.

E-Lia..11111idada=11

Sin

traria

When working in design, produc-tion. or customer service, electronictechnicians use sophisticated mea-suring and diagnostic devices to test,adjust, and repair equipment. Inmany cases, they must understandthe requirements of the field in whichthe electronic device is being used. Indesigning equipment for space explo-ration, for example, they must con-sider the need for minimum weightand volume am maximum resistanceto shock, extreme temperature, andpressure. Some electronics techni-cians also work in technical sales,while others work in the radio andtelevision broadcasting industry.See statements on broadcast techni-lans and occupltions in radio and

television broadcasting elsewhere inthe Handbook.)

Industrial Production Technology.Technicians in this area, usuallycalled industrial or production tech-

I711.1

technicians are part el a 'scientific teem, they soinstirnss work under the super-vision of engineers and scientists.

nicians, assist industrial engineers onproblems involving the efficient useof personnel, materials, and ma-chines to produce goods and servic-es. They pre,pare layouts of rnachin-.cry and equipment, plan the now ofwork, make statistical studieS, andanalyze production costs, Industrialtechnicians also coraltract time. andmotion studies 4 analyze 14,ie time andmovements a worker needs to atcomplish a task ) to imprOve the production Methods and pittceetuics inmanufacturing plants

Many industrial tee i

quire experience quit enables tlaclato qualify for off or examplc, those z in ma, timelyand production at:thods may moveinto industrial safety Otlicis Iii ionanalysis. may set jot) Ntandni,1", andinterview test hire and 11 ani ire 1simnel Still otilei, ,.ray ,ii,),"_ int.,pi cidri,iii.in ,siiirci ,al-aian i::-).a. ,,a1),ments on p,rNotillul 0,.,i k CIN i. aiI diat,ISt I 11 CilElliCe17, k INCOs ILMI k Ili kil,=

liandb, k ,)

tO ..1 / F.

ECOr1111.1,1()gy ,N hr .,ad t, ii. lt,,A sf

cis a l,Argt niiintic 1 .ittrolls

gy ,11cNcl

ann,11111c; analtechnology

I cchineie,,sign and devi Lipineot work tit 11 ilkIng cA,-..1t1.1 sket,,hc.N nol tag 11

N.Ot N1.),,,,Ncci rr a, h,i1 I);IL .,11,1 pa. A NO ,

1g, Ilishalir al

callt-c iii -Nn ,train 111,

tilLtJIN I .,1i1;1,.1.-1, iA.

allialY LC the 0.,1 ii aks:51,ai

desigasin planrrl..a ...

rta machines .mel .gtaaprn it I,, i, .toirnanee kis,' ablI11.) 41i,, chi, ,, II, y

e4

icchnIcIail., Icy_knyt d ata _rake . iaoutdo, i [is ono gi .4ptiS array , I,,

suits. ' Ott -anItC re repairs I lily N,. 1,..

limes ICCTIIIICod dCN1g aldi,gc% n.;trilianave ireetannidn,c 1 Bear jot, ,I

ten requires skill in tn. case d compies instrument., test eqi.ipmentand baugcs.-as well ,th in the io epai aHon and interptetatirm At mowing,

% heti a product is r, cui y Rol pr iidu -lion t4chnicians help plc pal,

layouts and draWings of the Aseruhlyprocess and of parts to he manufac-tured. They frequundy help estimatelabor costs, equipment life, and plantspace. Same mechanical technicianstest and inspect machines and equip-ment in manufacturing departmentsor work with engineers to eliminateprodetction \problems Others aretechnical sales workers

I 001 desighe is are among the beitt known specialists in inec_hanicalcngineering tehnology t tad designeri- pi entire Sketches or the designs

cutting tools. Jigs. dies, specialfi ar6s, and other devices used iiimass production Frequently, theyiedesign existing Lind% tar irhprovetheir effi ciency They also make orsopc v katiCr making detaileddrawings of tools and cottlres

Machine drafting, Alth some de

other laboratory rk, They oftenset up and conduct tests on processesand products being developed or irnproved, For example, a technicianmay examine steel far carbon, phos-phorus, and sulfur ,content or test aLubricating oil by sullIjketing it tochanging temperatures, The techni-cian measures reactions, analyzes theresults of experiments, and recordsdata that will he the basis for deci=,tarns and future research

CherniCal technicians in producLion generally put into uonimercial(iodation those products or process-es developed in research laborato-ries, They assist in making the finaldesign, installing equipment, andteaming and supervising operators onthe production line Technicians inquality control test materials, pro-duction processes, and final prod=

aitother major area Otte tS taw insure that they meet themonad, tiatei "s spe,itreations and

ogy at),_ 1s til!NC, 'bed In the statement quality standards Many also work asri diaticis t Also see statements on technical sales personnel selling

ni". ha lilt ai c rimmed a autianiula le e. ticmicals 01 chemical productsmechanics, manufacturers' sales Many- chemical technicians usev,,,Ttk I N and diesel else

v iii the )

/ f,

A I It. I.ANtk 141

pi spacexploratimi weather forreasting, sat-cult, Nyzitc-InN clIv1roruh,:ntal protection and medicalicsea, ticfpied is, make instormentati, ii 1.,,nliad.ag, a t47,1 gr.,* ingr ii,n- l,..ns Lacy riclp is

i deslgii tell, rtes 1.,c4Nn, nig111,1 dca1,. 4L NAIL i.114.)N I11'4

that and nice_Ao;11,liang1 s,-. it, ticds s.i p.cNiir==c,girlair,all .,01a ,iou amid Ilcc

sae y 1inN1.111. 111.N 1 tic,c icy hillha, V. klikesAildgC

phySI cll as deeme al elic,,i, owe al c1;g14n,,c ing t Sec. sta. zinc NoNi,kkti

I111 I N.. ,ke ,

trA6 VIA) ,R41 it ! rt,, 1.ariA ,

I c1111., 411,1 , .11&111C

latelop 3d11 antiand te1411 d p. -ducts and equipment

reiti.st t.lienull al let lion kilIN der ;C,aid development testing to

4

computers and inshuments, such as adilatometer (which measures the ex-pansion of a substance) Because thefield of chemistry is so broad, ehenncal technicians fiequently specializein a particular industfcsueh as foodprocessing or pharmaceuticals. (Seestatements on chemists. chemical engineers, arid occupations In the in-dustrial AcniKal industry elsewhereIre the harkibuok. )

ttfeit_,F tiltiNic t,.,:teorologists in the study .,f atmo-

spheric conditions lechnitoaris calliii ate 111SEIWIICIAS ObbC1v(; reeord,and .epurt meteccological occurlone s. and assist in research orojeetsarkd the development of scientific instioments

ga,±j ssist geuluevaluating canto processes

,.oily rriucb researen is tieingetaiducted in seismology, p4tioleunaand mineral exploration, and ecol=ugy These technicians install seisrno=graphic instruments, record mea=surentents from these instruments,assist in field evaluation of earth=quake damage and surface displace-ment, or assist geologists in earth-quake prediction research. Inpetroleum and mineral exploration,

19

ey help conduct tests and recordfound wave data to determine thelikelihood osuccessful drilling, oruse radiatio1 detection instrumentsand collect core samples to help ge-ologists evaluate the economic possi-.bilities of mining a given resource.

hydrologic technicians gather datato help hydrologists predict riverstages and water quality levels. Theymonitor instruments that measurewater flow, water table levels, orwatei quality, and record and ana-

S lyze the data obtained. (See state-ment on environmental scientistselsewhere in the Handbook.)

Technician positions in the lIfe sci=ences generally are classified intotwo categories:- Agricultural technicians work with

agricultural scientists in the areas offood production and processing'Plant technicians conduct tests andexperiments to improve the yield andqUality of crops, or to increase resista ce to disease, insects, or other hazar ti'.. Technicians in soil science arialys the chemical and physicalproOrerties of various soils to help dctermine the best uses for these soilsAnimal husbandry technicians workrnitrify with the breeding and nu i-tion of animals. Other agriculturaltechnicians are employed in the foodindustry as food processing techni-cians. They work in quality controlor in food science research, helpingfood scienzejsts develop better andmore effisi4int ways of processingfood material for human consumption. (See statement on food sowntists elsewhere in the Handbook i

Biological technicians work prima,ily in Iitboratories where they perform tests and experiments undercontrolled conditions. Microhiologrcal technicians study microscopic orgartisras and may be involved in immunology or parasitoloiy researchLaboratory animal technicians studyand report on the-reaction of labora-tory animals to certain physical andchemical stimuli. They also study andconduct research to help biologistsdevelop cures that may be applied tohuman diseases. Biochemical techni-cians assist biochemists in the cherni=cal analysis of biological substances(blood, other body fluids, foods,drugs). Most of their work involves

20

conducting experiments and report-ing their results to a biochemist. As abiological technician, one might alsowork primarily with insects, studyinginsect control, developing new insec-ticides, or determining how to useinsects to control other insects or un-desirable plants. (See statements onlife scientists elsewhere in the Hand-book.)

Technicians also specialize infields such as metallurgical (metal ),electrical, and optical technologythe atomic energy field, technicianswork with scientists and engineers onproblems of radiation safety, inspec-tion, and decontamination. (Seestatement on occupations in theatomic energy field elsewhere in theHandbook ) New areas of work in-clude environmental protection,where technicians study the prob-lems of air and water pollution, andindustrial safety

Pia ties of ErnplOrniont

User 585,090 persons worked asengineering and science techniciansin 19Th Almost 400,000 worked inengineering fields, about I 30,000 inthe physical science occupations,and about 55,000 in the life sciences.

About two - thirds of all techniciansworked in private industry. In the

anutao.uring sector, the largest e m --players were the electrical equmolt_ ..hernical, machinery, andaerospace industries. In nonmanafactoring, large numbers worked, inwholesale and retail trade, communi-cations. and in engineering and air-chaectural firma.

In 1976, the Federal Governmentemployed about 95,000 technicians,chiefly as engineering and electron-ics technicians, equipment speeal-ists, biological technicians, Carto-graphic teehnicians (rnaPrnaking).meteorological technicians, andphysical science technicians. Thelargest number worked for the De-partment of Defense; most of theothers worked for the Departmentsof Transportation, Agriculture, Inte-rior, and Commerce.

State government agencies em-ployed nearly 59,000 engineeriegand science technicians, and localgovernments about 1 1,309. The re-

mainder worked for colleges and uni-versities and nonprofit organizations.

Training, Other Ouelificatiand Advancement

Although persons can qualify fortechnician jobs through many combi-nations of work experience and edu-cation, most employers prefer appli-cants who have had some specializedtechnical training- Specialized train-ing is available at technical institutes,junior and community colleges, areavocational-technical schools. exten-sion divisions of colleges and univer-sitktokid vocational-technical highschools. Some engineering and sci-ence students who have not complet-ed the bachelor's degree and otherswho have degrees in science andmathematics also are able to qualifyfor technician positions,

Persons also can qualify for techni-cian jobs by less formal methods.Workers may learn through on-the-job training. apprenticeship pro-grams, or correspondence sotto:Some qualify on the basis of experi-ence gained in the Armed Forces.However, postsecondary training isbecoming increasingly necessary foradvancement to more responsiblejobs.

Some of the types of postsecon-dary and other schools that providetechnical training are discussed inthe following paragraphs:

Technical Institutes. Technical in-stitutes offer training to qualify stu-dents for a job immediately aftergraduation with a minimum of on-the-job training. In general, studentsreceive intensive technical trainingbut less theory and general educationthan in engineering schools or liberalarts colleges. A few technical insti-tutes and community collegei offercooperative programs in which stu-dents spend part of the time in schooland part in paid employment relatedto their studies.

Some technical institutes operateas regular or extension divisions ofcolleges and universities. Other insti-tutions are operated by States andmunicipalities, or by private organi-zations.

Junior and Community Colleges.Curriculums in junior and communi-ty colleges which prepare students

for technician occupations are similar to those in technical institutes,but with more emphasis oreleoryand liberal arts course work". Aftercompleting the 2-year programs.some graduates qualify for techni-cian jobs while others continue theireducation at 4year colleges. Mostlarge community colleges offer 2-year technical programs, and manyemployers prefer graduates who havemore specialized training.

Area Vocational-Technical Schools,These postsecondary public institu-tions serve students from surrounding areas and train them for jobs inthe local area. Most of these schoolsrequire a high school degree or itsequivalent for omission.

Other Trainiig. g. Some large orrations conduct training programsand operate private schools to meettheir needs for technically trainedpersonnel in specific jobs, such training rarely includes general studiesTraining for some technician occupations, for instance tool designersand electronic technicians, is avail-able through formal 2 to 4 year apprenticeship programs The apprenLice gets on-the-job naming underthe close supervision of an Expertenced technician and .e.htted techillcal knowledge in classes. usually atter working hours.

The Armed Fee, re. ,.., e ar,,,imany technicians, especially in elec-tronics Although military Job iequirements genertaly ate trifle. znifront thoSe in the civilian ..,cotio.ilymilitary technicians often ere able tofind 'employment with only rairilit,a1additional training

Technician trainors Ala., tA ., .,1able from many private. teehae al andcorrespondence schocls that oftenspecialize in a single field such aselectronics Some of these schoolsare owned and operated by large burpotations that have the resourecs toprovide very up -to -date training II. atechnical field,

Those trite LreM_ a in ck ...ic,C1 ab atechnician should bare an aptirutiefor mathematics and seLnce and enjoy technical work An ability e., dudetailed work with a high degree ofaccuracy is necessary; for designwork, creative talent also is desir=able. Since technicians are part of ascientific team, they sometimes must

work under the close supervision ofengineers and scientists as well aswith other technicians and skilledworkers. Some technicans, such asrepair and maintenance technicians,should be able to deal effectivelywith customers requiring their servic=es.

Engineering and science techni=cians usually begin work, as traineesin routine positions under the directsupervision of an experienced techni-cian, scientist, or engineer. As theygain experience, they receive moreresponsibility and carry out a poar-

ticular assignment under only gener-al supervision. Technicians mayeventually move into supervisory po-sitions Those who have the abilityand obtain additional educationsometimes are promoted to positions

engineersisas scientists

Employment 0 ottOOk

ettcta OppOt to.tittlos tot civicering and science technicians areexpected to be favorable through themid-1980's Opportunities will bebest for graduates of postsecondaryschool technician training programs,besides the openings resulting fromthe faster -than average growth ex-per,led in this field, additional techniclans will be needed to replace thosewho ICLIfe, or leave the occupalion

In Jr. altlal .,P011:-41011 and Litt toeasing t.or..plexity of vtiode.n tech

riolugy underlie the anticipated increase in demand for technicians.Many .4 ill be needed to work withthe gr,wing number of engineers andscientists in developing, producing,and distributing new and technicallyadveneed products Automation ofindustrial processes and growth ofnew areas of work such as environ-mental protection and urban devel,opment will add to the demand fortechnical personnel:

The anticipated growth oft CEPCitiC

end development expenditures in in-dustry and government should in-crease requirements for technicians.

Eiee.use space and defense pro-&aims are major factors in the em-ployment of technical personnel, ex-penditures in these areas affect thedemand fog technicians, The outlookfor technicians is based on the as-

,

sumption that defense spending willincrease from the 1976 level by themid-1980's, but will still be sligttlylower than the levels of the late1960's. If defense spending shoulddiffer substantially from this level,the demand for technicians would beaffected accordingly.

Earnings

In private industry in 1976, aver-age starting salaries for 2-year gradu-ates ranged from about $9,000 10

10,800 a year, while those who didnot con plete_a 2-year programearned average starting salaries fromjust over $6,400 to about 59,300.Senior engineering technicians in pri-vate industry earned average salariesof about $16,000 a year

Starting salaries for all techniciansin the Federal Government werefairly uniform in 1977. A high schoolgraduate with no experience couldexpect $6,572 annually to start. Withan acs ociate degree, the starting sal-ary was S8,316, and with a bache-lor's, $19,303 or $11,523. At higherexperience levels, however, differ-ences in earnings are significant Theaverage annual salary for all engi-neering technicians employed by theFederal Government in 1977 w as517,800; for physical science techni-cians. $17,100, and for life sciencetechnicians, about SI 1,4101

Souice of AdditionalInformation

t nirda-mation on careers tutMace. ing and science techniciansand engineering and technology pro-grams, contact:Engii.Ce a Courted tot r....utaa,...ar up.evalap-

most. 14S EAU 47th St New York, N.'Y10017

Inform 841011 oat at. Itt.)014 offeringeehnielan programs is availablefront:Na1.1011d1 A sw,---IntIon of I rade and technical

Schools, Accrediting Cuenwsitaion, 2021L Sr NW., Washington, ID G. 20036.

u a pepargnient of Health, Education, andWelfare, Office of Education, Washing-

D.C. 20202

State departments of educationelse have information about ap-proved technical institutes, juniorcolleges, and other educational insti-

,21

tutions within the State offering post-high school training for specific tech-nical occupations, Other sources in-clude:

American Auociation of Community and Jun-ior Colleges, Suite 419, I Dupont Circle.Washington. D.C. 20036.

National Home Study Council. 1601 18th St.NW., Washington, D.C. 20009

SURVEYORS

(D.O.T. 018.188)

Nature of the Work

Before engineers can plan highways or other construction projects.they need complete and accurate in-formation about boundaries, landfeatures, d other characteristics ofthe constru tion site. Surveyors mea-sure constr tion sites, help establish

characteristics

official Ian boundaries. assist in setting land valuations, and collect in-formation for maps and charts

Surveyors often work as partychiefs; that is, they are in charge of a

.--- field party that determines the precise measurements and locations ofelevations, points, lines, and contours on the earth's surface, and dis-tances between points Surveyors aredirectly responsible for the field par=ty's activity and the accuracy of itswork They plan the field wo.a. ,e!eel survey reference point., arid .fieterriline the precise location of miniral and manmade features of thesurvey region They record the man-mation disclosed by the survey, ver-ify the accuracy of the survey data,and prepare sketches, maps, and re=ports_

A typical field party is made up ofthe party chief and three to six assist-ants and helpers. Instrument workers(D.O,T. 018.188) Adjust and operatesurveying instruments such as thetheodolite (used to measure altitude )These workers also compile notes,sketches, and records of the data ob-tained from using these instruments.Chain workers (D,O.T, 018,687) usea steel tape or surveyor's chain tomeasure distances between surveyingpoints. Generally chain workers op-erate in pairs, one holding the tape at

22,

the last established point, and theother marking an advanced measur-ing point. Chain workers also maymark measured points with paintedstakes. Rod workers (D.O.T.018.587) use a level rod, range pole.orother equipment to assist instru-ment workers in determining eleva-tions, distances, and directions. Theyhold and move the range pole ac-cording to hand or verbal signals ofthe instrument worker to help estab-lish the exact point of measurement,Rod workers also may clear brushfrom the survey line.

Surveyors often specialize in a par-ticular type of survey, Besides doinghighway surveys, many perform landsurveys to locate boundaries of a par-ticular tract of land, They then. pre-pare maps and legal descriptions fordeeds, leases, and other documents.Surveyors doing topographic surveysdetermine elevations, depressions,and contours of an area, and indicatethe location of distinguishing surfacefeatures such as farms. bVdings, for-ests, roads, and rivers. Otlier special-ties include mining, pipeline, gravity,and magnetic surveying.,

Several closely related occupa-tions are geodesy and photograrnme=try Cleudesists measure immensemess of land, sea, or space by takinginto account the earth's curvatureand its geophysical characteristics.(Set statement on geophysicists else-

Surveyors doing topographic surveys todetermine olovetIOna, depressions, and

contours of an area_

where in the handbook.) Fhotogram-metrists mearre and interpret pho-tographic images to determine thevarious physical characteristics ofnatural or manmade features of anarea. By applying analytical process-es and mathematical techniques tophotographs obtained from erial.space, ground, and underwater loca-tions, photogramrnetrists ar.able tomake detailed maps of areas that areinaccessible or difficult to survey byother methods. Control surveys onthe ground are made to determinethe accuracy of matis derived fromphotograrnmatic techniques.

Places of EmplOyrnent

About 52,000 persons worked ,assurveyors in 1976. Federal, State,and local government agencies ernploy about 3 out of every 10 survey-ors. Among the Federal Governmentagencies employing these -workersare the U.S. Geological Survey, theBureau of Land Management, theArmy Corps of Engineers, and theForest Service. Most surveyors inState and local government agencieswork for highway departments andurban planning and redevelopmentagencies_

A large number of surveyors workfor construction companies and forengineering and architectural con-sulting firms. A sizable number eitherwork for or own firms that conductsurveys for a fee. Significant numbersof surveyors also.work for crude pe-troleum and natural gas companies,and for public utilities,

Training, Other Qualifications,and Advancement

Most persons prepare for survey=ing work by combining postsecond-ary school courses in surveying andextensive on-the-job training. Someprepare by obtaining a college de-gree. Junior and corn m unity colleges,technical institutes, and vocationalschools offer 1 -, 2-, and 3-year pro-grams in surveying. A few 4-year col-leges offer bachelor's degrees specif-ically in surveying, while many othersoffer several courses in the field.

High school students interested inpursuing a career in surveying shouldtake courses in algebra, geometry,

trigonometry, drafting, and mechani-cal drawing.

High school graduates with no for-mal training in surveying usually startas rod workers. After several years ofon-the-job experience and some for-mal training in surveying, it is possi-ble to advance to chain worker, in-strument worker, and finally to partychief.

Beginners with postsecondaryschool training ih surveying can gen-erally start as instrument workersAfter gaining experience, they usual-ly advance to party chief, and maylater seek to become a registered sur-veyor. In many instances, promotionsto higher level positions are based onwritten examinations as well as expe-rience.

For those interested in a s.a photograrnrnetrist. a bachelor 's laegree in engineering or the physicalsciences is usually needed Most ohotograrnmetry technicians have hadsome specialized postsecondar yschool training.

All 50 States require licensing orregistration of land surveyors respernsible for locating and describing landboundaries Registration requiremerits are gciici ally quite :,t11,1sAllSe of t, registered. SUB eyobe herd legally responsible fur oleowork Requirements for licensurevary among the States but in gene' althey include a combination of 3 to 8years espe, tette,- in Sul t Cy 11,g al.dpassing an enanninotrun A few Satesnow require a baaliGhll deg' c.. k,111

phasizingsurveybig, as a pi eito 1a:ensure

In 1976, at,uut 2 i .lilt) i.,,,.1ors were registered 111 art rlltl ., tiabout 13,500 engineers X, cic registered to do land surveying, prodiarillas part of their civil engineering duties; however; these workers are onsidered engineers lather than noseyors (See statement 00 civil eogineerselsewhere in the flarkib,iok )

Surveyors should have theto visualize and understaud Meet;

distances, sizes, and other abstractforms. Also, because surveying mis-takes can be very costly, surveyorsmust perform mathematical calcula-tions quickly and accurately whilepaying close attention to the smallestdetail. Leadei-Mizi qualities also- areimportant as surveyors must super-vise the work of others

Members of a survey party must bein good physical condition in order towork outdoors-and carry equipmentover difficult terrain. They also needgood eyesight, coorditation, andhearing in order to communicateover, great distances by hand signalsor voice calls

Employment Outlook

ploymcill of 'surveyors lspetted to glow faster than the average toi all occupations through themid 19a0's lii addition to the open-ings resulting fiord growth, many williesrilt from the need to replace thosewho die. 14rire, or transfer to otherfields of work

I lie iapid d4.,e1upuicni ut. urban...eas and increased land valuessnoul.1 etcare jobs ful surveyors tolo,atc boundaries tor property recolds (,tilers will b, needed to lay outsn tiers, shopping ,enters, housing developrnents. and recreation areas

I or alit impruvcrnent ofthe Nation's roads and highways alsowill iequi,c wilily new suiveyorsIlly ,:v CI pc. lids slow- construeiioll akdr,,ry Lould hunt th,; demandfor stir v cyurs at those particulartun, s

g r u n ta I t

ail and teciaiology ag.ams inpost.eeon.laiy schools will create aneed tot inure surveying teachers

La. iiiestie and W widow'ColidltIone

ririallug, school wilt[so tr rifling or experience start

ed as rod workers or chain workerswith an annual salary of $6,572.Those with 1 year of related postsec-ondary training earned $7,408.Those with an associate degree thatincluded courses in surveying gener-ally started as instrument workerswith an annual salary of $8,316. Thernajority of surveyors who worked asparty chiefs in the Federal Govern-ment earned between $10,000 and$14,000 per year arid some high-lev-el positions earned more than$17,000 per year.

Although salaried in private indus-try vary by geographic area, limiteddata indicate that salaries are gener-ally comparable to those in Federalservice and are above the averageearnings of nonsupervisory workersin private industry, except farming.

Surveyors usually work an 8-hour,5-day week. However, they some-times work longer hours during thesummer months when weather con-ditions are most suitable for survey-ing. The work of surveyors inactiveand sometimes strenuous. They oftenstand for long petiods and walk longdistances or climb hills with heavypacks of instruments and equipment.Because most work is out-of-doors,surveyors are exposed to all types ofweather Some duties, such as plan-ning surveys, preparing reports andcomputations, and drawing maps,usually are done in an office.

buoiCell Of AdditionalInformation

oiatioe about Liopportunities in surveying is

available frorre

American congress on Sr.rvayinx nail Map ,ping. 210 Larne Falls Si., mils rhumb,Vs 22(141).

rieneral intorraat on career ntotogra rnrnetry available from:

A neriealr Staaty of rhateigiernmeiry, '05North Virginia Aye Falls Church; Va.22046

23

What to Look For in this Reprint

To make the Occupational Outlook Handbook easier touse, each occupation or industry follows the same outline.Separate sections describe basic elements, such as work onthe job, education and training needed, and salaries or wagesSome sections will be more useful if you know how to interpretthe information as explained below

The TRAINING, OTHER QUALIFICATIONS. AND ADVANCEMENT section indicates the preferred way to enter eachoccupation and alternative ways to obtain training Read thissection -carefully because early planning makes many fieldseasier to enter Also the level at which you enter dud the speedwith which you advance often depend on yLnir troll!' ry It gillare a student, you may wAnt to consider taking those coursesthoughtuseful for the occupations which interest you

Besides training. you may need a State license di lei tincate The training section indicates W1-1101 ot,i-updtions quoulally require these Check requirements irl itie state where youplan, to work. beuause State reguiatioils volt'

Whether an occupation suits your peis,.. 'alit,important area to explore Fur some you Indy ha e to makeresponsible deo.s ohs ifl a Highly at,00wirercr Eor

others you may do only routine (asks udderTo work successfuliy a partn. ai lot, yl,u way hove to hi Ulltor inure of the folio

= motivate othersdirect and suprowork types of prop,vvolk won tfir igs - need

cdrri,rioal,k inJooendoiny- you

daiolinek as part of a tear',

Lle10110 pcn

laboratory lap° s

tt0t1,... I .!,

wiii r. if 1 0 rint,td 1; 5

do okysiL,Ali) ridtki J.work outside II, 011 ty,,e.z

,-11,11.1,-2,0

u11,. *-till gullire t_MH1,. 11,1)1

rnarkei Ue i.).,s101)

eti y11_,Olt ,u.tn.an. ;

nor all OC_74,,ILall,,11,, (-,A) I f. i .aia net veilfile ullnyving pfl 60c7 Art;..

About 03 ISIOVVet

Decline

Itf,4

14 Ej-'0

3 .1'

4 0 7o Jr

lc jwvyllia1to 19651

kLiener ally, NG +3, 1,.

growing at least as fast .3s t. ie conomyBilt, you would have to know the number of peodp0

peting with you to be sure of your prospects Unfortunate)

supply information-is lacking for most occupations.There are exceptions, however, especially among pro-

fessional occupations. Nearly everyone who earns a medicaldegree, for example, becomes a practicing physician, Whenthe number of people pursuing relevant types of education andtraining and then entering the field can be compared with the(Jeri-rand. the outlook section indicates the supply/demand rela-tionship as follows

xcellont much greater thansupply

vei y gc - ____Ltemand greater than supplyci000 or favorable_ __Rough balance between

demand and supplyMay face c ornp lot --Likelihood of more supply

than demandKeen -mot:Afton upply greater than demand

r_;orrlpetirrn or few jut openings should not stop your pursu-,q a career that matches your aptitudes and interests. Evensw,-111 it overcrowded occupations provide some jobs. So dohti u in which employment is growing very slowly or declining.

Lirowlh in an occupation is not the source of jobp,,,,kigs because the number of openings from over can besonsicintiai 111 large occupations In fact, replace -ent needs areexpected to create 70 percent of all openings be ween 1976 and

hoop!), lob uct; in your area may differ from those inhole Your Mate employment service can fur-

Ion!, moat II Ifoninidllon

Frit EARNINGS st, tells what workers were earning iniuru

which brp. pay the nicst Is a hard question to answer.,iise gaud Inlurnid1100 available for only one type of earn-

wage.Ta anti solails -and Mt even this for all occupa,nous .Aiii lough 9 out of 10 workers receive this form of income,Hdrq _eal extra chilli) 1.4 working overtime flight shifts, or ir-0,00i,.! s0iieukils In some occup6tioris. vver kers also receiverips ill ,,,onirnissions uar5ed on sales or service. Some factoryvcirun ale paid a place rale -an e.xtra payment for each item

Ili. y fHoht.,

II vvolkett.,-1 (tie elf-etrIplOy-nudodus peopit, in inany occupations- -physicians, bar-

w nier, and taaners for example Earnings forsoli raioloyer1 ,,Jorkos even in the same occupation differwidely trec,aus, much dapencis an whether cane i5 iu§t starting

r iias an established businessMust wage arid salary workers ivr.,;.siye fringe benas paid vacJahoils hulluays. anu sick leave)Vu, kers dISU receive income in goods and services (pay-

, in kind) Sales workers in department stores, for example,otter) reueive discounts on merchandise

Despite difficulties in determining exaLtly what people,, lot) the Earnings section does compare occupationalea,nrnqs by indicating_ whether-a certain job pays more or lessthan the average for all nonsuperyisor in private industry, ex-cludirig tanning

Each occupation has many pay levels. Beginners almost:aiways earn less than workers who have been on the job forsome time Earnings also vary by geographic focatiOn but citieslhaf utter the highest earnings often are those where living costs

this are most expensive.

fits,