Index
Abdullah, Ibrahim, 194Abeokuta (Nigeria), 39, 147–64, 502, 506.
See also women (traders), women inAbokuta (Nigeria)
economic conditions, 53, 148, 152food policy and quotas, 150–53, 157–58,
160, 163, 164independence, 149Local Defense Volunteer Force, 154Native Authority police, 159, 160, 161poll tax, 149, 164Saros, 148treaty with Britain, 149
Abeokuta Grammar School (AGS), 163Abeokuta Ladies Club (ALC), 162Abeokuta province, 36, 152, 153, 154, 158,
159, 162Abeokuta Union of Teachers, 154Abeokuta Women’s Union (AWU), 164Aberdeen Hill, gun installation, 189Aboye, Dejazmach Mengaesh, 392Abyssinia, 25, 26, 305, 310, 488. See also
EthiopiaAbyssinian campaign, 467Accra (Gold Coast), 339, 341, 342, 343,
344, 345, 346, 355, 503acordo missionario, 233Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 7, 310, 387, 388,
389, 390, 466Ademola II, Alake of Abeokuta, 148, 164,
165adire, 149Adugna, Minale, 392Africa, 478, 479, 502, 503
African American experience in, 401,403–04, 405, 410, 413, 414, 417,419, 506
colonial powers, 438, 463, 501, 502, 505historiography, 461perceptions of, 418strategic significance, 403, 441vision for the new Africa, 484
Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI) (Italian EastAfrica), 259, 388
Africa-Middle East Wing, 342African Americans. See soldiers, African
AmericanAfrican Auxiliary Pioneer Corps (AAPC), 7,
8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 20, 134, 142African farmers, 54, 62, 63, 239, 255African Farmers’ Cooperative, 493African Line of Communication (AFLOC),
55, 463, 506African Section, British Legion, 142African Standard (Freetown), 61, 188Africanization, 292, 483Afrikaner(s), 65, 306, 309, 320, 321.
See also womennationalism, 309opposition to war, 14British South African contempt for, 320
Afrique equatoriale francaise (AEF). SeeFrench Equatorial Africa (FEA)
Afrique occidentale francaise (AOF). SeeFrench West Africa (FWA)
Agbaja village group, (northern Igboland),283, 288
Aggett, Bryan, 37
509
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Agricultural Production and SettlementBoard (Kenya), 36
agriculture, 38, 104, 135, 152, 472agriculture department, 158, 180, 232, 240,
255Agua Ize, 235Aıd, Mohamed Bel, 433–34air raids, 94, 310, 463, 465, 472Air Transport Command, 342aircraft, 20, 53, 54, 65, 81, 83n63, 154,
171, 173, 221, 342, 344, 387, 389,458, 463, 464, 466
airports, 197, 231Aisne river, 324Akyeampong, Emmanuel, 341Alamain, 467Alao, Otun of Ijaiye Obirinti, Nigeria,
162Alexander, Harold, 270–71Al-Fajr (Sudan), 472Al-Fashir (Sudan), 463al-jahir, 98al-maghrib al-arabi, 98Al-Mirghaniyya, 469Al-Mutatwiat (volunteers), 474Al-Sudan al-Jadid (Sudan), 475Al-Ubbayyid (Kordofan province, Sudan),
463Algeria, 93, 100, 169, 325, 360, 403, 415,
416, 421, 429, 436, 508All Seamen’s Union (Freetown), 194Allie, Alhaji Momodu, 192n29Allied Forces, xx, 25, 30. See also Free
FranceAfrican participation in military
operations, 71, 311, 448African press coverage, 154importance of African resources, 34, 37,
170loss of Far East colonies, 27, 31Moroccan support, 90, 97, 103neutrality of Vichy African
administrations, 360operations in North Northeast Africa, 7,
197, 319, 414, 416, 466, 467Sudan as major supply center and line of
communications, 42, 426, 463, 464,473
victory, 161Allied powers, 324, 403, 150, 270, 273Americo-Liberians, 411Anderson, David, 152
Anglo-American Economic Mission toEquatorial Africa, 173, 175, 176
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 62, 465, 471, 472Anglo-Franco-Belgian alliance, 33Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, 121Angola, 29, 38, 173, 220, 221, 222, 225,
226. See also coffeeAnnasr (newspaper published in Alger), 99,
100, 103–04anti-Semitism, 92, 262apartheid, 66–67, 316Arabia, 469Arabian peninsula, 253Arbegna, 383Arbeitskommandos, 425, 426, 429, 433,
434Argonne (France), 324armistice
France (1940), 4, 89, 91, 92, 92n7, 93,94–97, 99, 325, 326, 326n8, 360,365, 370
Italy (1943), 270, 270n67armored cars, 171, 310Army Nurse Corps, 407, 408artificial limbs, 134, 136, 138Ash, Catherine Bogosian, 201, 443Asia, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 18, 27, 31, 64, 107,
108, 166, 167, 170, 171, 179, 189,224, 256, 324, 403, 404, 417, 420,463, 506
Asmara (Eritrea), 259, 264, 265, 266, 267,268, 269, 270, 466, 469
Association des Noirs de l’AOF, 336Association of West African Merchants
(AWAM), 160, 161Australia, 7, 25, 34, 138, 320, 409, 410Aswan (Egypt), 463Atbara (Sudan), 55, 462, 464, 465, 467,
471, 472, 474Atlantic Charter, 3, 59, 60, 134, 376, 475
Article 3, 61`Atiyyah, Hasan, 473, 474Autour de Brazzaville, 200, 201, 206Axis powers, 15, 26, 27, 171, 419, 441
defeat, 474, 495Azikiwe, Nnamdi, 61, 294, 298Azores, 220, 221
Badoglio, Marshal Pietro, 264, 270viceroy and governor-general of AOI, 388
Baggi, Shaykh Ahmad Hasab, al-, 470Bahri, Younes, 98
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Bahri,Yunis, 472, 473Baker Force, 465BaKongo, 230Bakr, Shaykh `Abdalla, 470Bamenda district (Cameroun), 177bananas, 38, 171, 251, 489Banco Espirito Santo, 232Banco Portugues do Atlantico, 232banda (company), 388Banda Force, 465Bani Amir, 468Bas-Chari, 214–15Basutoland (Lesotho), 8, 15, 72, 86Bata, shoe company, 173Bataka Union, 482, 495, 496 (Figure 25.1)Battle of Britain, 53Battle of France, 446Bayan, Lekelash, 383, 390, 394, 395Bechuanaland (Botswana), 8, 72beeswax, 241Behrens, C. B. A., 185, 195Beira, 221, 222, 231Beirut, 243Beja, 465–66, 469, 470Belgian Congo, 17, 214, 230
declared loyalty to Belgiangovernment-in-exile, 170
forced labor, 181strategic mineral production, 33, 34, 61
Belgium, 26, 29, 33, 52, 150, 153, 158,223, 279, 404, 423
German occupation, 34Belime, Emile, 114–15Beni dance societies, 50Benin, 179Benson, Mary, 318Berberati (western Oubangi-Chari), 175Berhe, Aregawi, 389, 390n32Bernal, Victoria, 63, 400Bertram, Gertrude, 407–08, 419Bettencourt, Jose Tristao de,
governor-general of Mozambique,227, 228, 232
bicycles, 175, 248, 285, 476, 490, 495,497 (Figure 25.2)
“big compound”, 287, 300“big men”, 287biltong (dried meat), 37, 38, 38n62black market, 37, 38, 52, 160, 161, 163,
248, 290, 450, 453Blackall, H. W. D., 350, 351, 352, 355Blacklock, Prof. D. B., 191
blitzkrieg, 4, 150, 168blockade, 29, 168, 169, 171, 174, 223, 225,
364Blue Nile, 464, 466, 469Blum, Leon, 384Boegner, Pastor Marc, 374, 377Boisson, Pierre, governor-general of AEF,
200, 202n7, 326, 360, 361, 370, 371“bonus marches”, 128Book of Honor, 384Booue (Gabon), 215–16Bordeaux (France), 427, 429, 433, 434Bourdillon, Bernard Henry, governor of
Nigeria, 298, 347“boys”, derogatory workplace term, 45, 49,
296boat boys, 151boss boys, 291pick boys, 280, 296rail boys, 296timber boys, 296tub boys, 296
Brazil, 34, 156, 205, 222Brazzaville, xxi, 27, 46, 203, 205, 206, 209,
210, 211, 215, 216, 218capital of Free France, 5, 26
Brazzaville conference, 117, 219, 361–62,375–77, 441, 507
bride price inflation, Igbo, 285–86Britain, xix, xxi, xxii, 16, 24, 25, 26, 27,
28, 29, 33, 34, 44, 507and colonies, 40, 45, 498and Ethiopia, 25control of food supplies, prices and
production, 35, 41coordination of war effort, 33, 503German bomb raids, 22
British Africa, 7, 23, 47, 170British Cameroon, 171, 180, 181British Caribbean, 44, 294British Disabled Person’s (Employment Act)
1944, 128British East Africa Disabled Officers’
Colony, 132British Legion, 23, 132–33, 141, 142British Military Administration (BMA),
Eritrea and Somalia, 259, 260–68,260n4, 270, 271, 272, 274
British Military and Economic Mission, 6British Somaliland, 5, 27, 310British West Africa, 295, 340, 355brothels, 18, 19, 352, 353
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Browne, Raymond Browne, 352bud-grafted clones, 179Buganda, 480n1, 481, 482, 483, 485, 488,
490, 491, 493, 494, 497, 498Bulletin des Armees d’Outre-Mer, 99,
100–02Bureau du Maghreb Arabe, 98Burma, xix, 133, 139, 140, 142, 242, 256,
343rice imports, 226, 246
Burma campaign, 11, 12, 15, 17, 21,23n65, 133, 139–41, 198
Burns, Sir Alan Burns, governor of GoldCoast, 352
buses, 171, 481
Cadbury, John, 175cadernete (pass book), 227Cairo, 260, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270,
272, 342, 463, 506Calabar, 349, 351Cameroon, 170, 178, 181, 200, 201, 202,
209, 218, 219, 349, 453. See alsorubber
Cameroons Development Corporation, 181Cameroun, 201camouflage des goums, 95, 97Camp Paradise (Liberia), 409–10Camp Shangri-La (Liberia), 409–10Camp Thiaroye (Senegal), 329camphor (Ocotea usambarensis), 243Canada, 34, 173capatazes, 227Capdevila, Luc, 398Cape of Good Hope, 168Cape Verde Islands, 58, 220, 231
drought and famine, 233–34out-migration to Sao Tome and Principe,
58capital, 22, 40, 231, 232, 235, 245, 349,
409, 502sexual, 409social, 478
Carnot (Oubangui), 207Carreira, Antonio, 234Carrier Corps, World War I, 130, 131Carstairs, C. Y., 40cash crops, 48, 112, 149, 176, 198, 229,
241, 502, 504. See also cassava,cocoa, cotton, peanuts rubber
cassava, 37, 56, 57, 152n15, 155, 247cassava starch, 156
Cassin, Rene, 202, 218Castilla elastica, 166Castro Almeida, 235Catholic Action, 498Catholic Church, 233, 487Catholic missions, 368, 373, 378cattle, 77, 139, 181, 236, 393, 451, 485–86casualties, 21, 53, 97, 137, 138, 188, 465,
467, 486cedar (Juniperus procera), 243Central Africa, 173, 463Central African Republic, 30, 130, 175, 178Central African Service Command, 404Central Province (Tanganyika), 181Ceylon (Sri Lanka), 11, 133, 140, 172, 205Chad, 215, 362, 403Champalimaud, 232charcoal, 32, 238, 239, 241, 245, 247–48,
255, 256, 451chemical industry, 239, 242, 255chiefs, 48, 58, 86, 133, 159, 193n37, 206,
227, 228, 283, 340, 341, 444, 482,483, 486, 490, 492, 498
canton, 443, 443n4, 446colonial policy, 228, 283, 364, 449, 507RDA challenge to authority, 458–59resistance to authority, 41, 445, 453,
456–58, 502role in conscription, 12, 13, 14, 41,
76–78, 134, 229, 465role in forced labor, 58, 159, 193, 227,
284n23, 452children, 48, 61, 121, 154, 287–88, 300,
496, 505and education of, 280, 299and missions, 365, 373and propaganda, 74, 104in Ethiopia, 397, 399Italo-Eritrean, 260–61, 267–68, 270,
273, 274labor of, 46, 65, 176, 177, 191, 207, 254,
285mixed-race, in France, 330, 337, 339,
431starvation, 234traffic of, in the Gold Coast, 346, 351,
352, 503Children of the French Empire, 331Christians, 276, 362, 366, 372n33, 375Chukwuani, chief of Nkanu, 287Churchill, Winston, 53, 60, 89, 264,
484
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circle commandants, AEF, 120, 121, 122,327, 328, 334, 371, 378, 381, 447,450–51, 454, 457, 459
cities, 56, 64, 93, 157, 176, 184, 187migration to, 48, 65, 504population growth, 55, 295, 344social change, 20, 58, 185
citizenship, 128, 270French, 119, 120, 121, 122, 126, 128,
129, 328n17, 431, 432, 438, 443in British African colonies, 129, 496, 497Italian (in Eritrea), 270, 273–74obligations, 317second-class in the US, 402
civilian defense, 187–89clerks, 280
role in nationalist movements, 23n65, 61,281, 283, 294
Cline Town wharf (Freetown), 189“closer settlements” in Tanzania, 240, 252cloth, 25, 30, 122, 148, 149, 210, 393, 476,
156n46, 175, 176clothing, 82, 82n58, 87, 87n87, 112, 115,
121, 175, 426, 448, 449incorporation of foreign styles, 187women’s, 396n69, 398
coal, 32, 54, 64, 67, 185, 189, 190, 195,231, 239
shortages, 190, 451. See also coalindustry in Nigeria
“coal gentlemen”, 284–85“Coal City”, 281coal industry in Nigeria, 276–302“Coal Men”, 279–80coal miners, xix, 277, 282, 299, 504. See
also strikesawareness of mining conditions in the
west, 58, 278, 279, 298Igbo ethnicity, 283role in nationalist politics, 283, 301, 504socioeconomic change, 58, 282, 285,
286, 288, 300cobalt, 35, 47cocoa, 40, 148–49, 167, 171, 224, 333
in Ivory Coast, 178in Nigeria, 152, 155–56in Sao Tome, 231, 234, 235
Cocoa Control Board, 40cocoa hold-ups in the Gold Coast, 40,
40n74, 48n18coffee, 395, 397, 450, 451, 488
cooperatives in Tanganyika, 484
in Angola, 224, 225, 229, 235in British Cameroon, 171, 178in Uganda, 480, 481, 493, 494shops, 265, 333, 472, 473
COLA award, 59Cold War, xxii, 240colis du marechal, 434Colliery Surface Improvement Unions
(CSIU), 291Colliery Workers Union (CWU), 276, 291colonatos (planned agricultural settlements),
230Colonial Act (1930) of Portugal, 223colonial administration, 8, 135, 404, 411
French, 62, 113in French Equatorial Africa, 213in French West Africa, 114, 326–27, 328,
329–38, 341, 359, 364, 365, 377,444, 451, 453, 356, 458
in Nigeria, 149, 292, 293Colonial Development and Welfare Act, 191Colonial Development and Welfare
Corporation, 255Colonial Development Bill, 130Colonial Labour Advisory Committee, 52colonial mentality, 72Colonial Office, 292, 487, 484n7, 489
labor policy, 50, 51, 52, 58, 59, 67,293n53, 294, 301
reformers, 293war controls, 32, 40, 57
colonialism, xx, xxi, 15, 67, 331, 348, 349,400, 482, 484, 485
French, 89, 98, 325, 429, 430n36in Eritrea, 262–67Italian, 478
combat, xix, xxi, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19, 21,41, 74n12, 95, 97, 130, 134, 137,140, 151, 303, 306, 321, 505, 506
African American participation, 401,402, 404, 414, 416
and Africans, 41, 95, 130, 424, 449, 478,479, 486
in Ethiopia, 383, 387, 387n14in shaping white South African
masculinity, 314–19, 322, 323stress, 12, 131, 139, 140
Combined Chiefs of Staff (C.C.S.), 184Combined Development Trust, 34Comforts for Nigerian Troops Fund, 155commando, 309, 425, 426 (Figure 22.1)
work, 431
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Commission du Caoutchouc, 175Commissioner for the Colonies for Free
France, 448Commissoes Reguladoras de Importacao,
226Communist party, 400
in France, 460in South Africa, 42, 66, 316, 317in Sudan, 42, 477
Comoro Islands, 222Companhia da Ilha de Prıncipe, 235Compulsory Native Labour Act (South
Rhodesia), 37Compulsory Production Order (Northern
Rhodesia), 178Compulsory Service (Essential Works)
Regulations (1942), 58Compulsory Service Ordinance (Gold
Coast), 340Conakry, 17, 169, 174, 447, 451, 454Conakry-Niger Railway, 451, 452, 459concordat, 233concubinage in Eritrea, 261
legislation against, 267–68, 269prosecution of, 268–69
Confederation Generale du Travail (CGT),460
Congo, 6, 34, 35, 53, 64, 83, 173, 211,403, 405, 407, 463. See also BelgianCongo
Congo basin, 166, 178Congo Brazzaville, 26Congo Free State, 174Congolese Tenth Casualty Clearing Station,
11Connaught Hospital, Freetown, Sierra
Leone, 188“conscripted volunteers”, 78Conscription Law (1919), 446conscription, 442n1, 498
labor, 37, 253, 278, 355military, 12–15, 20, 41, 55, 239, 444,
445–49, 489, 506conservation, 239Constituent Assembly, Fourth Republic, 21,
23consumer goods, 28, 57, 64, 175, 177, 223,
232, 239, 244, 248, 451, 456, 464,476, 483, 485, 489, 490, 498
contractors, 27, 243, 245, 248convoy(s), 54, 183, 185, 189, 190, 191,
197, 278
convoy harbor, 189, 199copal, 38, 202, 239, 241, 246copper, 33
in Angola, 231in Belgian Congo, 34, 53in Northern Rhodesia, 25, 53, 61U.S. imports from Belgian Congo, 33
copra, 31, 224, 229Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine, 201corruption, 291–92n50, 433–34, 435corvees, 118, 214cost of living, 39, 47, 59, 142, 299
bonus, 195, 196index, 192, 192n25
cotton, 30, 35, 36, 148, 238, 397, 450in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 30, 465, 469,
472in Uganda, 41, 480, 481, 482, 483, 486,
487, 487n19, 488, 493–96, 498in Portuguese African colonies, 35, 38,
224–29, 232in West Africa, 57
Cotton and Coffee Fund (Uganda), 41, 482“cowboys”, 285n29Cowen, Michael, 28Creole. See Kriocrop requisitions, 442n2, 501
in French West Africa, 449–51Cross River Basin, 347, 348Cummings-John, Constance Agatha,
192n29custodian of enemy property, 170, 243cutch (dyebark), 254Cyrenaica (North Africa), 385Czechoslovakia, 34
Dahomey, 153, 158, 279, 334, 335, 336Daileader, Celia R., 330–31Daily Guardian (Freetown), 192n26Daily Service (Lagos), 162Dakar (Senegal), 4, 333
attempt to overthrow Vichy governtment,53
Evangelical missions in, 369, 373port, 185, 197, 504railway workers, 476, 504return of soldiers from France, 326, 327,
448soldiers’ mutiny at Thiaroye, 17, 329,
436, 447support for de Gaulle, 375Vichy administration, 360, 361, 371
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Dakar-Niger Railroad, 109, 114, 115,119n26, 124, 125
Dambagna (military lands), 387n17, 390,391
‘Dan Nana, Pastor, Hausa SIM convert,366–67, 374
Dar es Salaam, 39, 242, 244, 246, 247, 248,249, 251, 255, 504
Daughton, J. P., 201Davis, Ossie, 410, 417, 418de Bono, General Emilio, 385de Coppet, Jules Marcel, governor-general
of French West Africa, 111, 112,112n6
de Gaulle, General Charles, 384aborted invasion of Dakar, 53Brazzaville conference and reforms, 376,
441, 507Casablanca meeting, 89downplay of Africa’s role in war effort,
442n2establishment of Free French base in
Africa, 5, 26, 91, 97, 170, 200, 201,217, 362, 447
harsh labor policies in FEA, 209, 215promise of colonial reforms, 117, 118relations with Felix Eboue, 63–64, 203,
216, 360support for Protestant missions, 361–62,
377relations with U.S., 378takeover of FEA/AOF, 364–65whitening Free French army, 9, 17,
324–25, 325n3debt, 8, 9, 22, 28, 29, 64, 376, 377, 410,
455, 490“decasualization”, 196decolonization, xxi, 54, 182, 417, 506
in French West Africa, 337–38, 362, 377,379n50
“Defend Democracy” slogan, 78Defense (Essential Works)(General
Provisions) Order (1942), SierraLeone, 196
Defense Regulations and Essential Workslegislation, 58
demilitarization, 184, 185, 186of Freetown, 197–99
Demisew, Woizero Lakech, 391Demissi Force, 466demobilization, 20, 22, 327n13
in Kenya, 130, 134–36
of French West African soldiers, 330,447, 448
of Ugandan soldiers, 483, 484, 492democracy, xviii, xxi, 22, 45, 72, 259, 285,
315, 410, 472, 475, 507in British African colonies, 132, 491, 495in South Africa, 78–79, 80
Denmark, 398, 400depression, 47, 48, 49, 50, 170, 180, 193,
349in Nigeria, 149, 152, 164, 281, 284, 289in Portuguese African colonies, 230in Sierra Leone, 194in Tanganyika, 238, 241, 249
desertion, 16, 56, 62, 63, 116, 117, 217,235, 459
“detribalized” Africans, 48deuxieme portion du contingent militaire
(second portion of the militarycontingent), 13, 46, 62, 109–10,112–26, 115, 113n9, 119n25,119n26
development, xxi, 32, 128, 143, 150, 203,435, 502
Fascist ideas of, 484in Free France, 214, 216in French West Africa, 457in Kenya, 130, 133in Nigeria, 62, 126, 285, 299in Portuguese African colonies, 225, 230,
232in Tanganyika, 238, 240, 254, 255in South African industry, 64–66in Uganda, 483, 484, 485, 489, 492, 494,
495development plans, East African forestry
project, 63dhows, 253diamonds, 33, 47, 66, 231Dickins, Capt. A. R. A., 159Diori, Hamani, 455Dirma Gabriel, church of, 383disability, 21, 137–38, 141
pensions and payments, 22, 132, 134,135, 141, 454
ratings system, 130, 131disabled soldiers in Nigeria, 129, 131, 135discrimination
in the military, 82, 138, 324, 338, 438racial, xxi, xxii, 139, 259, 269, 270, 271,
273, 275, 296, 298, 320n63, 413job, 61, 67, 299
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diseases, 39, 57, 116, 116n19, 129, 137,207, 408, 426, 423. See also venerealdisease
livestock, 241Divisao do Fomento Orizıcola, 225Doctrine of Reciprocal Aid, 28drought, 36n56, 87, 104, 233–34Dunkirk, 94, 446Dunlop, 173Durban (South Africa), 54, 65, 66Dutch East Indies, 204, 249, 250, 256Duverge, Pierre, Gabon, 216–17dye, 155, 320dye bark, 253, 254
East Africa, 5, 8, 10, 14, 21, 27, 32, 52, 71marketing boards, 40
East Africa Command (EAC), 133, 135,140, 485n7, 140
discharge of disabled, 138medical records, 140military hospital system, 137rehabilitation, 134, 135, 136welfare, 133
East African campaign, 6, 310, 311East African colonial army, 13East Africa Military Labour Service
(EAMLS), 6East African Engineers, 140Eboue, Felix, governor-general of FEA
concern for African workers, 206, 213administration, 200, 201, 203–04, 205,
207, 214, 216handling of petitions of grievances,
216–17, 218and Mr. Tchioula’s racist attitude, 215advocacy for colonial reform policies, 218relations with de Gaulle and Free France,
63, 64, 200reform proposals at Brazzaville
conference, 376Echenberg, Myron, 21, 126, 325, 421,
446n5, 448Eden, Anthony, 384Edo people (Nigeria), 179education, 13, 133, 136, 185, 216n68, 230,
231, 232, 233, 267, 280, 476and missions, 287, 362, 373, 375, 377as part of French assimilation policy, 376Brazzaville proposals, 376in Uganda, 483, 484, 490women’s access to, 399, 477
Egba Native Administration (ENA), 153,162
Egypt, 7, 8, 9, 99popular depiction of, 312–13, 313
(Figure 16.4), 314, 318government, 467, 475nationalism, 103railway construction, 242
Egyptian Ministry of Rations, 30Egyptian Ministry of Supplies, 30, 37812th Engineer Aviation Battalion, 412,
413, 418El Alamein (Egypt), 9, 37, 71, 311Elder Dempster lighters, 195elections
for Territorial Assembly (FWA), 456,459
in Fascist states, 385in Guinea, 458
Eleventh (East Africa) Division, 11–12Emali (Kenya), 37Empey, W. S., 394enemy property. See custodian of enemy
propertyEnglish, Chief Kadri, Hausa leader in Accra,
341Enugu, 280, 281, 282, 283, 290, 300, 301,
505. See also coal industry inNigeria, coal miners, strikes
administrative capital of southeasternNigeria, 281
economy, 278, 288, 299emergence of working class, 289, 294,
297establishment of unions, 291“new middle class” of government
employees, 294population growth, 284, 287, 291rise of radical nationalism, 280, 293, 294,
295slums, 289
Enugu Government Colliery, 43, 276, 282,283
1949 shooting incident, 67, 302discriminatory practices, 299management, 291, 299
Equality Law (1950), 445, 457Equateur province (Belgian Congo), 176Equatorial Africa. See French Equatorial
Africa (FEA)Eritrea, 26, 259–75. See also British
Military Administration,
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concubinage, Fascism, Italiancolonialism, mixed race children
as part of Italian dream of empire, 472border with Sudan, 464, 465, 468, 469in military camps, 474Italian administration, 469
Eritreans, 3, 7, 12, 467Eritrea People’s Liberation Front (EPLF),
384n3espionage, 372, 382, 399, 469estates
housing, Enugu, 300in Cameroon, 171, 177rubber, 166, 169, 179–81, 182sisal, 253
Estatuto Missionario of 1941, 233Eteke gold mine, Gabon, 210Ethiopia, 147, 148, 383. See also Selassie,
Haile; women combatantsaristocracy, 385, 387, 388, 390, 397as base for Italian operations, in Sudan,
462battle of Adwa (1896), 385, 385n11,
466borders with Somalia and Sudan,
385n13, 467, 468British military operations, 33, 242federated to Eritrea, 260n3international support, 25, 155, 387n17Italian conquest and occupation, xvii,
xxii, 3, 5, 55, 147, 261, 384–88,385, 385n13, 387, 388, 462, 464
liberation, 10, 16, 19, 25, 401, 466resistance to Italians, 385, 387, 388–91,
397, 466rubber, 169South African military operations, 7
Ethiopian Red Cross, 25ethnic associations, 454ethnicity, 181, 185eucalyptus, 240, 246Europe, xx, 505
end of war, xxiilabor problems, 505
Europeans, xxi, 482accounts of WWII, 17, 18, 19imperial powers, 501, 505models, 502perception of Africans, 483, 505refugees, 487
European soldiers, 503, 506Evangelical Mission of Paris, 369
exports, 29, 44, 48, 54, 56, 63, 67, 155,167, 168, 205, 251, 504. See alsogold, rice, rubber, uranium
as pay for imports, 28from Portuguese Africa, 223, 224, 225,
228, 229from Nigeria, 278, 295navicerts for, 29n22strategic minerals, 6
family, 81, 101allowances, 60, 67, 74, 489Berber concepts of, 104, 106, 107in Ethiopia, 391, 392, 400in Ivory Coast, 328in Kenya, 130in Liberia, 411in Nigeria, 285–86, 287, 298, 300, 347in Sierra Leone, 192labor, 62, 287support for French wives of African
soldiers, 333, 334, 335, 336famine, 38, 56, 87, 293, 241, 295, 393,
451, 452in Cape Verde, 58, 233–34
Fargettas, Julien, 422Fascism, 111, 112, 259, 384, 385, 401,
480impact on British administration in
Eritrea and Egypt, 262, 264, 269,272
meaningless of ideology to Ugandans,495, 507
Nigerian discussions about, 147, 163views of Sudanese intelligentsia, 468,
472, 475Fascist race laws
in Eritrea, 260, 260n4, 267, 268, 271,272, 274, 274, 275
in Libya, 272Fascist womanhood, 400Fehrenbach, Heide, 267Fernando Po, 349Feyistan of Abeokuta, 157ficus (fig) trees, 177fils de l’Islam (Muslim sons), 104fire(s), 178, 191, 191n23, 248, 251fire drills, 188firearms, 241Firestone Rubber Company, 166
and Americo-Liberian elite, 179in South Africa, 250
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Firestone Rubber Company (cont.)rubber estates in Liberia, 30–31, 169–70,
180, 406, 409firewood, 32, 238, 248First World War. See World War IFloyer, R. K., 346Fofana, Ibrahima, RDA militant, 456Fogo, 234food, xx, 415, 423
African soldiers’ rations, 134as part of pay, 87n87, 245as taxes, 452disruption of imports, 233, 234, 238,
239requisition in, 41, 148riots in Cape Verde, 234security, 28, 48, 87Sudan as transit point for North African
food supplies, 463wartime struggle for food in colonies,
35–39food crops, 27, 450. See also cassava,
maize, riceFood shortage(s), 56, 62, 179, 211, 393
in Enugu (Nigeria), 289, 290, 295in FEA, 17, 176, 215, 216in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 185, 187,
192–93, 198in Mozambique, 228, 229in POW camps, 321, 330, 423, 424, 426,
434, 436, 448in Tanganyika, 239, 241, 243, 246–47,
249, 255protests about, 121
food production in the colonies, 25, 35, 2,150, 470, 504
food prices, 59, 183. See also price controlsFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
255Force Publique, 6, 17, 20, 83forced labor, 47, 57, 62, 181, 189. See also
deuxieme portion, indigenat,prestation, prisoners of war, rubber
abolition of, 41, 51, 182, 457in FWA under Free France, 201, 202,
207, 209, 214, 218, 442, 451–52in FWA under Vichy government,
109–26, 374, 444, 449in Great Britain, 298n72in Nigeria, 44, 284n23, 363in Portuguese African colonies, 226, 228in post-Vichy FWA, 458, 459–60, 501–02in Sudan, 63
in Tanganyika, 241intensification during wartime, 41, 44
Forces Francaises de l’Interieur, 94Forecariah circle (Lower Guinea), 452forest(s), 211, 235, 336, 426
in Tanganyika, 239–56production, 32, 64products, 32, 42reserves, 179, 239
forest region(s), 33in Guinea, 452, 459, 460
forestry, 32, 63, 202, 255, 425in Tanganyika, 240–43, 246, 255,
256Fort-Archambault (Chad), 217Fort-Lamy (Chad), 215Fortes, Meyers, 24France. See also armistice, colonialism, Free
France, Vichy Francearmed forces, 446as part of Allied forces, 25citizens, 13, 107, 114, 121, 122, 125,
336, 373, 431, 441, 459, 507civilians, 119, 329, 338, 421, 422, 425,
429, 436, 437, 438, 443, 449, 450,460, 461
colonial loyalty, 79, 96, 100, 104, 115,326, 370n27, 437, 454, 456
empire, 91, 92, 97, 103, 107, 117, 219,360, 361, 364, 366, 376, 382, 420,422, 429, 431, 434, 435, 438, 441,442n2, 446, 458, 507
fall of, xix, 8, 13, 17, 27, 29, 31, 32, 40,46, 53, 103, 148, 168, 169, 174,185, 325, 338, 360, 373, 444, 447
German occupation, 26, 117, 324, 361,448
of Alsace (1914), 99of southern France, 97, 364, 374
labor policies, 45, 51, 62, 63, 110,113–17
liberation, 9, 17, 96, 259, 278, 324, 425,435, 436, 437, 438, 442n2, 444,447, 448
metropolitan, 91, 113, 360, 455military glory, 89, 101, 103, 382protector of colonial subjects, 107resistance, 9, 95, 96, 104, 106, 107, 219,
336, 360, 384, 427view that exploitation of colonies
necessary to strengthen France, 112racism, xxii, 337, 400reliance on African troops, xix, 4, 7, 9, 93
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subjects, 9, 13, 46, 103, 107, 109, 118,121, 328n17, 336, 441, 446
universalism, rhetoric of, 454Fallatiyya, Aysha al-, 474franchise (voting rights), 21Franco, Francisco, 3–4, 220Free France, xxi. See also Brazzaville,
conference, deuxieme portion, forcedlabor, Gaullism, indigenat, rubber
African protest, 217anti-Vichy propaganda, 219base in Brazzaville and FEA, 5, 200, 219discredited regime, 175participation in liberation of France, 448policies of coercion, 62, 202, 218, 219relations with Felix Eboue, 218road and railroad construction, 214source of raw materials, 200, 278,
279 (Table 15.1)symbolic importance of empire, 91
freedom, 76, 78, 163, 285, 313, 401, 417movement for freedom in Africa, 418,
419Nigerian view, 163sexual, 348South African view, 306
Freetowncensus, 186, 186n5, 198n56civil defense, 187, 188n12demilitarization, 184, 185, 186, 197–98harbor, 183, 184, 185, 189, 190, 191,
192n29, 197, 199migrants, 183, 193, 193n37militarization, 183, 184–85, 186, 199newspapers, 185, 188, 192n28, 198outpost of South Atlantic command, 32,
183police, 184, 192, 194politics, 185population growth, 36, 185, 186,
192–93, 194n56port, 32, 51, 54presence of foreign troops, African and
white, 183water, 189–91, 198
Frejus (France), 329French Cameroon, 175, 180, 181French Congo, 207, 441French Equatorial Africa (FEA), 26, 36, 39,
41, 360, 362French Soudan (Mali), 46, 62, 63, 109, 115,
119, 126, 443, 445n5French Union, 120, 121, 122, 455
French West Africa (FWA), 26, 36, 39, 41,360, 361, 364, 375
administration, 368, 369de Gaulle takeover, 375Protestant missions in, 369, 372, 378,
380front stalags, 46Frontstalag, 425, 426, 428, 431, 432,
433–34, 434n52, 435, 437, 438Frosty Force, 465Funtumia elastica, 166, 167, 172, 181Futa Jallon, 452, 456
G. B. Ollivant, 159G. I. Bill, 128Gabon, 178, 202, 203. See also gold mines
civil war between Vichy and Free Frenchforces, 217
expansion of road networks, 214Free France administration, 215, 216wartime administration, 204
Gallabat (Sudan), 466Galvao, Henrique, 227–28Gambeila (Ethiopia), 467Gambia, The, 151, 152, 184,
279(Table 15.1), 290gangs, 196, 285n29Garden City, 300gari, 151, 151n15, 155, 157Garment Workers Union (Transvaal), 51Gash river, 465Gaullists, 217, 326, 327, 361Gbadebo I, Alake of Abeokuta, 149Gedarif (Sudan), 462, 466Gedle, Woizero Shewareged, 393, 394gender, xviii, xxii, 60, 104, 155, 185, 285,
300, 301, 311, 347. See alsomasculinity
changing relations, xxi, 399, 503, 505division of labor, 254ideologies, 282, 384, 395, 396in resistance movements, 395, 398norms, 60, 282, 299, 399oke okporo (male woman, Igbo), 285
General Defense Regulations, 159Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War
(1929), 423, 448Gerima, Haile, 394, 395German Afrika Korps, 71German Army, 4German East Africa, 130German High Command, 428, 430, 432German Inspection Control (KIA), 94
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German Military Command, 425German, 4, 241, 335, 414
estates in colonies, 171, 181, 231, 243,252
colonizers, 240, 241racism, xxii, 95, 431
Germany, 30, 53, 92, 161, 220, 267, 349,368, 398, 495. See also France(armistice), prisoners of war,propaganda
access to African raw materials andminerals, 26, 29, 29–30n22, 152,155, 168, 171, 220, 221, 231
Allied apprehension of attack on Africancolonies, 185, 187, 221, 222, 233
attack on Britain, 53collaboration with colonials, 97, 98, 428,
429, 468colonialism, 155, 240, 241, 252, 255, 425impressions of, 315, 317invasion and occupation of France and
overseas territories, 13, 26, 53, 89,91, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 113, 324,364, 374, 384, 448, 463, 467
invasion of Belgium and Poland, 6, 31,150, 404
North Africa campaigns, 8, 9, 54, 71, 94,97, 305, 319, 320, 403, 415, 448,464, 465, 467, 475, 476
race, 431, 438relations with Portugal, 220, 224relations with Vichy government, 32, 53,
113, 168, 360, 361, 362, 364, 403,422, 431, 435
war industry, 448Gezira (Sudan), 465Gezira Scheme, 46, 62, 472
forced relocation, 63tenant grievances, 477tenant strike, 502
Gezira Tenants’ Association (GTA), 477Gezira Tenants’ Union (GTU), 477Gibraltar, 98, 220Giles-Vernick, Tamara, 208Ginio, Ruth, 45, 436pn61, 443, 503Glanville, R. R., 158Global Labor History, 45global supply chains, 45globalization, 187Gobineau, Arthur de, 331Godechot, Thierry, 422Gogo ethnic group, Tanganyika, 181
Gojjam, 388gold, 28, 29, 33, 47, 61, 64, 65, 200, 231,
61Gold Coast (Ghana), 23, 33, 39, 152,
344, 356, 502, 503, 504, 507. Seealso cocoa farmers, prostitution,radio broadcasting, railway workers,soldiers, trade unions
imports, 149, 151, 278, 279 (Table 15.1)participation in West African War
Council, 184role of ex-servicement in politics,
445n5wartime planning, 184
Gold Coast Spitfires Fund, 344–45Gold Coasters, 5, 344, 347, 354, 355gold mines, 61, 245
in Gabon, 209–14Gordon College Students’ Union (GCSU),
477Gorgulho, Carlos de Sousa, 236–37goumiers, 93, 93n4, 95–97Government Defence Regulations, Nigeria,
177Graduate General Congress (GGC), 468Graham, J. C., 160Grandperrin, Maurice, 216Graziani, General Rudolfo, 387, 388,
389–90Great Britain, 128, 129, 153, 189, 503
1941 agreements with Felix Eboue, 2021942 agreement with US, 184and missionaries, 361, 381monetary understanding with Free French
government, 204relation with Sierra Leone colony, 183,
184n3, 188n10, 189–90wartime industrial strategies, 290
Great Depression, 170, 180Greeks, 248Gremio do Milho Colonial, 229groupements de tabors marocains, 97Gueye, Lamine, 118Gugsa (Dejaz), 388Guinea, 327, 373, 441–61, 501Guinea-Conakry, 169, 174gun emplacement, Freetown, 189
Hague Convention (IV) Respecting theLaws and Customs of War on Land(1907), 259, 268, 271, 272, 275
Haifa, 243
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Hall, Sir John Hathorn, governor ofUganda, 484
Hall, Virginia, 399hammock tradition, 296haqiba music, 471, 478harbor(s), 47, 504. See also Dakar,
Freetown, Tobrukhardship
bonuses, 448economic, 38, 56, 58, 87, 182, 247, 295,
297, 428pay, 17shared hardship of metropolitan and
colonial workers, 297hardware, 175hardwoods, 240, 241–43, 244, 246, 248,
254, 255, 256Harneit-Sievers, Axel, 39, 41, 160Hasib, Hasib Ali, 475Headrick, Rita, 337health, 18, 20, 126, 490
in the Gold Coast, 341, 343, 355, 503Health Department (Liberia), 409health policy, 191, 232, 340health services, 187, 232
impact of Brazzaville conference, 362,376
in eastern Nigeria, 264, 299, 300in the Gold Coast, 353, 354
Helal, Emad A., 30, 37“Hessian Houses”, 65hides, 37, 225, 229Higginson, John, 33High Commission Territories (HCT), 7, 9,
72Hindi, Sharif al-, 468His Majesty’s Forces Pension Ordinance
(1942), 141Hitler, Adolf, 15, 50, 97, 98, 100, 173, 177,
212, 230, 303, 306, 385, 421, 431,472, 474, 475, 480n2, 495
Hodson, Arnold Weinholt, governor of theGold Coast, 351, 352, 355
Hone, Brigadier Sir Herbert Ralph, 265,268, 269, 270
honor, 3, 107, 282, 294n57, 321, 322codes, 27, 308, 316, 319, 321“heroic honor”, 277“masculine honor denied” discourse,
294military, 103, 117
Hopkins, A. G., 187
Horn of Africa, 5, 133, 259, 384, 464, 506.See also Northeast Africa
horses, 168, 391, 397Houille (France), 334Houphoet-Boigny, Felix, 41, 118, 125Houphoet-Boigny law, 119, 126housing, 20, 22, 87, 343, 504
as workers’ grievance, 17, 55, 65,289n42, 505
colonial policies, 51, 53, 58, 59, 65in eastern Nigeria, 280, 289, 300in Freetown, 185, 191, 198in Tanganyika, 246, 247, 255
Huileries du Congo Belge, 180Huna Omdurman, 473, 476, 478hunting, 309, 311Huntziger, General Charles, 94Hyde-Clark, E. M., 135, 137, 141
“industrial men”, 50, 280Ibadan, 157, 505Ibadan province, 156Iberian colonies, 223Iberian countries, 29, 220Identity, 129, 278, 504. See also gender,
masculinityEnugu (Nigeria) workers’, 279, 283,
284n25, 285n29, 297, 299, 301national, 260, 400, 409racial, 412SIM denominational, 362
Igbo, 83, 277, 283, 286, 287Ila al-amam, 99Ilaro Division (Abeokuta province), 153,
154, 158image
British self-image of paternalistic imperialnation, 260
masculine soldier, 314, 323of complexity of war according to Mary
Benson, 318of desperate mother, 122of normalcy to soldier in battle, 104of soldiers in East Africa, 311Trek, 309Vichy government in eyes of Moroccans,
97white men on safari, 311
immigration, 103, 230Immigration Restriction Ordinance (1943),
352Immigration Restriction Regulations, 351
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522 Index
Imoudu, Michael, 52imperial fiscal policy, 295imperialism, 45, 398, 400, 417
Axis version of, 3British, 306, 428contradictions of, 20French, 428German, 42reform, 21, 42
independence, 21, 45, 54, 210, 255, 282,287, 299, 362, 417, 419, 420, 445,461, 505
and involvement of veterans and formerPOWs, 438, 443
of (individual) colonies, 90, 222, 255,356, 338
Guinea, 441, 453, 459, 460, 460n49India, 7, 10, 11, 28, 29, 30, 57, 133, 140,
172, 205, 229, 242, 467Indian Army, 6, 12Indian Ocean, 256Indians, colonial troops, 5, 11, 16, 71,
324n1, 466, 471in South Africa, 173in Tanganyika, 243, 244, 251in Uganda, 486, 487
indigenat, 46, 62, 118, 120, 150, 213indigo dyed cloth, 149, 155indigo, 450indirect rule, 148, 283, 484, 507Indochina, 206, 325. See also metissage,
prisones of war, rubber, TirailleursSenegalais
industrial relationsinstitutions of, 44, 44n6, 51, 281, 290,
293inflation, 22, 28, 39, 50, 52, 55, 56, 57,
142, 157, 444in Guinea, 41in Nigeria, 56, 59, 160, 280, 285, 286,
289, 290, 291, 295, 299in Northern Rhodesia, 177in Sudan, 504
informal economy, 48in Sierra Leone, 186, 193
information officer(s)in Abeokuta (Nigeria), 153in Sierra Leone, 189
infrastructure projects, 33, 55in Dakar (Senegal), 185in Eritrea, 263in Free France, 214
in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 183, 185,189, 197, 199
in Gold Coast, 341in Mozambique, 232
Inspector General’s Trust Fund (Kenya),132
Institut Francais du Caoutchouc, 174International Committee of the Red Cross
(ICRC), 428, 429, 433, 435. See alsoRed Cross
iron mines in Marampa (Sierra Leone),193n36
iron ore, 25Israel, Adrienne M., 445n5Italian(s), 5, 20, 26, 231, 316, 318, 322
“Aryan”, 269, 271discrimination by Sudan Defense Force,
266in Ethiopia, 16, 387–88, 389, 391, 392,
394, 396, 397in North Africa, 8, 385prisoners of war
in Buganda, 490in Eritrea, 12, 262, 264, 265, 267,
270in Sudan, 462, 464–67, 469–70, 472,
474Italy, 4, 259, 264, 399, 467. See also
Ethiopia, propagandaand Allied Forces, 270, 360, 416, 448and Sudan, 462, 464, 468, 469argument to make Africa a demilitarized
zone, 489at war, 5, 27, 33, 71, 154, 242, 265defeat at Adwa, 385n11in Eritrea, 262, 270, 273invasion and conquest of Ethiopia, xvii,
25, 25n5, 147, 147n2, 261, 384,387–89
plan to create East African empire, 310,464
treaty to end war, xxiiuse of poison gas, 393
Ivory Coast, 30, 36, 41, 118n23, 169, 174,178, 328, 368, 422. See also veterans
Jackson (African American soldier inLiberia), 410
Jackson, Ashley, 24, 72Jackson, Wilfred Edward Francis, governor
of Tanganyika, 253Jacobs, Alexandra, 443
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Japan, 79, 154, 169. See also Pearl Harbor,rubber, World War II
campaigns in Southeast Asia, xix, 11, 19,27, 44, 167, 204, 224, 238, 249,278, 406
conquest of Singapore, 57, 340Japanese
atrocities, 163, 316control of Asian markets, minerals, and
crops, 27, 31, 38, 57control of Burma and Indochina, 206,
246expansion, 171–74occupation of Southeast Asia, 156, 250,
253total-war planners, 239
Jardine, Sir Douglas James, governor ofSierra Leone, 195n44
Jewsanti-Jew legislation, 272, 273, 275anti-Jew propaganda, 428discrimination against in Eritrea, 260,
268, 269, 270, 272genocide, xxi, 262in Libya, 272, 315
jihad, 100, 428, 468John Holt, 153Johnson, R. W., 174Juba (Sudan), 55, 463Junta da Exportacao dos Cereais, 229Junta de Exportacao de Algodao Colonial,
225Juntas de Exportacao, 225“just wage”, 299
Kalck, Pierre, 175Kalembo, Robert, 484Kankan (Guinea), 447, 451, 454, 455Kapp, Newton, 372, 372n33, 381Kaptue, Leon, 201Kassa, Dejazmatch Aberra, 392Kassala (Sudan), 462, 464, 465, 466
Italian occupation of, 468–71, 472, 478Kassum Virji, 251Katanga region (Belgian Congo), 34Kati (Niger) 116, 117, 123Keller, Pastor Jean, 361, 369–70, 372–74,
375Kennedy-Cooke, Brian, 265Kenya, 14, 22, 36, 129, 143. See also
demobilization, disabled, King’sAfrican Rifles, labor force,
nationalists, recruitment, strikes,veterans, World War II
colonial government, 6, 8, 10, 21, 23,128, 129, 130, 133
Ethiopian war refugees in exile, 383, 392Italian invasion of, 27Inflation and prices, 39, 142rural protests, 502settlers, 15, 61, 508
Kenya African Union, 142Kenya Army, 14Kenya Land Freedom Army, 23Kenya “War Relief Fund”, 131Kroo “Tribal” Court, Sierra Leone, 188Keren (Sudan), 466, 474kerosene, xx, 248Keta district (Gold Coast), 340Khartoum (Sudan), 462–67, 471, 477, 478Khartoum University Students’ Union
(KUSU), 477Khasif, Ibrahim al-, 473Khatmiyya brotherhood, 469, 470Kibangou (Gabon), 214Kikuyu, people, Kenya, 23n65, 83, 246, 412Kikuyu Central Association, 133Killingray, David, xvi, 71, 202, 218, 324n1,
442n2, 445n5Kilwa (Tanganyika), 250, 253Kimbaguism, 230Kindia (Guinea), 327, 447, 455King George VI of Britain, 177King’s African Rifles (KAR), 5, 6, 10–11,
12, 14, 15, 83, 130, 132, 133, 466,467, 498
labor units, 134regulations, 131
King’s National Roll Scheme, 132Kissidougou circle (Guinea), 450Kissy Naval base, Freetown (Sierra Leone),
197Kiswere sisal estates, Tanganyika, 253Kita (French Soudan), 119, 120, 121, 122,
125Kita letter, 122, 125Korean War, 182Kosti (Sudan), 463Kouroussa circle (Guinea), 451Krio, ethnic group, Sierra Leone, 181, 188,
188n10Krio language, 189Krull, Germaine, 200, 206, 207, 210, 212Kurmuk (Sudan), 466
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Labe air field (Guinea), 456Labor, 15, 19, 20, 47, 50, 67, 73, 76, 111,
112, 114, 122, 175, 179, 288, 362,366, 441, 504, 505. See alsoconscription, forced labor
authoritarian systems of, 43, 49colonial reconceptualization of, 289conditions, 51, 52, 113, 117differentiated from term “working class”,
46experts, 51, 292, 301harsh practices, 111, 113historians, 46history, 504impact of war, xx, 66, 157industrial labor as strengthening
indigenous models of masculinity, 49migrant, 48, 61, 65, 86military, 6, 14, 15, 55, 64, 487mobilization, 32, 43, 62part of international world system, 45, 46policies, 45, 50, 51, 52, 63, 67, 110, 195,
289, 290, 504, 505proletarianianization of, 87racialized process, 44, 66reforms, 51, 110, 289, 289n42, 293regimented systems, 62rural, 62–64shortage, 65, 119, 151stabilization, 59unrest, 445, 504
Labor in Enugu (Nigeria). See also “CoalTown”, forced labor
activism, 282, 285, 296appropriation of family labor by
patriarchs, 285, 287as embedded in communities, 282housing as means to segment labor,
300protest, 289, 294, 298recruitment, 287representation, 292wage, 282, 284, 288
Labor in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 184, 185,189, 190, 193n37, 195, 195n44,196, 199
Labor in Mozambique, 226, 227Labor in Sudan, 474, 476, 477Labor in Tanganyika, 240, 241, 244, 248,
252estate, 253migrants, 246, 247
shortages, 245, 252, 254unrest, 246
Labor Advisory Board, Sierra Leone, 194“labor problem”, the, 45, 505Labor protests. See worker protestsLabor unions. See trade unionslaborers, 6, 132, 183, 190, 196, 352, 416,
420, 495African “native”, 45in public works, 54in strategic sectors, 195, 197military, 3, 7, 23n65, 46, 343
Lachenal, Guillaume, 207Ladipo, J. A., headmaster in Abeokuta, 163,
163n84Lagos, 35, 39, 148, 152, 155, 158
food supplies, 157, 158, 159, 164general strike, 66, 296, 300markets, 159, 160military construction projects, 151port, 278prices, 157, 159, 291, 295worker unrest, 59, 295
Lajes air base (Portugal), 221Lambarene (Gabon), 216land, 10, 79, 139, 166, 225, 227, 228, 229,
246, 283, 370, 371, 390, 469access to, 246, 247acquisition, 285claims to, 241government seizure of private land in
Uganda, 482inheritance, 390, 393in forest reserves, 246, 253in Uganda, 484, 496, 498marginal, 131, 247shortage, 246, 247, 255
Landesschutzenbataillone (Home GuardBatallions), 425
Latin America, 171, 420Laurentie, Henri, 200, 203, 205, 216law(s)
abolition of forced labor in FWA, 118,121, 459
concubinage, 269, 273, 274equal treatment for French African
veterans, 444, 457exceptions to abolition of forced labor
laws in FWA, 119, 125, 126granting Africans citizenship in French
Union, 121, 125international law, 259, 271, 272, 275
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labor and trades disputes in BritishAfrica, 58, 292, 293, 293n53
labor in French African colonies, 114,203, 218
military and volunteer service, 17, 307,328, 330n23, 446
new administrative entity created, AfricaOrientale Italiana, 388
parallel justice systems in FWA, 328n17price controls, 160racial ideologies embedded in laws, 355regulating prostitution in the Gold Coast,
345, 350, 353Lauro, Angelo, 265Lawler, Nancy Ellen, 9, 19, 63, 342, 344,
421, 422, 443, 445n5Le Bon, Gustav, 331Lebango (French Congo), 207Lebanon, 324Leclerc, Philippe, 203, 214Lend-Lease Act (1941), 27, 28, 202Lend-Lease program, 37, 404, 406Leopold, King of the Belgians, 166, 182leprosarium in Maradi (Niger), 370,
371–72, 373, 375, 379Liberia, 20, 30–31, 167, 179, 342, 401,
405–11, 419, 452. See alsoprostitution, rubber, soldiers
Libertas, 303, 308, 308n13, 315Libreville, 175, 212, 215Libya, 362, 403, 462, 463, 464, 473
as part of dream of Italian empire, 472military campaigns, 7, 8, 33, 214, 242Italian administration, 26, 469
“life-world”, 279Liger Campaign (1948–1952), 457Lindsay, Lisa, 300, 505liquid latex, 180Litvinov, Maxim, 384Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, 191Liwale district (Tanganyika), 252–53, 255local authorities, 51, 57, 114, 175, 459,
480, 491Local Defense Volunteer Force. See
Abeokuta (Nigeria)local self-government, French overseas
territories, 458Loire River, 446London
and centralized planning, 150, 155and rubber production, 204, 205, 209,
219, 251
location of Belgian government in exile,176
changes in Colonial Office structure, 289Free French leadership in exile, 210, 217price control, 170shortage of shipping space, 167
Longrigg Stephen H., 264, 265, 267, 269,272
Lower Guinea, 452, 455loyalty, 84, 88, 463
African expectations of rewards for, 491,507
African expressions of, 44, 54, 57, 79, 86,184, 189, 194, 303, 370n27, 437,454, 456, 468, 470, 478, 480, 488
Ethiopian nobles forced to give oath ofloyalty to Italy, 388
performance of, 96, 104, 481, 485, 487,489
to RDA, 453Ugandans call on British to reciprocate,
481, 491, 498Luanda (Angola), 224, 231Luckenwalde camp (Germany), 428Luvale (Northern Rhodesia), 177Lyautey, Hubert, resident general of
Morocco, 92, 217Lyon (France), 446, 448
M’Vouti mine (Congo), 211–12Mabella Workers Trade Union, 195Mabon, Armelle, 336, 337, 411Macfie, John, 394MacMaster, Neil, 262Madagascar, 4, 11, 15, 16, 17, 34, 100,
133, 219, 222, 325, 437Madingo-Kayes (Congo), 214Mahdi, Sayyid Abd al-RSahman al-, 468Mahmoud, Abu Shama ‘Abd, al-, 473Maichew (Ethiopia), 391maize, 36–37, 38, 224, 229, 449Maka, Leon, 456, 457malaria, 137, 191, 408Malaya, 169
anticolonial insurgency, 256British campaign to reclaim, 11Japanese conquest and occupation, 204,
250loss as source of strategic raw materials,
27, 57, 206, 249male breadwinner norm, 60, 280, 287, 300,
301
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Malherbe, Ernst Gideon, 306, 309Mali, 23, 46, 62, 169, 438malnutrition, 36, 39, 130, 193n38, 446man of confidence, 433, 433n49, 434Mangin, Lieutenant-Colonel Charles, 92Manhattan Project, 47manhood
construction of, 285, 288, 299POWs view of loss of, 321
Manila hemp, 253Mann, Gregory, 438, 445n5Marampa mines (Sierra Leone), 193n36,
194n40market
as contested space, 164cocoa, 152, 155, 235collapse of rubber, 249, 256growing urban, 284n13In Mozambique, 173, 226Mayana rubber, 206–08Tanganyikan timber, 241, 245, 256unofficial, 160, 165world, 24, 25, 27, 34n45, 35, 57, 225,
494, 502market women. See women (traders)marraine(s) de guerrem, 330, 426, 429marriage a la mode du pays, 331marriage, 62, 270, 301, 396, 412
and Protestant missions, 377companionate marriage, 287interracial marriages, 331, 334rise of adultery complaints, 286, 286n32socioeconomic changes, 284, 285, 286
“marriage by photograph”, 286Marseille (France), 336martial groups (also race), 83, 83n65,
85–86masculinity, 18, 178, 281, 301, 307, 323,
332. See also combatBritish working-class notions of, 281Igbo notions of, 60, 282, 301, 287,
282–85, 285n29, 286–88“imperial”, 278, 505indigenous models of, 14, 15, 49, 178,
300, 321South African white, 303, 307, 309, 308,
311, 314, 315, 321, 322“virile”, 321
Mason, Capt., 154mass media, 506Massawa (Eritrea), 263, 267n51, 466Matadi (Congo), 55, 404, 405, 463
Mathere Valley mental hospital, 141Matthews, A. B., 189, 192, 192n16Matthews, Zachariah Keodirelang, 80,
80n45Mau Mau Emergency, 23Mauritius, 7, 26mauser guns, 394Maxwell, E. F. M., 271, 273Maxwell, K., 74Mayana (Moyen-Congo), 206–07Medal of the Campaign of 1936, 19, 41,
383Medal of the Patriots of the Interior, 383Medal of the Patriot Refugees, 383Mediterranean, 7, 53, 169, 220, 415, 416,
463Mehallas cherifiennes, 95, 96Mekonnen, Woizero Alemitu, 392memory, 89, 90, 316, 319, 323, 418, 479merchants, 40, 115, 160, 192, 244, 287,
468, 502Mers-el Kebir, 360metissage in Indonesia, 331Middle East, 7, 98, 107–08, 254, 342, 446,
468African imports, 170, 241, 256African soldiers in, 9, 10, 20, 127anti-Allies feeling, 472African supply bases and routes, 41, 241,
344, 406war theater, 33, 56, 133, 416, 462, 463,
464migrant(s)
in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 183, 186,193, 194, 195, 198
in Tanganyika, 246, 247in West Africa, 295
militarization. See Freetownmilitary, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 22, 32, 35, 36,
65, 88, 137, 138, 143, 151, 158,344. See also conscription,recruitment
authorities, 16, 18, 20, 91, 95, 131, 133,135, 140, 151, 330, 336
base(s), 32, 95, 109, 196, 197, 404benefits, 132, 133, 135culture, East African, 134discipline, 18, 84, 448hospitals, 135, 137, 140officers or officials, 18, 22, 103, 136,
184, 191, 196planners, 3, 5, 7, 133, 140
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police, 16, 456, 458, 464prestige, 95, 99recordkeeping, 72, 137service, 8, 12, 13, 18, 81, 84, 127, 129,
130, 134, 139, 142, 143, 338, 390training, 76, 139, 116, 139, 310, 389n28,
405, 417military, American, in Liberia, 401, 402,
403, 406, 407, 408, 409, 413, 415,416, 417
military, British, 139, 186, 259, 342. Seealso British Military Administration(Eritrea)
censors, 18in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 183–87,
184n3, 189–91, 196–98, 199in Gold Coast, 339, 340, 342, 343–44,
345, 346, 349, 353, 354, 355in Guinea, 449officers, 7, 22, 275planners, 5, 7, 128
Military, French, 3, 19, 23, 89, 91, 94, 95,97, 123, 142, 429, 431. See alsodeuxieme portion du contingentmilitaire, goumiers
camps, 448glory, 89, 101, 103in Morocco, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 103
military, Italian, 169, 264, 268, 387, 388,464, 466, 474
military, South AfricanAfricans, 73, 74, 76, 80, 81, 84, 88command, 71whites, 288, 306, 307, 308, 309, 315,
319, 322military, Spanish, 93Minerals. See copper, cobalt, diamonds,
gold, tin, uranium, vanadium,wolfram
Mines. See coal industry in Enugu, goldmines in Gabon, iron mines inMarampa
Mining, 33, 47, 56, 61, 65, 66, 193n36,210, 212, 213, 219, 239, 279, 283,284, 297, 301
Ministry of Food and Supply (London), 150Ministry of Pensions (Great Britain), 132,
135Ministry of Supply (Great Britain), 40, 57,
202, 204, 250Ministry of War Transport (Great Britain),
190
Ministry of War (Great Britain), 91, 186Mirghani, Muhammad ‘Uthman al-, 469,
470missions. See also Sudan Interior Mission
American, 378Catholic, 368, 378Protestant, 361, 362, 368, 369, 372–73,
374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 380missionaries, xxii, 19. See also Sudan
Interior MissionBritish Protestants in French colonial
Africa, 361–62, 368Catholic emphasis on schooling, 373De Gaulle’s policy toward, 375French, 368n21, 369, 373, 378in Congo, 176in Ivory Coast, 368in Niger, 369–70n25in Nigeria, 286, 287, 367in Uganda, 482, 495suspicion of support for decolonization,
379n50Missionary Federation of French West
Africa, 369mobilization, xx, 90–91, 391, 444, 447,
448, 471, 483military, 5, 6, 25, 103, 187, 194, 391of resources, 24, 96political, 55, 128, 129, 194, 444, 445n5,
471, 476, 495–97, 498, 508worker, 43, 62, 227, 459–60, 504
Mockler, Anthony, 385, 385n13modernization, doctrine of, 133Mogroum (Chad), 215Mombasa (Kenya), 50, 58, 463Money, 12, 123, 127, 176, 192n29, 193,
232, 274, 280, 281, 327, 333, 352,407, 447, 471, 474, 480, 482, 489,493, 494, 507
donating, 147n1, 154, 176, 288, 481,487, 488, 495
raising funds, 444–45, 346, 488take money out of circulation, 47, 60
Monod, Guy, 378, 379, 380Montefusco, Emanuele, 273Morcenx camp, 434Moreno, Martino Mario, 274Morocco, 89, 90, 92, 93, 431. See also
goumiers, propagandaarmistice terms, 94–97clandestine organization of goums,
94–95
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Morocco (cont.)effort de guerre, 89–108role of qaids, 90n2Vichy regime, 91–96
Mossamedes fishing industry, 224Mt. Kilimanjaro, 243Moutet, Marius, 111, 118Moyne, Lord, 351Moyne Report, 50, 51Mozambique, 29, 31, 173, 226, 227, 229,
232. See also cotton, protestsrice production in Mozambique, 225–26
Mpadi, Simon, 230Mpanza, Jame (a.k.a. “Sofasoke”), 65Mulinge, Jackson, 14Muslims, 93, 472, 473
use in British and German propaganda,98
Vichy skepticism about possibility ofChristian conversion, 365,369–70n25
Mussolini, Benito, 4, 5, 212, 261, 262, 264,270, 385, 387n15, 388, 399, 472,474–75
Mustafa, Ahmad al-, 473, 478
Naanen, Benedict, 348Nairobi, 37, 133, 135, 136, 140, 242, 412,
413Namibia (formerly South West Africa), 6,
15, 72nashrat al-akhbar, 98National Assembly (France), 118, 124, 455nationalism, 41, 42, 90, 92, 93, 147, 187,
196, 238, 283, 285, 438in South Africa, 303, 309in Sudan, 42, 471, 477in Uganda, 483, 491, 498
nationalist movement, 67in Guinea, 453in Morocco, 90in Nigeria, 281in Sudan, 471, 475, 477, 479
Nationalist Party, South Africa, 66, 67nationalist press, Nigeria, 40, 280, 294,
297, 301Native Affairs Department, South Africa, 6,
78, 79, 84, 85native, 45, 59, 78, 79, 96, 176, 178, 213,
226, 228, 278, 336, 345, 350, 450,471, 490
courts, 122, 328, 328n17“native custom”, 8
“native reserves”, 15, 132, 133, 134“native troops”, 140, 230
Native Administrators, 85Native Authorities, 8, 14
in Nigeria, 39, 177, 282Native Commissioner(s), 14, 77, 78, 131Native Government, 29, 483, 487, 494, 498Native Military Corps, 71, 82Native Military Labour Corps, 6Nazi empire, 9Nazi propaganda, 90, 98, 133, 438Nazi racism, 260, 261, 262, 275Nazi regimes, 473Nazis, 168, 306, 315, 316, 441Ndebele, 84N’Djole (Gabon), 210, 212, 213, 215Negatu, Afamamber Malak, 394Netherlands, 398, 423New State. See PortugalNew Zealand, 25, 320, 359, 360, 361Newbold, Sir Douglas, 468, 471N’Gouine province (Gabon), 213, 214Niassa Company, 228Niger, 26n10, 31, 32, 359, 360. See also
Sudan Interior MissionVichy administration, 361, 362, 363, 364Perception missionaries as “brittainique”
and subversive, 374, 378, 379n50Protestant community, 366, 367,
368n20, 369n25, 370, 370n27,378n48, 379n50, 381
Nigeria, xx, 83–84, 148, 197, 345, 359,360, 370, 374. See also Abeokuta,coal, Enugu, prostitution, rubber,strikes, tin mines
agricultural production, 57, 30, 31, 33,36, 150, 158, 166, 180, 184
borders, 31, 32, 152, 153, 362, 364,365
broadcasting, 506colonial labor policy, 290, 298economy, 32, 52, 59, 173, 295, 363, 364,
502exports, 30, 54, 57, 149, 151, 151n15,
167, 190, 205forced labor, 44, 202impact of war on economy, 39, 41, 44,
57, 156, 182labor protest, 39, 59–60, 281, 297, 302,
504, 505labor, 48, 49n22, 50, 291, 293mineral resources, 33, 57, 505political protest, 147, 504
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presence of Americans, xx, 403, 418relations with Free France, 202relations with Niger, 360, 362, 363, 364,
365Nigeria-Chad-Sudan axis, 214Nigeria War Relief Fund, xx, 155Nigerian Defense Regulations, 295–96Nigerian General Strike (1945). See strikesNigerian Railway, 278Nigerian Supply Board, 150Nigerian Youth Movement, Gold Coast
section, 347Njinjo (Kenya), 253, 254Nkanu village group (northern Igboland),
283, 287No. 1 (East Africa) General Hospital, 127,
136No. 3 EAC Chest Centre (Nyeri), 136Nogues, Charles Hippolyte, resident general
Morocco, 95–96Nogues, Madame, 434noncombatant(s), 15, 58, 81, 314n33, 322,
478women, 397
North Africa, 15, 16, 18, 26, 54North African campaign (June 1940–May
1943), xviii, 4–5, 7, 8, 12, 42, 54,55, 173, 197, 242–43, 281, 414,474
food supplies from Northern Rhodesia,56
Free France involvement, 100, 219in popular culture, 474Moroccan participation, 89–109Participation of South African troops, 71,
79, 80North America, xxi, 46, 172, 241, 309North Borneo, 27North Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve, 246Northeast Africa, 5, 6, 7, 242, 393, 464,
506Northern Nigeria, 31, 44, 57, 148, 474Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), copperbelt,
44, 47. See also strikesNorthern Rhodesia Regiment, 5, 11, 12Norway, 150Nottingham, Eric Cato, 343, 345, 349, 350,
351, 352, 355nurse(s), 58, 121, 188
African American, 407–08, 419French, 329, 330from Nyasaland (Malawi), 5, 12, 16
N’Zerekore (Guinea), 452, 454, 456
Oberst, Timothy, 29, 67Obubra division (Ogoja province, Nigeria),
347, 348Occupied Enemy Territory Administration
(OETA), Middle East (ME), 260,263, 265, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272
Odutola, Timothy Adeola, 160Office du Niger, 114–19
forced labor (indigenat the deuxiemeportion and other forms of forcedlabor), 62, 63, 109, 114, 119n26
forced settlements or relocations, 46irrigation scheme, 62, 63
officers, 7, 18, 188, 424, 471, 474, 480nn2African attacks on, 139African noncommissioned, 10, 14, 96African, 134, 338American, 186–87British colonial administrative, 8, 153,
155, 158, 184, 196, 197, 284British military, 7, 8, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19,
22, 23, 132, 141, 183, 184, 185,186, 191, 193, 196, 260, 261–62,263, 265–66, 269, 270, 274, 275,471, 484–85, 489, 490
“civil absorption”, 23colonial administrative, 14, 18, 58French colonial administrative, 93n6, 95,
96–97, 99, 102, 103French military, 18, 19, 91, 101, 123,
326–27, 337, 432, 433, 434, 436,460, 468
German military, 424, 433medical, 134, 300, 407South African military, 6, 71, 77, 308
ogaranyan (“big man”, Igbo), 287, 287n37oke okporo (male woman, Igbo), 285Onyeama, Chief of Eke, 287n37Ogoja Province (Nigeria), 347Ogoou´e province (Gabon), 212, 213, 214ohu (slaves), 283, 284, 284n25oil-bearing plants, 229, 450Ojiyi, Isiah, 276–77, 291, 292, 294, 298,
299incident with Thomas Yates, 276, 277,
296, 299Oletta officer training school, 387Ollandet, Jerome, 208Olusanya, G. O., 445n5Omdurman (Sudan), 465, 471, 472, 474,
477Omdurman Radio, 473, 478, 506Onyeama, Chief, 287n36
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oppositional work culture, 301Orde-Browne, Major Granville St. J.,
52–53, 289Ormston, Henry, journalist, 346–47,
347n33Osborne, David, 359, 361, 362, 364, 366,
367, 368, 370–72, 375, 380–82Osborne, Drusille, 364, 367Osborne, Richard, 181Othello, 330Othellophilia, 331Oubangui-Chari (Central African Republic),
175, 178, 209Ouedraogo, Edouard, 424, 434overseas territories, 19, 91, 360, 455, 458Ovimbundu, 229Owerri (Nigeria), 347Owerri Province (Nigeria), 346Oyo province, 156Oyo empire, 148Ozo title (Igbo), 286, 287, 288
Palestine, 7, 20, 242, 398Palestine Railway, 243Palm oil, 31, 40, 56, 154, 156, 167, 242
in Nigeria, 155, 157, 283in Portuguese African colonies, 235
palmatoria, 43, 43n1, 236Pamol, 180Paris, 9, 118, 124, 325, 389, 429, 437Parsons, Sir Arthur, 269, 271, 272Patriots, Ethiopian, 383–400pay, 195, 196, 207, 267Pearl Harbor, 7, 27, 57, 406peasants, 35, 42, 61, 64, 89, 95, 104, 178,
225, 240, 253, 281, 393, 476, 477,507
pensions,belief that East Africans did not need
pensions, 132, 141FWA veterans, 21, 22, 129, 131, 141–42,
338, 438, 454, 455, 456, 460n49Kenyan disability, 134, 138, 141RDA demands, 455, 456
Pensions Assessment Board, 142Pepel. See MarampaPersian Gulf nations, 226, 256Petain, Marshal Philippe, 26, 201n7,
326petroleum, 239, 249Philippines, 27, 253pines, 240
pitsawyers, 244–45, 244 (Figure 13.1), 256plantations, 48, 61, 123, 226, 231. See also
cotton, rubber, sisalin Guinea, 451, 452, 459, 460in Tanganyika, 63, 239, 240, 242, 245in Sao Tome and Principe coca, 58, 231,
234, 235Platt, General William, 466, 471Plaut, Martin, 445n5Pleven, Rene, 202, 205, 206, 207, 448poaching (game), 251podocarpus (Podocarpus usambarensis),
243Pointe-Noire (French Congo), 203, 214poison gas, 394Poland, 50, 150, 398police, 16, 19, 96, 413, 227, 436
in Eritrea, 263n25, 266in France, 334, 335, 378, 436–37in FWA, 447, 454, 455–56, 458in Sierra Leone, 51, 192, 194in Sudan, 263, 464, 466, 467, 479in the Gold Coast, 31, 39, 343, 344, 345,
346, 349, 350, 351, 353in Uganda, 492, 492n42, 497 (Figure
25.2)Native Authority, Abeokuta (Nigeria),
159, 160–61, 162, 164, 165Popular Front, 62, 110, 111–12, 111n3,
112n6, 113, 114, 361port(s). See Cape Town, Durham (South
Africa), Freetown (Sierra Leone),Lagos (Nigeria), Port Harcourt(Nigeria), Takoradi (Gold Coast)
Port Harcourt, 295, 346Port Sudan, 464, 465, 470Porto Novo, 334Portugal, 34, 53, 222, 223, 233, 508. See
also Cape Verde, cotton, SalazarAllied ideas concerning German strategy,
220, 221colonial economic policy, 29, 35, 21, 223,
224, 226, 229, 230, 231, 232, 501grain self-sufficiency, 229neutrality, 26, 220New State, 223, 226, 233role of the Catholic church, 233
price controls, xx, 52, 159Prıncipe, 43, 58, 58n62, 235prazo system, 227prestation, 45, 112n6, 118, 214, 215, 216,
218
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prisoner(s) of war (POW), 4, 320, 420, 467.See also Scapini Mission
French treatment of ex-POWs, 448German treatment of POWs, 428, 429,
431, 432–34, 435, 436, 437, 438,446, 448
in Uganda, 490, 490n35Italians in Eritrea, 138, 264number of African deaths in camps,
447n7profiteering
in Abeokuta (Nigeria), 157, 161in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 192, 192n26,
192n28, 193, 198propaganda, 54, 57, 59, 67, 133, 134, 177,
184, 188, 206, 219, 261, 318, 322as mythical construction of justice, 101British, 97, 189, 199, 259, 263, 278, 468,
478competing campaigns in Morocco, 97–99raised awareness of contradictions in
colonial policy, 54, 72, 280German, 97, 98, 189, 221, 423, 424,
428–29, 435, 436, 438, 472, 473military, 74, 75, 79, 99, 353, 481, 487role of mass media, 54, 98, 99–100, 107,
154, 473, 478, 506Vichy, 44, 429
prostitution, 348–49n39European and American military clients,
355, 503in the Gold Coast, 339, 340–42,
343–46legislation against, 349–50, 352, 353,
355licensed, in Eritrea, 349
Nigerian immigrant sex workers in theGold Coast, 346, 347, 348, 351
racially encoded antiprostitution laws,350
Provence (France), 324Pruvost, H., 459Pullen, Capt. A., 159, 161Pullen Markets, 52punishment, corporeal, 44, 49, 296
qaids, 90n2
race, 7, 12, 79, 93, 354, 400, 408as determinant in SA recruitment drives,
71in South Africa, 6, 9
stereotypes and categories, 12, 72, 269,431
WWII as watershed, 216race laws, in Eritrea, 260, 267, 268, 269,
270, 271–72, 273–75racial consciousness, workers, 60, 280racial discourse, colonial, 103racial discrimination, xxi, xxi, 139, 215,
261, 269, 296n63, 271, 275, 299against Jews, in Eritrea, 260, 268,
269–70, 272–73, 275in workplace, 60, 294, 296, 301, 413
racial equality, 18, 280, 401, 455racial hierarchy, xxii, 261n8, 267, 296racial ideologies, xxii, 293, 355racial insult, 43, 279, 296, 297racial mixing, 10, 261, 267, 337racial policy. See British Military
Administration, Eritrea and Somaliaracial segregation, 6, 19, 55, 65, 71, 134,
138, 402, 403, 408, 413in South Africa, 64, 72, 80n45
racial subordination, 261, 262, 275,296
racial tension, 7, 183, 184, 196, 197, 262,275
racialized labor process, 44racism, 298
Fascist, 262Nazi, 260, 261, 262, 265
Radio Omduman, 473, 478, 506Railway workers, 39, 42, 50, 52, 55, 59,
67, 241, 295, 300, 476, 504, 505Railway Workers Union (Nigeria), 52,
293Rajaobelina, Christian, French-Madagascan
prisoner, 431Ransome-Kuti, Funmilayo, 163, 164Ransome-Kuti, Rev. Israel Oludoton, 154,
163Rapenne, Jean, 370–71Rassemblement Democratique Africain
(RDA), 445n5in Guinea, 453, 454–60, 461in Ivory Coast, 445n5See also chiefs, veterans
Rasul, Al-Shafi’ Khalid al-, 470rationing
food, 28, 38, 41, 90, 153, 451, 468, 492,501
water, 190–91Recham, Belkacem, 421
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recruitment, xix, 12, 33n33, 46, 93deuxieme portion (FWA), 110, 113n9,
114, 116, 117, 123in French Africa, 92n7labor, Angola and Mozambique, 227,
232labor, Free France, 202–03, 212, 214,
281labor, Nigeria, 151–52, 154military, Gold Coast, Nigeria, and Sierra
Leone, 184, 287, 355, 506military, Guinea, 449, 452, 501–02military, in South Africa, 71–81, 82,
84–85, 85n77, 86, 87, 88, 308–09,314n33
military, Uganda, 481, 486, 488Red Cross, 25, 330, 394, 402. See also
International Committee of RedCross
Red Sea, 5, 464, 465, 467, 469reform, 43, 44, 49
Eboue’s ideas of, 217labor, 61, 110–13, 111n3, 126
Regiments d’Infanterie Coloniale MixtesSenegalais, 449
regulos (chiefs), 227reproduction
social, 47, 48, 49, 52, 56, 57, 281, 397biological, 62
resistance, 42, 45, 91, 417, 471African participation in French
Resistance, 9, 112n6, 219, 336, 360,374, 427, 433
anticolonial, 45, 89, 444, 445, 461in Ethiopia, 383–400, 462to chiefs, 41, 443, 457, 458to crop requisitions, 36, 453to forced labor, 62, 63, 117, 119n26,
160, 225, 457, 502to taxation, 85n76, 147–49, 164workers’, 59, 64, 295, 301
Reveil, 455Rhodesia, 11, 202Rhodesian African Rifles, 11, 14Rhone River, 448rice, xix, 36, 37, 38, 39, 54, 121, 217, 224,
225, 238, 246, 333, 449, 450concession scheme, Mozambique, 38,
225–26, 227, 228in Abeokuta, 151, 157, 158–65in Guinea, 449, 450, 451, 452in Sierra Leone, 192–93
Rich, Jeremy, 201Richard-Molard, Jacques, 450rights, equality of, 455riots, 234, 288roads, 8, 48, 54, 62n80, 162, 178, 179,
214–15, 216, 243, 244, 285, 296,419, 446, 451, 490
Roberts Field (Liberia), 342, 406, 407, 410,411, 419
rocas, 235Roosevelt, Franklin, 27, 60, 89, 376, 406Roosevelt-Churchill club, 154Rose, Sonya O., 260Roseiris (Sudan), 466Rougier, Ferdinand, 111, 113Royal Air Force (RAF), 4, 15, 20, 342Royal West African Frontier Force, 5, 13,
151, 343rubber, 19, 30, 154, 181, 204, 207, 210,
219, 450. See also forced laboradulteration, 251Carpodinus vines, 177ceara rubber tree (Manihot glaziovii),
166, 178, 181, 249exports, 170, 205Funtumia elastica tree, 166, 167, 172,
175, 181Hevea brasiliensis tree, 166, 167, 169,
170, 171, 172, 178, 179–81, 182in Belgian Congo, 30, 172, 173, 176,
180, 205in Cameroon, 172, 175, 177, 178, 180,
187in FEA, 177, 175, 204–09, 210in Liberia, 166, 167, 170, 172, 179, 180,
181in Nigeria, 166, 167, 170, 172, 174, 176,
177, 179, 181, 182in Tanganyika, 177, 181, 239, 249–51,
256latex, 169, 172, 176, 178, 180, 204, 207,
249, 251natural rubber, 30, 166, 167–68, 169,
171, 173, 181, 204Panama rubber tree (Castilla elastica),
166plantations, 30, 166, 170, 180, 205, 240,
406reclaimed, 167reconditioning of tires, 173recycled, 171rubber goods industry, 169, 173
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rubber production, 19, 30, 168, 181, 204,205–06, 207, 210, 210, 249, 450
rubber stocks, 169, 170synthetic, 156, 168, 204, 249, 256tapping, 172, 177, 180, 241, 246, 250,
251, 252, 256wild, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178,
181–82, 206, 207, 239, 249–50,256, 450
rugby, 308, 320–21rural areas, 44, 59, 62, 64, 95, 116, 155,
169, 228, 449, 456, 458–59, 460,501, 503
Russia, 389n18rutile, 202Ryckmans, Pierre, 33
S. Antao island, 234S. Nicolau island, 234Sadoul, Numa, 216, 216n68Sanaga Maritime region (Cameroon), 209safari, 311
gear, 304Sahara, 169, 212sailors, 53, 183, 401, 419Saint Raphael, 333Salazar, Antonio, 63, 229, 233
autarky, 220, 226neutrality, 220–21, 222Portuguese colonial policy, 35, 225, 230,
231salt, 150n11, 151, 151n15, 153, 155, 160,
161Sao Tome and Principe (also Sao Tome e
Prıncipe), 58, 58n62Sarour, Muhammad Ahmad, 471, 473, 474sawmills, 32
in Tanganyika, 243–44Scapini, Georges, 423, 429, 430–31, 432,
434Scapini Mission, 423, 428, 432, 433Scheck, Raffael, 46, 329Seabees, 186, 197“second colonial occupation”, 239, 255,
502Second Portion of the Military Contingent.
See deuxi`eme portion du contingentmilitaire
Second World War. See World War IIsegregation, 55
in France, 19in Kenya, 134, 138
in South Africa, 6, 65, 71, 72, 80n45in the US army, 402–03, 408, 413, 415
Sekgoma, Gilbert A., 187Sekondi (Gold Coast), 339, 353, 503Selassie, Haile, emperor of Ethiopia,
and women soldiers, 391, 392army reforms, 387–88exile in Britain, 383, 387League of Nations speech, 384return to Ethiopia in 1941, 259, 466
Selassie, Sahle, king of Shoa, Ethiopia, 392Selous Game Reserve, 252–53Sembene, Ousman, Senegalese author, 67Sena Sugar Company, 226Senegal, 41, 119, 327, 333, 368, 403, 436
contact with African Americans, 20market for indigo-dyed cloth, 149peanuts, 31, 451rice production, 36rubber exports, 169
Senghor, Leopold, 23, 41, 118report of captivity, 435n56
separation allowances, 298Seredou quinine plantation, 460servants
African Americana treated Liberians like,411
in Enugu, 300in Ethiopian, 390, 397
“service de la main d’oeuvre et du travail”,203
settersin East Africa, 249in Eritrea, 261in Kenya, 15, 36–37, 59, 61, 132in Niger, 62–63in South Africa, 309in Southern Rhodesia, 11, 61Italian settlers, 161n9Portuguese settlers, 230
sewing machines, 175, 285Seyoum, Kebedech, 392Shakespeare, 330–31Sheldrick, Dame Daphne, 37shifta (bandit or rebel), 390, 390n32Shingeite, Saleh, 468shipping, xx, 27, 36, 155, 156, 157, 170,
185, 242, 253shortage of, 57, 224, 232, 235
ship(s), 335, 473, 488cargo, 32, 185, 498, 503loading, 195, 402
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ship(s) (cont.)merchant, 222, 224troop, 185, 448
Shoa (Ethiopia), 392, 393, 397Shoah (Holocaust), 262, 269, 275Shodipo, Mr., 39, 160–61sidetegna (refugee combatant in Ethiopia),
383Sierra Leone, 52, 148, 183–99, 183n1, 290,
403, 503. See also cost of living,Freetown, mining, rice, strikes,workers
Americans stationed in, 183, 187Imports and exports, 32, 184, 151n15,
279(Table 15.1), 451concern about availability of forest
products, 32European population, 186military installations, 184n3wartime employment opportunities in,
186, 503wartime colonial administration, 186,
189, 194Sierra Leone Coaling Company (SLCC), 194Sierra Leone Colony, 183n1, 184n3, 186,
187, 188n10, 189, 191, 198n56Sierra Leone Defense Corps, 188n12Sierra Leone Protectorate, 183n1, 188n10,
193–94, 193n38, 198Singapore, fall to Japan (1942), 57, 204,
278, 296n63, 340consequences for Africa, 27
Sir Abdalla al-, 473sisal, 238, 450
in Tanganyika, 61, 63, 231, 245, 253U.S. market, 29, 224
Sissoko, Fily Dabo, 118, 124Slaugther, Jane, 399slavery, 41, 51, 62, 125, 401, 408, 418
comparison of Office du Niger policy offorced labor to, 118, 120, 121, 122,123, 363
legacy in eastern Nigeria, 284n23sleeping sickness, 174, 207, 240, 241, 252,
253smallholdings, 166, 178–79Symthe, John Henry, 15Smythe, Quentin, 306, 310, 319Smuts, General Jan, 6, 222, 303–04, 306,
306n4, 319, 322sobas (chiefs), 228Socfin (Groupe Rivaud), 180
social engineering, 62, 203, 240, 281softwoods, 240, 243, 255soldiers. See also casualties, prisoners of
war, recruitment, tirailleurs, womencombatants
African, xxi, 3, 4, 7, 18, 19, 21, 22inequitable service conditions, 12, 15,
82, 132insubordination, 17and veneral disease, 19, 344viewed as expendable, 130
African American, 267, 402, 412, 413,415, 416, 417
in Africa, 417, 403, 405, 412, 419,506
in Eritrea, 266–67in Liberia, 342, 404, 410
Algerian, 437American, 260, 343, 405, 407East African, 8–9, 10, 11, 12. See also
Kenya African Rifles,French African, 4, 5, 11, 13, 17, 18, 19,
21, 101, 328, 332–36, 376, 446–47army reforms, 337–38discrimination against, 324, 325in metropolitan France and Middle
East, 9, 324participation in liberation of France, 9,
324Guinea, 17, 327, 460Kenyan, 125, 130, 130, 133, 140
disability, 137, 143South African. See Directorate of
Non-European Army Services,Native Military Corps, UnionDefence Force
Somalia, 33, 242, 259, 385nn13, 389, 463,469, 472
Somaliland, 305British, 5, 27, 310Italian, 388
Somaliland Camel Corps, 5Somji, Jaffer, 252Somme, 324Somoye, Oladipo, 154Sorunke, Emanuel, 153South Africa. See also Afrikaner(s),
apartheid, Directorate ofNon-European Army Services,Native Military Corps, racialsegregation, recruitment, UnionDefence Force
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contribution of minerals to war, 47, 64,66
industrial development, 64–66ISCOR parastatal, 64objections to arming and training
Africans, 11relaxation of segregation, 65, 71strategic position, 64workers in multiracial war-related
employment, 64–66, 73South African Communist Party, 66South African Native Military Labour
Service, 8South Atlantic military command, 32South Game Reserve, 37South Pacific, 172South West Township (SOWETO), 65–66Southeast Asia, 11, 12, 19, 21, 182
Japanese control of, 27, 31, 38, 156, 167,171, 174, 205, 238, 205, 278
rubber estates, 180, 181Southeast Asia Command, 12Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), 33, 37, 56,
61, 84, 232. See also food, forcedlabor, maize, mineral production,rubber, soldiers
Soviet sphere of influence, 3Soviet Union, 78, 171, 221, 384, 432Spain, 4, 29, 35, 220, 398
neutrality, 26, 220, 221, 224, 501Spanish Civil War, 38, 224, 225Spence, C. F., 225, 228, 231Spitfires Fund, 344sport, 303, 308–09, 320, 321Springbok, 321Springbok Army of Sportsmen, 303, 308Squatters, South Africa, 87Stereotypes, 12, 72, 133, 297, 317, 318Stevenson, Sir Hubert Craddock, governor
of Sierra Leone, 193n38Stoler, Ann, 107, 331Stooke, George Beresford, 161strategic war materials, 30, 57, 64, 66, 167,
172, 220, 238, 251, 362strikes, 39, 43, 49–51, 49n19, 53, 56, 59,
66, 288–89, 292, 293, 302, 505and indigenous associations, 49n22,
50Gold Coast cocoa farmers, 40, 40n74in Britain, 298n72in British Caribbean, 44, 288, 292,
294–95
in Enugu (Nigeria), 49n22, 67, 280in Eritrea, 263n25in FWA/AOF, 39, 67, 112n6, 120, 123,
300, 504in Northern Rhodesian copperbelt, 44,
44n6, 50, 288, 292in Sierra Leone, 183, 194–95, 194n40,
196, 199in South Africa, 39, 66in Sudan, 39, 476, 477, 502Kenya general strike (1947), 39, 504Nigerian general strike (1945), 39, 60,
293, 296, 300prohibition of, 52, 54, 57, 181right to strike, 52, 57, 58, 59, 293, 295Ugandan general strike (1945), 482, 485,
490, 495, 497Strobl, Ingrid, 398, 399submarines, 11, 171, 221, 233Sudan, 266, 383, 396, 403
Italian invasion, 27, 33, 55Italian occupation of Kassala, 468–71,
478protest, 55, 502, 504economic conditions, 39, 465, 477nationalists, 41, 42, 478military experience, 5, 478–79war theater, 42, 55, 214, 242, 462,
463–67popular response to WWII, 467–68,
471–78Sudan Defense Force (SDF), 464, 465, 466,
467, 470, 473, 474, 479Sudan Interior Mission (SIM), 359–82Sudan Railways (SR), 463Sudanese railway workers, 39, 476Sudanese Women’s Union (SWU), 477Suez Canal, 7, 26, 243, 249, 401Sugar, 25, 153n30, 225, 231, 239, 241,
467Sultan, ʿAbd al-Majid, 469Sumatra, 180Suremain, Henri de, 219Suret-Canale, Jean, 459Swaziland, 8, 10, 72Sweden, 34Switzerland, 389Symes, Sir Stewart, governor general of
Sudan, 467Syria, 4, 9, 11, 97, 324
tabors, 93n14, 95, 97
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Takla-Yawaryat, Bejerond, Ethiopianambassador to France andSwitzerland, 389
Takoradi (Gold Coast), 278, 339, 342, 343,344, 346, 353, 355, 463, 503
Takoradi Route, 55, 342n12Tanganyika, 63, 83, 248. See also forced
labor, King’s African Rifles, rubber,timber, women
British takeover from Germans, 240exports, 33, 61, 247, 254forest reserves, 239, 240, 243, 245,
246–49, 251, 253, 255–56forestry development, 238–56sawmills, 243–44
tanks, 8, 54, 65, 96, 319, 387, 389, 464,465, 466
Tarascon, 333taungya (forest farming). See forest farmingTawa anticolonial movement, Angola, 230tax(es), 35, 57, 64, 112, 118, 177, 184, 187,
216, 227, 249, 250, 328, 363, 373in Abeokuta (Nigeria), 148, 149n7, 163,
164in Guinea, 443, 445, 451, 452, 457, 458in Uganda, 481, 486, 486n17, 487, 488,
489, 490income, 60, 149poll tax, 142, 149refusal to pay, 63, 452, 453revolt, 85n76, 148, 164
taxation, 28, 29, 41, 47, 150Tchioula, Mr., 215Tea, 225, 267
plantations, 226, 227Tel Aviv (Israel), 243Tenants Representative Body (TRB), 477Territorial Assembly elections (Guinea),
456textiles, 30, 155, 239, 241. See also
indigo-dyed clothPortuguese, 35, 214
Thiaroye revolt, 17, 329, 335, 338, 436, 44Thomas, Martin, 422, 430n36Thorburn, Sir James (Governor of the Gold
Coast), 341, 350Throup, David, 152Tigrai People’s Liberation Front, 384n3Tigre (Eritrea), 388timber, 25, 32–33, 63, 200, 202, 203, 231,
238, 240, 241–45, 247, 248for construction, 239, 241, 246, 255, 256
European market for, 255military, 253
tin, 33, 57, 278, 505tin mines, 57tirailleurs marocains, 4, 96Tirailleurs Senegalais, 326n8, 422, 428,
433, 437, 438, 444, 446and French women and wives, 329–37demobilization, 447casualty rate, 21execution by Germans, 446transformation of view of colonial
situation, 338, 429, 442and Vichy France, 4, 12, 20, 22, 46, 113,
114, 117name change to “soldats africains”, 338,
368, 446, 448, 449impact of war on later political
participation, 449tires, 63, 167, 169, 171, 173, 204, 498Tobruk (Libya), 8, 71, 305, 315, 319–20Toby, Jean-Francois, governor of Niger,
364, 370, 372, 379Togo, 453Toukoto (French Soudan), 119, 123, 124,
125Toulon (France), 448tourism, 311trade goods, 174, 176, 366Trades Union Congress (Britain), 53, 289trade unions
legalization, 290, 505in FWA, 460British policy, 51, 53, 53n34, 289n42,
290n47in Nigeria, 291, 293, 296
traders, 177, 193, 226, 351, 352, 502.See also women
traffic in women and children, Nigeria toGold Coast, 339, 346, 347, 348, 351
legislation against, 352, 354training, military
African American, 405, 407, 413, 417in FWA, 116, 123in South Africa, 11, 76, 81, 303, 308,
309–10, 314, 322in Sudan, 462, 466in the Gold Coast, 339, 342, 343
training, technical and vocational, 54, 128,134, 135, 136, 233, 292, 492
Trans-African Air Ferry Route, 54trans-Saharan railway, 431
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Trans-Siberian Railway, 171travel, 83, 124, 125, 131, 153, 311, 348,
380, 407, 450free train, 126routes, 374to evangelize, 365travel document, 353
Treaty of Friendship and Non-Aggression(1940), 220
trees, 240, 243–49, 489. See alsohardwoods, rubber, softwoods
Asian, 170camphor, 243cedar, 243cocoa, 235coconut, 229eucalyptus, 240, 246ironwood (Cassia siamea), 246Isoberlina, 243miombo (Brachystegia spp), 243, 245,
253, 256mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis), 243,
244mvule (Milicia excels), 243mahogany (Khaya spp.), 243pines, 240podocarpus (Podocarpus usambarensis),
243teak, 241, 256Tripolitania (Libya), 272, 385Tuhami, Badr al-, 473Twenty-fifth Station Hospital (Liberia),
407, 408, 410Twenty-seventh Quartermaster Regiment,
405
U-boats, 222, 233, 406Udi district (northern Igboland), 283Uganda. See coffee, cotton, demobilization,
development, education, Fascism,Italian(s), land, loyalty, missionaries,nationalism, police, recruitment,strikes, tax(es), veterans, women inUganda, World War II
Ujamaa socialism, 240Uniforms, xx, 7, 9, 74, 75, 107, 112, 206,
320, 394, 395, 448, 473, 497(Figure25.2)
Unilever, 180Union Carbide, 34Union Defence Force (UDF), 6, 14, 18, 71,
72, 73, 86, 309, 314, 315, 321
Union Mines Development Corporation, 34Union Miniere, 34Union of South Africa. See South AfricaUnion Defence Force (South Africa), 6, 71,
303United Africa Company (UAC), 40, 154United Kingdom, 34, 40, 58, 132, 204, 205,
260, 267, 351United Nations trusts, 453United States, 359, 377, 401. See also
Roberts Field (Liberia)Military presence in Africa, 183, 187,
403, 405, 406United States, Combined Chiefs of Staff,
184, 197universalism, French rhetoric of, 454Upper Guinea, 452, 455, 459Upper Nile, 464, 467Upper Volta, 443uranium, 33, 34–35, 47, 66urban poor, 49, 58, 288, 463urbanization, 20, 187, 239, 282, 289, 348,
502, 503Usambara (Tanganyika), 181
vanadium, 47Vargo, Marc, 398venereal disease, 18, 268, 339, 409, 415,
449in the Gold Coast, 18, 268, 340, 341–44,
347, 347n31, 349, 353–55, 355n63,356, 503
Versailles, 436veterans, 20, 21, 22, 23, 128, 132, 401
African Americans, 407, 417–18, 506in FWA, 142, 338, 422, 438, 442grievances, 22, 42, 338, 444, 454–56,
458, 460n49, 501–02impact of relationships with white
women, 436n61protest against chiefs, 443, 456–58revolt against military authorities, 447right to vote, 454role in nationalism and RDA, 443, 445,
445n5, 447, 449, 453, 454, 455,460, 461
in Kenya, 23, 127, 129disabled, 21, 22, 23, 131, 134, 135–41,
142, 143in Sierra Leone, 198in South Africa, 310in Sudan, 462, 479
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veterans (cont.)in the Gold Coast, 23, 502in Uganda, 484n7, 487, 492–93, 498World War I, 421, 432
Veterans of Foreign Wars, 142Vichy France. See also forced labor,
indigenat, rubberAllied fear of alliances with Japan and
Germany, 168, 173–74, 222belief on importance of French empire,
360–61civil war in Gabon between Vichy
administration and Free France, 217,219
discredited, 376distrust of SIM mission in Niger, 359,
361–63, 364–75, 376, 377economic policy, 168, 169, 364fear of negative impact of soldiers’ war
experience, 325FWA support for, 4, 168in British West Africa and AEF, 403labor polices, 113–17policy regarding wives of FWA soldiers,
325Viera Machado, Francisco (Portuguese
minister for the colonies), 221, 230Vigoureux, Armand, 210–12Vikindu (Tanganyika), 246, 247, 248, 249,
252Vikindu Forest, 246–47village-group, 283violence, 17, 35, 51, 59, 217, 267, 293,
319, 413, 423, 426, 483, 486n15Vittel (France), 334, 335
Wad Medani (Sudan), 467Wadi Halfa (Sudan), 467Wage(s), 49, 53, 181, 184
agitation for higher wages, 444, 460, 476cuts during Depression, 47bargaining, 52demand for equal pay, 45, 455family, 300, 505lack of incentive for French West Africans
to seek wage employment, 451“guaranteed decent wage”, 114higher wages, 59, 66, 116, 119, 125effectiveness of strikes in getting higher
wages, 505in Sierra Leone, 186, 194, 195, 196, 198,
199
in Tanganyika, 244, 245concept of “just wage”, 299low wages as colonial policy, 15, 16, 48,
55, 57, 58, 65, 183Free French soldiers’ grievance over delay
in payment of, 17, 448reforms, 60, 290
impact of urbanization, xx, 50wartime controls, 185
Wage(s) in Enugu (Nigeria), 157, 280, 281,282
and acquisition of symbols of modernity,288
and intergenerational conflict, 282, 284coal miners’ valorization of, 285redefinition of masculinity, 284, 287, 300grievances, 294, 295, 298, 299living wage, 301
wage-fixing boards, 52Wakamba, 38wakili (chief in Vikindu), 246Wallace-Johnson, Isaac Theophilus Akunna,
51, 52, 194, 194. See also WestAfrican Youth League
War Department (United States), 402, 408War Department Amalgamated Workers
Union (WDAWU), 194War Office (Great Britain), 5, 135, 159,
185, 186, 272, 273, 344Washington (District of Columbia), 34,
169, 170, 204, 41Wehrmacht (“poor army”), 168West Africa, 10, 26, 51, 52, 54, 186, 282,
290, 299, 325, 339, 355, 435, 463,504
African American newspaper focus on,401
changing strategic role, 24, 278, 340economy, 40, 56food, 36, 150, 158Gaullist takeover of, 364German colonial interests in, 424source of tropical products, 57war effort in, 153wartime realities, 277
West African Cocoa Control Board, 57West African Frontier Force (WAFF), 13, 51West African labor conferences, 290West Africa magazine, 346West African Pilot, 61West African Produce Control Board, 40,
57
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West African War Council, 186, 298West African Youth League (WAYL), 51,
188West Indies riots, 288Westcott, Nicholas, 28Weygand, General Maxime, French
commander-in-chief in North Africa,432
white bosses, 44, 55, 277, 296“white man’s war”, 80, 88White Nile, 463White, Owen, 331, 332n28White, Walter, chief secretary, NAACP,
415, 417whites, 74, 80, 81, 88, 183, 196–97, 215,
216, 413, 457Wiesbaden German Commission (OKW),
94, 95, 96, 97Wild Rubber Order, 177wildlife (game), 252–53Win-the-War Fund (Nigeria), 154Woizero, Ethiopian female title, 391, 392,
393Woldeyes, Woizero Zenebech, Ethiopian
patriot combatant, 391, 394, 396wolfram, 220, 221Woman’s Voice, 477women, xx, xxi, 3, 42, 46, 48, 56, 61, 129,
143, 281. See also Army NurseCorps, forced labor, prostitution
African American nurses, 407and export production, 31, 63, 148and forced labor, 35, 449, 451Berber, 106noncombantant roles, 25, 397sexual relations of African American
soldiers with African women, 409,410, 411, 412, 415
sexual relations of European men withEritrean women, 261, 269
traders, xxi, 52, 60, 198, 248, 290,290n45
in Abeokuta (Nigeria), 149, 155, 157,160, 161, 162–63, 164, 165
In Freetown, 192, 192n18urban, xx, xxi, 42, 461, 503white, 267, 314, 322, 331, 398, 436,
436n61, 503French, 18, 324, 325–32, 332n28, 336,
337, 338, 436, 503wives or concubines? Definition of role in
family, 300
Women combatants, xx, 399, 400Ethiopian Patriots, 390–99in French resistance, 94in Ethiopia, 384, 400in Sudan, 476
Women in Abeokuta (Nigeria)1947 tax revolt, 148, 164and wartime economy, 155–57domination in foodstuffs and textile
trade, 149new women’s associations, 136, 163,
164struggle for rice, 158–61, 162tax revolt, 162–63, 165taxation, 148, 149, 163
Women in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 58,184, 188, 188n12, 191
market women, 186, 192, 192n28Women in Sudan, 474, 476, 477Women in Tanganyika, 248, 254
and rubber industry, 207, 210, 239forest farmers, 239, 246, 247
Women in South Africa, 65, 120, 307,321
squatter movement, 65, 74Women in Uganda, 486, 490n35women’s villages, Liberia, 410Women’s War of 1929, 283workers, 43, 44, 45, 48, 50–56, 64, 121,
277. See also coal miners, labor,workplace
colonial mythology of, 45, 48, 280colonial policy toward, 290, 293, 297,
505concept of, 281grievances, 49n19, 59, 65, 203, 448in rubber industry, 205miners (except coal), 50, 66, 202,
213mobilization during WWII, 459–60protest, 276, 295–97, 504railway, 39, 42, 50, 55, 59, 67, 241, 293,
295, 300, 476, 504, 505transport, 47, 54, 67, 504
workforce, 15, 45, 48, 51, 128, 214, 281,298
diversification of, 58, 65in Enugu coal mines, 283, 284, 288,
291plantation, 63, 235–36reproduction of, 49, 52“stabilizing a workforce”, 203
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worker protest(s), 56, 64, 278, 290, 301,504. See also strikes
in Enugu coal mines, 295–301working class
colonial African, 47, 57, 58, 59, 65, 281,282, 289, 293, 476, 505
British, 44, 281, 290consciousness, 48, 49, 55definition, 46, 292ethic, 276Nigerian, 293, 295, 301
workplacecolonial, 48, 49, 53, 276, 278brutality, 44, 51, 61, 296desertion from, 452, 459, 460grievances, 60, 504perception of “just treatment”, 299racial discrimination, 55, 61, 277, 278,
279, 294, 296reconceptualization of socioeconomic
roles, 281World War I, 29–30n22, 93, 93n11, 131,
133, 241, 284, 301, 468, 472, 486,490
French deployment of African soldiers,324, 329
impact on Igbo domestic slavery, 284n23POWs, 432
World War II, 12, 17, 25, 26, 35, 384, 401Africa’s strategic importance, 24, 31, 35,
403, 501as watershed, xx, 418changing perceptions of colonial rulers,
338the “good war”, 15
historiography, xviii–xxi, xxii, 25,462
impact on US Civil Rights Movement,417
in Egypt, 33, 37, 55, 242, 305, 311, 318,403, 414, 462, 463, 465
in Kenya, 128, 129, 134, 137, 141in Morocco, 89–108in Sudan, 462–79in Uganda, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 486,
488, 490, 498planning, 45, 242policies, xxi, 41, 54, 58socioeconomic impact, 35, 65, 120, 125,
142, 340, 349
Yaju `Aydein (popular war song in Sudan),474
Yates, Thomas, 276, 277, 296, 299yewist arbegna (a category of combatant),
383Yoruba News, The, 154Yugoslavia, 398
Zambesia Company, 226Zambezia province (Mozambique), 227,
228, 232Zambia, 47, 177Zaramo farmers, 246Zeleki, Kegnaznach Admasu, 396Zeret caves, 397Zewde, Bahru, 389Zik Group of nationalist papers, 298Zikist movement, 281Zulu, 83, 84–86, 85n76, 309, 315
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