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Beyond Oil and Gas: The Methanol Economy, Third Edition. George A. Olah, Alain Goeppert, and G. K. Surya Prakash.© 2018 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2018 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

aabiological methane 71abiological natural gas 71acrylics 81advanced gas‐cooled reactors (AGR) 144agricultural ethanol 84, 225air, composition of 9Akosombo Dam 106alcohol‐and gasoline‐powered

automobiles 217alcohol‐fueled motor cars 218alcohol fuels 208, 217, 218alcohol‐powered engines 217alcohols 208, 211, 217–225,

293, 297, 314, 356alkaline electrolyzers 176, 177, 352aluminosilicate zeolite (ZSM‐5)

catalysts 380American motor car manufacturers 220ammonia borane (NH3BH3) 185anaerobic digestion 329, 330, 339anaerobic methanotrophic archaea

(ANME) 314Anglo American Platinum

(Amplats) 264anthracite and bituminous coal 36anthropogenic carbon cycle 372–374anthropogenic greenhouse gas

emissions 94anthropogenic warming 94aquaculture 335–339aromatic compounds 79, 229, 383Athabasca and Cold Lake tar sand

deposits 67

Atlas mega‐methanol plant in Trinidad 292, 294

atmospheric aerosols 93atmospheric CO2 9

concentration 88Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion

(AFBC process) 18atmospheric fractional distillation 77atmospheric methane concentrations 91atmospheric water vapor 89atomic pile 142autothermal reforming 172, 245,

296–298, 315aviation fuel 40, 78, 134,

262–263, 388Avogadro’s law 29, 167

bBadische Anilin und Soda

Fabrik (BASF) 212, 217, 291, 356Bakelite 81Ballard Power Systems 241, 264ban on carbon 98binary‐cycle plants 111biocrude 322–324biodiesel 130, 133–136, 174,

238, 327, 337, 344bioenergy 127–128, 136, 174, 334bio‐ethanol 7, 130, 208, 378biofuels

advantages and limitation 135–136cells 253

biogasses 129, 136, 327, 329–332, 370Bioliq process 323

Index

bindex.indd 459 6/19/2018 3:19:55 PM

Index460

biomassalgae 336–339anthropogenic carbon cycle 372aquaculture 335biocrude 322–324bio‐methanol 320combination with coal 324CO2 excess 324–329cost of methanol production 365–369feedstocks 320fossil fuels 339gasification 321–322GHG emissions 370limitations of 332–335methanol from biogas

anaerobic digesters 330–331bi‐reforming 330DME 331microorganisms 329SOEC 330

water plants 336BioMCN bio‐methanol plant,

Netherlands 328biomethanol 135, 174, 319–321,

326, 328, 333, 367bi‐reforming 10

methane 299bituminous coal 23, 36, 49, 75black gold 25black liquor 234, 326, 327, 371black stone 13BN‐800 breeder reactor 146Boeing’s first jet aircraft 262boiling water reactor (BWR) 144Boudouard reaction 295, 347, 348breeder reactors 96, 146–148,

155, 161, 162Bunsen, Robert 28Bunsen burner 28, 29burning spring 27butyl‐n (Buna‐N) rubber 237

cCanada deuterium uranium (CANDU)

pressurized water reactors 144Canada’s Electrolyser Corporation

Ltd 168Canadian tar sand oil 79Cannizzaro–Tishchenko

reaction 308, 350

290‐MW capacity compressed air energy storage (CAES) facility 127

carbon addiction 19, 98carbon‐based fossil fuels 61, 88carbon debt 135carbon dioxide CO2

atmospheric concentration 88capture and chemical recycling

(CCR) 99, 372, 391, 393capture and sequestering

(CCS) 97, 303, 305catalytic hydrogenation of 347–348conveyor belt 360electrochemical reduction

direct 349through formic acid 352high rate of 350,352standard potential for 349

emissions 18, 38, 49, 87, 89–91, 98, 135, 136, 156, 200, 253, 300, 303–305, 355, 359, 370

eruption 97hydrogenation to methanol 346to methanol

heterogeneous catalystsCO2 and H2 methanolproduction 340–342DME, CO2 hydrogenation 342

homogeneous catalysts 343–344practical application 344, 346

sequestration technologies 97carbon dioxide emissions 7, 20, 89, 94, 99,

112, 149, 162, 254, 356carbon dioxide hydrogenation to methanol

via RWGS reaction (CAMERE) 346

Carbon Recycling International (CRI) 112, 224, 344, 345, 368

Carnol process 300–302Carnot efficiency 192, 193catalytic gas‐phase oxidation of

methane 307–309cattail 336–337cellulosic ethanol plants 132char conversion 321cheap oil 38, 69, 113, 169, 218chemical regenerative carbon cycle 8Chemrec 327China’s coal‐rich Guizhou province 222

bindex.indd 460 6/19/2018 3:19:55 PM

Index 461

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 87, 92city gas 17, 28, 29clean coal 18, 19, 37, 173, 303, 356, 359Cleancook AB methanol stove 265CLFR power plant 122climate change

annual global mean surface temperature anomalies 86

anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions 94

anthropogenic warming 94atmospheric aerosols 93atmospheric CO2 concentration 88atmospheric methane

concentrations 89atmospheric water vapor 89carbon‐based fossil fuels 88cloud formation and precipitation 94CO2 emissions 87crop yields 95energy related CO2 emissions 91energy related CO2 emitters 90global carbon cycle 89global CO2 emissions 90GWP 92hockey stick plot 86human activity‐caused 87human‐caused anthropogenic CO2

emissions 89humankind‐caused increased

greenhouse effect 88human‐related methane emissions 92man‐made chlorofluorocarbons 87mitigation 95–99ocean warming 87photosynthetic recycling 95sulfate aerosols 93thermometers 85variations of Earth’s surface

temperature 86well‐mixed greenhouse gases 92

coal 289advantages 19already‐known reserves 34anthracite and bituminous coal 36black stone 13CO2 emissions 38conversion 6economy 16electricity generation 32

environmental consequences 36formation 13fossil‐fuel source 37gasification 173geological characteristics 34lignite and sub‐bituminous coal 36little ice age 13“longwall” mining 36mining 14oil 23production since 1981, 35proven coal reserves 35reserves 5“room‐and‐pillar” mining 36seam gas 56solution to pollution is dilution 37steel and cement manufacturing 32steel production 34surface mining 36total world primary energy supply 33transportation 17water removal in mines 14world coal production 33

coalbed methane 55–56, 60, 70, 71, 205, 285, 290, 316

coalbeds 37, 55, 56coal‐burning power plants 18, 32, 38,

153, 156, 361coal‐to‐liquid (CTL) plant 384co‐firing power plants 128coking 78, 295, 296commercial electrolysis 175Commisariat à l’Energie Atomique

(CEA) 180compact linear Fresnel reflector (CLFR)

technology 121, 122compound charge compression ignition

(CCCI) 235compressed natural gas (CNG) 70, 200,

232, 388compression ignition (CI)

engine 23, 378concentrated solar power (CSP) 121Consol Energy 384conventional metal hydrides 184conventional natural gas 55, 57, 71, 289,

365, 369cradle‐to‐grave analysis 370Crescent Dunes CSP commercial

plant 122

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Index462

crude methanol 292, 383crude oil 73

distillation 77production 48

cryo‐fuels 170cyclic ring compounds 73

dDaimler DMFC 250Daimler’s Necar 5 fuel cell 185Dalian Institute of Chemistry and Physics

(DICP) 381, 382decarboxylation 352derived dimethyl ether (DME) 206,

216, 390Diesel, Rudolf 23diesel engine 23, 76, 134, 192,

207, 225, 229–235, 254, 257, 279, 370

diesel oil 23, 24, 63, 134, 187, 229, 234, 238, 257, 259, 388

diesel vehicles 27, 229, 236, 280, 281dimethoxymethane (DMM) 237, 238,

253, 281dimethyl carbonate (DMC) 237dimethyl ether (DME)

DMTO process 381–382electricity generation and

household gas 265–267emissions 278–283environmental effects 283–285from fossil fuels 314–317Oberon Fuels in California 330oxymethylene ethers (OME) 237–238price of 271–273safety of 273–278storage and distribution 268–271transportation fuel, properties of

catalytic oxidation of 237clean‐burning fuel 236direct synthesis of 234DMC 237heavy vehicle 234, 236LCDI motors 235liquefied petroleum gas 233–234octane number of 237oil recovery processes 233perfume industry 233powered buses and trucks 234–235

properties of 233–234PTFE 237

direct air capture (DAC) 360–362direct DME fuel cell (DDMEFC) 252direct electrochemical reduction

of CO2 317, 350, 352direct ethanol fuel cell (DEFC) 252direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) 185,

194, 207, 216, 252, 390anode and cathode reaction 246–247consumer purchase 250Daimler 250DDMEFC 252direct hydrogen‐fueled fuel cell 252Dynario 248EFOY Pro fuel cell 249Europe, SFC energy 251ICEs 252Jet Propulsion Laboratory 248JuMOVe 250laptop computers 249methanol‐based PEM cells 246Nernstian potential 247Oorja 250portable devices 247powered devices 248powered forklift 250rechargeable battery 251SFC Energy in Germany 249static and mobile niche

applications 252theoretical energy density 245Yamaha FC‐me (a) and FC‐Dii 251

dirty fuel “coal” 17Dor Chemicals 225, 263, 269Drake, Edwin 22DuPont company 212Dynario DMFC based power supply 248

eeconomically recoverable proven coal

reserves 17economics of solar energy 126–127Effship project 256, 282Eilat gas turbine 263ElectraGenTM‐ME 264electricity from biomass 128–130, 324electrochemical CO2 processing

techniques 348

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Index 463

Emission Control Areas (ECAs) 257–258

end of oil 68energy crops 132, 136, 174, 175, 333–335energy related CO2 emissions 91energy related CO2 emitters 90Enerkem’s municipal

solid waste 327, 329enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 43, 67, 96,

233, 361, 384environmental impact of coal burning 18enzymatic conversion of biomass 321ethanol‐powered automobiles 131ethanol, transportation fuels

chemical production of 217corn 218sugarcane 218

ethylene 8, 70, 73, 79, 81, 210, 217, 280, 377–383

Exige 270E tri‐fuel 227ExxonMobil 23, 42, 54, 209ExxonMobil MTG process 384

ffaradic efficiency 350FellowSHIP project 255fermentative conversion of agricultural

products 7fire flooding 43First Solar 118, 119, 353First solar thin‐film solar installation 119Fischer–Tropsch chemistry 70, 83, 327Fischer–Tropsch hydrocarbons 297,

324, 325Fischer–Tropsch process 83, 218, 383Fischer–Tropsch synthesis 7, 212, 353flex‐fuel cars 229flexible fuel vehicles (FFV) 131, 218, 221,

229, 268fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) 379fluorinated gases 97Ford, Henry 23fossil fuel‐powered electric plants 290fossil fuel resources

carbon content 31coal 32–38coalbed methane 56continued exploration and

discovery 31

discovery and consumption rates 31energy demands 31light tight oil 47–48methane hydrates 57–60natural gas 48–55non renewable nature 388oil shale 46–47petroleum oil 38–43price fluctuations 31tar sands 44–45tight sands and shales 56unconventional oil sources 43

fossil fuels 1–2, 73autothermal reforming 296DME 314production via syngas 290–294syngas from CO2 reforming 297syngas from natural gas

methane steam reforming 295partial oxidation 296

syngas from petroleum oil and hydrocarbons 297–298

syngas generationbi‐reforming of methane 298–300from coal 294economic 298oxidative bi‐reforming 300tri‐reforming 298

4‐wheel automobile 24fracking 66, 70fractional distillation 77–78FuelCell Energy Inc. 197fuel cells 10

efficiency 192–194history 191–192hydrogen‐based fuel cells 194–197PEM 197–200phosphoric acid fuel cell

(PAFC) 194, 196–197, 241, 264, 265

solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) 194, 196–198, 254–256, 264

molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) 194, 196–197, 332, 333

regenerative 200–202fuel cell vehicles (FCV) 190, 221, 239,

289, 370fuel economy 220, 221, 226, 229, 239,

252, 289

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Index464

FutureGen program 173FutureGen project 303

gGaia project 265gas‐diffusion nickel electrodes 192gasification 17, 128, 173–175,

294, 315, 321–322, 324, 326, 347, 365

gasoline/ethanol/methanol mixtures (GEM fuels) 228

gasoline‐powered ICE vehicles 237gas‐to‐liquid (GTL)

process 384technology 53

gas turbines 111, 197, 210, 263, 266, 283Geely M100 cars 222, 224General Electric (GE) 263, 265, 368General Fusion 161George Olah Renewable

CO2‐to‐Methanol Plant 345geothermal energy 178

advantage 112binary‐cycle plants 111carbon dioxide emissions 112decay of naturally occurring radioactive

elements 108electricity production 109emission of non‐condensable

gases 112Geysers 110hot dry rock technology 112low‐to moderate‐temperature

resources 111worldwide development of geothermal

electric power 110German Zeppelin airships 168–169global carbon cycle 89global CO2 emissions 34, 90global warming potential (GWP) 49, 92,

93, 284, 285, 319Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam 107Green Freedom Project 363greenhouse gas (GHG)

emissions 102, 135, 162, 170, 174, 175, 200, 203, 302, 369–371, 388

greenhouse warming effect 7GreenPilot project 259, 261

GreenSynFuels project 365Grove’s approach 10guano 83

hHart, William 28heavy fuel oil (HFO) 256, 257, 281, 282High Aswan Dam 107high‐octane gasoline 24, 78, 208,

382–384high‐performance composite

plastics 82high‐temperature gas‐cooled reactor

(HTGR) 148homogeneous charge compression

ignition (HCCI) engine 235Hoover Dam 104, 106horizontal drilling 26, 56, 66, 70hot dry rock technology 112HotModule from MTU 332, 333H2‐PEM fuel cell 245–247, 253Hubbert’s concept 70Hubbert’s original 1956 graph 65Hubbert’s peak 60, 66–68human‐caused anthropogenic

CO2 emissions 89human‐caused global warming 18humankind‐caused increased greenhouse

effect 88human‐related methane emissions 92hybrid cars 200, 239hydrocarbons 1, 74

fuels 207reserves 6

hydrocarbons fuels and productsbituminous coal 75chemical energy 74crude oil 73cyclic ring compounds 73distillation 76fractional distillation 77–78natural gas liquids 73petroleum 73petroleum products 79–84thermal cracking 78–79

hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) 92hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) 92hydrogen

biomass 174–175, 346

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Index 465

centralized/decentralized distribution 186–188

challenge of 180–185chemical hydrogen storage 185compression 182–183energy source 207fermentation 175fossil fuels 172–174fuel cells, methanol reforming

advantage 239disadvantages 239DME 245JHFC 244Johnson‐Matthey’s “Hot‐Spot” 245methanol buses 240–241NECAR 5 fuel cell vehicle 240Palcan hybrid methanol reformer/

PEMFC passenger bus 244PEMFC 241–242power FCVs 240refuel hydrogen FCVs 243Serenergy HT‐PEMFC 242–243

fusion reactions 166inflammable air 166liquid 182metal hydrides and solid

adsorbents 184nuclear energy 179–180photobiological water cleavage 175physical properties 167practical use 166–167production and uses of 171–180safety 188–189transportation fuel 189–191water electrolysis

alkaline electrolyzer 176commercial electrolyzer system 175electricity source 177–179PEM electrolyzers 177

hydrogenated vegetable oils (HVO) 133, 134

hydrogen‐based fuel cell‐powered cars 165

hydrogen‐based fuel cells 10, 194hydrogen‐burning fuel cells 11Hydrogen Economy 8, 165, 168, 170,

190, 206, 209, 389, 392hydrogen energy development 168hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) 349

Hydrogen Fuel Initiative 165Hydrogen Highway program 186hydrogen‐powered vehicles 170,

184, 186Hydrogen Road of Norway (HyNor) 190hydropower 178

air pollutants emission reduction 108Akosombo Dam 105Grand Ethiopian Renaissance

Dam 107High Aswan Dam 107Hoover Dam 104, 106Itaipú hydroelectric plant 105Kuybyshev Dam 106major electricity source 104percentage of electricity produced

from 105rational utilization 104run‐of‐river plants 108small‐hydro 108Three Gorge Dam 106, 107Wudongde and Baihetan Dams 107Xiluodu and Xiangjiaba Dams 106

hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA) 134

Hynol process 324, 326

iImperial Chemical Industries (ICI) 212–

213, 383, 3851320 MW Incheon Tidal Power

station 137industrially significant synthetic

chemicals 1industrial synthetic ethanol 208inexpensive flexible plastic‐embedded

photovoltaic materials 119inflammable air 166Innogy 256, 365in‐situ conversion process (ICP) 47insolation 117, 126, 162integrated gasification combined cycle

(IGCC) 19, 173internal combustion engine (ICE)‐powered

cars and trucks 190, 216International Association for Hydrogen

Energy 170International Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC) 85

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Index466

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) 366

iodine‐sulfur cycle 180Israel Electric Corporation 263Itaipú hydroelectric plant 105ITER fusion reactor 158Ivanpah solar power facility 122, 123

jJapan Atomic Energy Research Institute

(JAERI) 180Japan Hydrogen & Fuel Cell

Demonstration Project (JHFC) 244

Jincheng Anthracite Mining Group (JAMG) 384

Johnson–Matthey’s “Hot‐Spot” methanol reformer 245

kkelp 336kerosene 23, 76, 78, 170, 211, 262,

263, 265KOGAS tri‐reforming process 299Korea Institute of Energy Research

(KIER) 248Korea Institute of Science and Technology

(KIST) 249, 346Korean gas (KOGAS) 298Kraft pulping operation 326Kuybyshev Dam 106Kyoto Protocol 98

lLe Chatelier’s principle 290life cycle assessments (LCA) 200lighter gasoline 76light tight oil 47–48lightweight polyethylene insulation 81lignite and sub‐bituminous coal 34liquefaction 52, 53, 56, 63, 70, 74,

182–184, 187, 252, 267, 320, 323liquefied natural gas (LNG) 29, 52,

70, 152, 207, 255liquid biofuels 130–136liquid hydrogen 170, 182, 185, 187, 190,

239, 246, 273liquid organic hydrogen carrier

(LOHC) 185

liquid petroleum gases (LPG) 78, 233, 236, 237, 266, 271

Liquid Phase Methanol Process (LPMEOH) 292, 293

liquid‐phase methanol synthesis process 344

Liverpool and Manchester Railway 16, 17

Lotus Exige 270E tri‐fuel 227low compression ratio direct

injection (LCDI) diesel engine 235

low‐input high‐diversity (LIHD) 334LTU Green Fuels, Sweden 327Lurgi AG 341, 344Lurgi MTP technology 381

mmacroalgae 336marine fuels 253–261, 339marine gas oil (MGO) 256, 282mega‐methanol plants 272, 288, 294, 379Mercedes‐Benz 219, 220, 240metal hydrides 184metal‐organic frameworks (MOFs) 184,

359, 361metgas 300, 301, 351, 352methane decomposition 302–303methane dry reforming 302, 315methane hydrates 55, 57–60, 71,

205, 285, 306, 316, 319methane monooxygenase

(MMO) 313–314methane oxidation products 306, 307Methanex 259–260, 270, 272,

289, 292, 294methanogenesis 329methanol 70

advantages 206annual production of 287aviation fuel 262background and properties

of 211–214beneficial effect 285biogas 329–332biomass 206buses 231chemical products and

materials 375–377

bindex.indd 466 6/19/2018 3:19:55 PM

Index 467

chemical uses 214clouds 214CO2 sources

air capture 359–363chemical recycling 356–359seawater capture 359

cost of production from CO2 and biomass 365–369

direct photochemical reduction of CO2 to 354

DME 253–261economy

advantages and significance 208anthropogenic carbon cycle 373future progress and solutions 390goals of 209hydrogenative recycling, CO2 289oil and gas resources 210

emissions 278–283FCVs 289fossil fuel resources 287from atmospheric CO2 363–365from methane without producing

syngas 306from syngas through methyl

formate 305–306fuel and petrochemical

feedstock 288, 289light olefins 378–380liquid‐phase oxidation of

methane 309–311locomotives and heavy equipment 261marine fuels 253–261microbial/photochemical conversion of

methane 313–314mono‐halogenated

methanes 311–313MTG process 383–384MTO 380–382in nature 213plant growth promotion 385–386powered vehicles 238price of 271–273production 288production from CO2 and H2 340, 369safety of 273single‐cell proteins 384in space 213spark ignition engines 226–229

static power, heat generation and cooking 263–265

storage and distribution 268–271synthetic hydrocarbons 378–380thermochemical production solar

cells 352–354transportation fuel 216

automotive fuel 218buses refueling 222, 224

in China 222Chinese provinces 222–223fueled taxis manufactured 222, 224fueled vehicles in California 220M15 218–219M85 220M15 and M70 cars in Israel 225Mercedes‐Benz 219–220powered vehicles 222renewable and fossil fuel

resources 2182 burner cookstove 265

Methanol Auxiliary Power Unit (METHAPU) project 254

methanol‐fueled car models 221methanol reformer‐HT‐PEMFC 241methanol to gasoline (MTG) 218, 378,

383–384methanol‐to‐hydrogen (MTH)

units 185, 244methanol‐to‐olefins (MTO)

process 216, 375technology 267, 379–380

methanol‐to‐propylene (MTP) 381METHAPU (Methanol Auxiliary Power

Unit) project 254MethaShip project 259methyl‐tert‐butyl ether (MTBE) 214,

287, 375, 377–378MeyGen 138microalgae 337–339Microalgae Chlorella 337, 338Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry

(METI) 267mitigation 7, 54, 61, 87, 95–99, 203, 355Mitsubishi Gas Chemical 243, 244, 267,

288, 341Mitsui chemicals 345Mobil olefins to gasoline and distillate

(MOGD) process 382

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Index468

molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) 194, 196, 332, 333

molten salt reactor (MSR) 148Mossgas GTL plants 54Mother Nature’s resources 1MS Innogy methanol powered hybrid

ship 256municipal solid waste (MSW) 128, 319,

327, 329, 331, 332Mysterious Island 168

nNafionⓇ 197National Fire Protection Association

(NFPA) 269natural gas 27, 30, 48, 291, 388

abiological methane 71abiological natural gas 71consumption 48liquids 73methane hydrates 71price 287proven reserves 6, 49–51R/P ratio 50reserves 387

NECAR 5 fuel cell vehicle 240neoprene 81Neste 134Newcomen, Thomas 15Newcomen engines 15nitrogen fertilizers 83, 97, 168, 334N2O emissions 97non‐conventional oil 67, 69non‐fossil fuel sources 96, 101, 379, 389non‐fossil sources 4, 203, 392non‐renewable fossil fuel‐based

syngas 346non‐renewable fossil fuel

resources 1, 209, 391nuclear byproducts, waste and their

management 154nuclear energy 4, 17, 38, 41, 47,

140–142, 148, 149, 156, 162, 179–180, 205, 388

breeder reactors 146–148economics of nuclear energy 149–151emissions from nuclear power 156need for nuclear power 148–149nuclear byproducts, waste and their

management 154–156radiation hazards 153–154safety of nuclear energy 151–152

nuclear fissionchain reaction 142reactions 142

nuclear fusion 117, 156–161, 166, 392nuclear power 7, 17, 53, 69, 96,

140, 148–153, 156, 160–161, 179, 368, 388

oOberon Fuels in California 330ocean energy 136–140ocean thermal energy 139–140Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

(OTEC) 139, 140offshore wind farm 116oil and natural gas

abiological methane 71abiological natural gas 71cheap oil 69CO2 capture 72end of oil 68enhanced oil recovery techniques 67exploration, drilling and production

technologies 63fracking 66horizontal drilling 65Hubbert’s concept 70Hubbert’s original 1956 graph 65Hubbert’s peak 66Light tight oil 47–48methane hydrates 71methanol 70non‐conventional oil 67oil prices 67oil recovery 64, 67parameters 64proven reserves 6, 42–43, 49–51recycling 72R/P ratio 50, 63syn‐fuels 69Synthetic Fischer‐Tropsch

chemistry 70transportation 69world oil production peak 68world oil ultimate recovery over

time 65

bindex.indd 468 6/19/2018 3:19:55 PM

Index 469

oil and natural gas reserve to production (R/P) ratio 50

oil creek 22oil extraction and exploration 26–27oil prices 6, 40, 41, 47, 67, 69, 113, 131,

170, 218, 221, 272, 273, 384oil production over time 39oil recovery factor 67oil reserves 5, 6, 25, 32, 40, 42, 43,

47, 54, 63, 66, 67, 218, 387oil sand mining 44oil shale 5, 25, 40–42, 46–47, 60,

67, 205, 387oil supertanker 27Olah group 209olefins/alkenes 79onshore wind potential 115Oorja Model 3 250operational expenditure (OPEX)

assumptions 365OptiMeOH project 330Orinoco belt in Venezuela 67Oryx GTL 54oxidative bi‐reforming 54, 298, 300, 301,

390oxidative steam reforming 244Oxinol 229oxymethylene ethers (OME) 237–238

pPalcan Energy Corporation 242, 244Palcan hybrid methanol reformer/PEMFC

passenger bus 244Panasonic and SunPower crystalline

silicon solar cells 118Pa‐X‐ell 255Pearl GTL 54PEM fuel cells (PEMFC) 170, 172,

194, 197–200, 240, 241, 264petrochemical solvents 81petroleum oil 38, 73

development of gas lighting 22kerosene 23and natural gasblack gold 25catalytic cracking 24compression ignition (CI) engine 23high‐octane gasoline 24standard quality 23

thermal cracking 24“unconventional” oil sources 25oil extraction and exploration 26–27reservoirs 21rock oil 21

petroleum products 23, 79–84, 171“Phénix” reactor 146phenol 81, 82phosphoric acid fuel cells

(PAFC) 194, 196, 197, 241, 264, 265

photobiological processes 175photoelectrolysis (PE) device 179photosynthetic recycling 95photovoltaic solar cells 353photovoltaic (PV) systems 118plant‐based substitutes 7plant growth promotion 385–386plastics 63, 76, 81–83, 205, 210, 215, 226,

236, 267, 379Plexiglas 81polyethylene and polypropylene 216,

267, 379polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 81polymeric electrolyte membrane

(PEM) 170, 176, 177, 195, 197–200, 244, 246, 264, 351

polymers 79, 81, 82, 179, 194, 207, 208, 267, 361, 375, 379

polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 237potassium hydroxide (KOH) 192, 361,

364Porsche AG 219Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion

(PFBC) 18pressurized water reactor (PWR) 144production of methanol 9, 70, 207–209,

228, 287, 291, 298, 302, 314, 322–325, 330, 340–342, 350, 367, 372, 390

production tax credit (PTC) 115, 178, 368

propylene 8, 372, 378proton exchange membrane

fuel cells (PEMFC) 170, 194–195, 197, 239

proven oil and natural gas reserves 6, 42–43, 49–51

pyrolysis 135, 174, 320–323, 327

bindex.indd 469 6/19/2018 3:19:55 PM

Index470

rradiation hazards 153–154radioactive byproducts 7, 155, 162radioactive decay 142, 143, 153Rectisol process 349recycling of CO2 9, 30, 38, 83, 84,

185, 207–209, 273, 285, 289, 300, 319, 347, 372, 379

regenerative fuel cell 11, 200–202, 253, 254

renewable and atomic energy sourcesbioenergy 127–128biofuels 135–136biomethanol 135breeder reactors 146–148economics of nuclear energy 149–151economics of solar energy 126–127electricity from biomass 128–130electricity from photovoltaic

conversion 118–121emissions from nuclear power 156geothermal energy 108–112hydropower 104–108liquid biofuels 130–134need for nuclear power 148–149non‐fossil fuel sources 101nuclear byproducts, waste and their

management 154–156nuclear energy 140–142nuclear fission reactions 142–146nuclear fusion 156–160nuclear power 160–161ocean energy 136–140ocean thermal energy 139–140photovoltaics 118–121radiation hazards 153–154safety of nuclear energy 151–152share in total primary energy

supply 103solar dishes 123–124solar saline pond 125solar thermal energy for

heating 125–126solar thermal power systems 121–125tidal energy 136–138wave power 138–139wind energy 113–117

Renewable Fuel Standard Program 133

reserve/production (R/P) ratio 17, 63reservoirs 21, 26, 27, 44, 51, 60,

96, 102, 106, 107, 111, 138, 161, 173, 277

residual oil 78resources of fossil fuels 31reverse water gas shift reaction

(RWGSR) 290reversible hydrides 184rhodium‐based catalysts 377Rockefeller, John D. 23rock oil 21Royal Dutch Shell Company 25“run‐of‐river” plants 108RX‐8 Hydrogen RE vehicles 190

sSerenergy 241–243, 255, 276SFC Energy 249, 251, 264Sihwa Lake tidal power plant 137single‐cell proteins (SCP) 207, 208, 384small‐hydro 108, 189, 367smart grid 127solar cells 102, 118–121, 136, 179, 201, 353solar dishes 123, 124solar dish/stirling engine systems 124solar energy 178

electricity from photovoltaic conversion 118–121

thermal power systems 121–125solar fuel 353, 354solar saline pond 125solar thermal energy for

heating 125–126solar thermochemical cycle 354solid feedstocks 320solid natural gas 57solid oxide electrolyzer cell (SOEC) 177,

325, 330, 351, 366solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) 194,

196–198, 254–256, 264Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance

(SECA) 197, 257, 258, 281source rock 21, 46, 56Space shuttle 169, 171, 187, 192spark ignition engines (SI) 226SPIRETH project 257Standard Oil Trust 217

bindex.indd 470 6/19/2018 3:19:55 PM

Index 471

standard quality 23steam reforming 135, 172, 180,

244, 291, 295–299, 302–303, 324, 347

steel production 34Stena Germanica 257, 259Stephenson, George 16styrene‐butadiene rubber (SBR) 81sugarcane‐based ethanol 130–134sulfate aerosols 93, 156sulfur emission control areas

(SECAs) 257–258Suncor oil sand plant 45Sunfire 265, 345“Superphénix” reactor 146superports 27supertankers 26, 27, 38sustainable marine methanol

(SUMMETH) project 259240 MW Swansea Bay Tidal

Lagoon 137syn‐fuels 69synthesis‐gas 6, 53, 173, 180,

206, 287, 297Synthetic Fischer‐Tropsch chemistry 70synthetic hydrocarbons 9, 70, 83,

84, 101, 203, 207–210, 313, 340, 353, 372, 378–380, 389, 391

synthetic rubbers 79, 80, 218

ttailor‐made polymers 82tank‐to‐wheels (TTW) 370tar sands 5, 40–42, 44–45, 47, 58,

60, 67, 205, 298, 319Teflon® 81thermal cracking 24, 46, 78–79thermal power systems 121Three Gorge Dam 106, 107tidal energy 136–138tidal turbines 137tight‐sand gas 55, 290tight sands 55–57tight sands and shales 56–57total primary energy supply (TPES) 33,

38, 48, 103town gas 17, 29, 168, 189, 211Tri Alpha Energy 160

tri‐flex‐fuel car 227tri‐reforming of natural gas 298

u“unborn” oil field 46unconventional oil sources 25, 43–44United Nations Environmental Program

(UNEP) 85United States energy consumption 4United States Geological Survey

(USGS) 40, 64unitized regenerative fuel cell

(URFC) 201unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) 262

vvalue‐added tax (VAT) 267variations of Earth’s surface

temperature 86VärmlandsMetanol 326vehicle gas 330Venezuelan/Iranian oil 79Volkswagen 219, 232, 279Vulcanol 228, 344, 369

wWacker process 375Wallenius Wilhelmsen Logistics cargo

ship 254, 255Wärtsilä 20‐kW SOFC 254Waterfront Shipping 259water electrolysis 175

alkaline electrolyzer 176commercial electrolyzer system 175electricity source 177–179PEM electrolyzers 177

water gas shift (WGS) 172, 173, 290, 294, 341, 346, 353

water hyacinth 336water plants 336Watt, James 15Watt’s engine 15“Wave Hub” facility 139wave power 136–140, 178well‐mixed greenhouse gases 92well‐to‐tank (WTT) analysis 370well‐to‐wheel (WTW)

analysis 200, 273, 370

bindex.indd 471 6/19/2018 3:19:55 PM

Index472

Wilkinson’s rhodium‐phosphine catalyst 375

wind energyelectricity demand 114environmental hazards 116offshore wind capacity 114offshore wind farm 116onshore wind potential 115production tax credit (PTC) 115,

178, 368wind farms 115windmills 113world wind power installedcapacity 114

wind farms 115, 116windmills 14, 101, 113

wind power 104, 113–115, 117, 162, 178, 368

world coal production 33World Meteorological Organization

(WMO) 85world natural gas consumption 49world natural gas proven reserves 50, 51world oil consumption by

sector in 2014 39world oil production peak 67world oil ultimate recovery over time 65world population over time 2world primary energy

consumption 3

zzero emission vehicles (ZEV) 279

bindex.indd 472 6/19/2018 3:19:55 PM