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8/19/2019 Indian Highways Vol.41 5 May 13
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The Indian Roads Congress
E-mail: [email protected]/[email protected]
Founded : December 1934
IRC Website: www.irc.org.inJamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,
New Delhi - 110 011
Tel : Secretary General: +91 (11) 2338 6486
Sectt. : (11) 2338 5395, 2338 7140, 2338 4543, 2338 6274
Fax : +91 (11) 2338 1649
Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram
New Delhi - 110 022
Tel : Secretary General : +91 (11) 2618 5303
Sectt. : (11) 2618 5273, 2617 1548, 2671 6778,
2618 5315, 2618 5319, Fax : +91 (11) 2618 3669
No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. The responsibility of the
contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author/s concerned. IRC and the Editor disclaim responsibility
and liability for any statement or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The opinions expressed in the
papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.
VOLUME 41 NUMBER 5 MAY 2013
CONTENTS ISSN 0376-7256
LIST OF ADVERTISERS
ICT Pvt. Ltd. - Inside Front Cover
AE&C - Inside Back Cover
Bentley Systems Pvt. Ltd. - Outside Back Cover
10 Metal Engineering & Treatment Co. Pvt. Ltd.
11 Rettenmaier India Pvt. Ltd.
12 BASF
13 Tiki Tar Industries India Ltd.
14 Alchemist Touchnology Ltd.
15 IRF-India Chapter
16 Advertisement Tarrif
23 Primax Equipment Pvt. Ltd.
24 Gloster Limited
39 Casta Engineers Pvt. Ltd.
40 Poly Flex
65 Perma Construction Aids Pvt. Ltd.
65 Arun Soil Lab Pvt. Ltd.
66 Coir Board
75 Redecon (India) Pvt. Ltd.
92 Alexis Enterprises Pvt. Ltd.
93 Techfab India
94 Halcrow Consulting India Pvt. Ltd.
95 Jalnidhi Bitumen Specialities Pvt. Ltd.
96 New/Revised Publications Now Available on Sale
INDIAN HIGHWAYSA REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT
Page
2-3 From the Editor’s Desk
4-9 Glimpses of First Collaborative Endeavour of IRC with
Educational Institutions
17 Inuence of Environmental Factors on TemperatureDifferential in High Performance Cement Concrete
Pavements
K.S. Suresh Kumar, M.S. Amarnath and G.B. Avinash
25 Quality Audit for Concrete Constructions
C.V. Kand
41 Sustainability Challenges & Opportunities in Bridge
Building
V. N. Heggade
57 Inuence of Skew Angle in the Design of Grids Madhavi N, Baskar K, Natarajan C and Rajaraman A.R.
67 Experiences from Investigation of Expansion Joints and
Bearings in Concrete Bridges
S.K. Sharma, Lakshmy Parameswaran, Rajeev Goel and
Sushil Kumar
76-88 Amendments to IRC:6-2010 and IRC:78-2000
89-90 Circulars Issued by MORT&H
91 Tender Notice of NHs Kanpur
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2 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013
Dear Readers,
The visionary decision taken by the Government for getting highway projects executed through
Engineering Procurement and Construction (EPC) mode in place of traditional mode of item rate
contracts may provide the much needed relief to the road sector players. In the current scenario of
global economic downtrend with symptoms of economic contraction, the execution of highway sector
projects through EPC mode may allow much needed breather both to the Contractors & Financers, as
EPC contracts are public funding cash contracts. This may also allow much needed consolidation in the
sector which may help in strengthening the foundation for achieving greater pace of progressiveness
in the coming years.
As normally happens, the introduction of new system/mode comes with some apprehensions and
reservations among the different stakeholders. There is a need to demystify the EPC benets, processand procedures. This may require a concerted efforts as well as collaborative approach from all the
stakeholders. However, the visionary action of the government of introducing EPC in highway sector
is clearly a step towards building a climate perceivable to be friendly to enterprises, investment and
expeditious development in the road building activities which will have enormous positive linkages to
the overall economic development.
The EPC mode provides an opportunity as well as exibility to the Contractor(s) to introduce cuttingedge technologies, techniques, instrumentation, new materials, etc. This may help him in not only in
improving the efciency but may also help in improving overall durability as well as bringing downthe cost of the project(s).
The EPC entrepreneur(s) may also have the scope to make use of emerging concept of “frugal”
engineering which implies lean engineering methodology or process that involves optimum use of
resource(s) at hand.
Similarly, the various approvals/permissions to be provided by the client road authorities within the
stipulated time frame augurs well for all stakeholders including public, as system of implementation of
projects becomes a well-dened and transparent process. However, this may result in added pressureon the cliental road authorities to meet the stipulated deadlines for different activities especially related
to handing over the land, environmental clearances, General Arrangement Drawings (GAD), etc. There
may be some possibilities of augmenting the human resource in certain domain areas of the cliental
road authorities coupled with upgrading the skill of existing manpower.
From the Editor’s Desk
EPC IN HIGHWAY – WIN-WIN FOR ALL
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EDITORIAL
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013 3
The explicit provision of damages payable to the Contractors on account of non-availability of the
stipulated clearances, etc. clearly reects towards the transformation of role of the government –moving away from the command and control economy/development of earlier days towards ensuring
good governance and an effective system to incentivize innovation(s) and removal of inefciency. Thisis also reected in provisions related to payment of bonus for early completion of the project(s).
The EPC mode in highway sector also throws open more opportunities for job creation and
employment in the road sector including entrepreneurship in the domain areas of consultancy services
in project preparation, survey & investigations, road safety, quality control, etc. This is adequately
reected in the enabling provision of 70% of work which can be outsourced by the EPC Contractor.Possibly EPC may prove to be a game changer in road sector in the coming years.
Perceptible benets of the EPC in road sector may be many but of course best practices suitingdifferent category of projects needs to be evolved, which may get evolved over a time period and
feedback based there on from different implementing agencies. In the process of transition to new
concepts and systems, it is always preferable to remember the wise words of Osho:- “Knowledge
makes you learned, but wisdom makes you innocent. Knowledge is ego fullling but wisdom kills ego.Wisdom is simply wisdom. It is truth. Wisdom cannot be true or untrue”.
Place: New Delhi Vishnu Shankar Prasad
Dated: 22nd April, 2013 Secretary General
—————
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HIGHLIGHTS
4 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013
As a new initiative of widening the reach of IRC,
a collaborative approach with technical institutions
has been initiated by IRC. In the rst of the series,a National Event “Transport Infrastructure Congress
and Expo-2013 (TICE-2013)” has been organized as
joint endeavour by the Malaviya National Institute
of Technology (MNIT) Jaipur & IRC from March 7,
2013 to March 9, 2013 as a part of Golden Jubilee
Celebrations of MNIT Jaipur.
The event generated a lot of interest from all the
stakeholders including the private sector and
particularly the student community of the
engineering colleges. It is heartening to
mention that 25 Engineering Colleges/Universities participated in this event from the States of
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa,
Karnataka & Tamil Nadu. Besides students and
faculties of these colleges, a large number of
professionals/engineers/scientists from the
Central Government, State Government,
Public Sector Units, Research Institutions, etc.
participated in the deliberations. The
engineering students for the rst time were given a
unique opportunity of having interaction with the practising professionals & experts in the eld of
GLIMPSES OF FIRST COLLABORATIVE ENDEAVOUR OF
IRC WITH EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
road & road transport sector. The students were
exposed to the wisdom of the experts, thereby
preparing them to meet the challenges in future in
better way. The engineering students showcased
their talent and capabilities through the working
models and posters on the real life issues in the
road and road transport sector.
The major features of the event were:-
1. Two day National Workshop/ Conference.
2. Three day Technical Exhibition on
Transportation technologies and materials.
3. Student Research Model Exhibition/
Competition.4. Three days Career Counselling Session
over job opportunities in Transport Sector/
Engineering.
The State Government of Rajasthan extended full
support to the event. Shri Shanti Dhaliwal, Hon’ble
Minister of Urban Development, Government of
Rajasthan inaugurated the event. The inaugural event
was also attended by Shri Gajendra Haldea, Advisor
to DCH (Infrastructure) Planning Commission, Govt.
of India as Guest of Honour besides other dignitariesfrom the Central and State Government.
Glimpses of Inaugural Session
Shri Shanti Dahliwal, Hon’ble Minister Urban Development, Govt. of Rajasthan
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HIGHLIGHTS
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013 5
Shri Gajendra Haldea, Advisor to DCH (Infrastructure)
Planning Commission
Shri G.S. Sandhu, Additional Chief Secretary,
Government of Rajasthan
View of Audience
During the event the Experts/Speakers made presentation on the following topics.
1. “Design of Noise Barrier for Elevated Highway
Infrastructure” by M. Parida, Professor IIT
Roorkee.
2. “Transit Oriented Sustainable Urban
Development” by S.L. Dhingra, Professor IIT
Bombay.
3. “Road Drainage A case Study of Panipat City” by S.N. Sachdeva, Professor NIT Kurukshetra
4. “Enabling New Policy Initiatives of MoRTH
to Promote Innovation and Road Safety” by
S.K. Nirmal, MoRTH, New Delhi
5. “New Materials & Technology in Roads” by
P.K. Jain, Head Flexible, Pavement Division,
CRRI
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HIGHLIGHTS
6 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013
6. “Review of Bituminous Mixes Used in India”
by Prof. P.S. Kandhal, Associate Director
Emeritus, National Center for Asphalt
Technology, USA
7. “Remote Sensing & GIS application for RouteAlignment ” by P K Garg, Professor IIT
Roorkee
8. “Trafc Infrastructure Projects for Jaipur city” by Shri Kuldeep Ranka, Jaipur Development
Commissioner
A Panel Discussion was also held. The students/researchers were given an exclusive opportunityto have rst-hand interaction with the expertsof various issues relating to the road transport
sector. The Panelist were Shri Vishnu ShankarPrasad, Secretary General, IRC, Professor P.S.Kandhal, M Parida, Prof. IIT Roorkee, S L Dh-ingra, Prof. IIT Bombay, Dr. I.K. Bhatt, DirectorMNIT Jaipur, Prof B L Swami MNIT Jaipur andDr. Arun Gaur MNIT Jaipur.The innovative feature of this event was the exhi- bition of research models/posters on the theme oftransport infrastructure by the students. The stu-dent showcased the solutions to various problemsand current issues & situations in the road sec-tor. Prizes were distributed to encourage students.The models & posters were evaluated by a groupof experts under categories namely (i) Electronics(ii) Architecture (iii) Civil & (iv) Posters. Thewinners under four categories were as under:-
1. Electronics Category
(i) Shri Akhil Jain, 3rd Year B.Tech
Electronics & Communication
Engineering, MNIT Jaipur on an
embedded system which is used for
tracking and positioning of any vehicle by
using Global Positioning System (GPS) &
GSM.
(ii) Team of S/Shri Utkarsh Verma, Shayam
Sunder, Vipin Kumar Choube & Saurabh
Jain (VII SEM, VIT-EAST, ECT) on
Multi Storeyed Automatic Parking;
(iii) Team of S/Shri Gaurav Upadhyay
& Hitendra Singh Rathore, 3rd Year
B.Tech (Electrical Enginnering),
Poornima Institute of Engineering &
Technology, Jaipur (PIET) on sendingtimely information to the train drivers
regarding signals, boards and approaching
trains.
2. Architecture Category
(i) Team of Shri Kamal Tahilramani,
Shri Prateek Parashar, Shri Deepak
Kumar, Shri Samarth Patel, Ms Umang
Jain & Shri Tushar Sharma (Ayojan
School of Architecture) on Elevated
Road Over The Tonk Road, Jaipur with
a underpass crossing on B2 Bypass and
Provision of Suspended Monorail.
(ii) Team of S/Shri Saptarshi Kapri, Mitesh
Jatolia, Preet Kanwar Singh, Kartik
Paturkar & Vipul Raj (Ayojan School of
Architecture) on Metro Station Design.
3. Civil Engineering
(i) Team of S/Shri Mukesh A. Patel (Ganpat
University, Meshana, Gujarat) ShriGautam Dadhich (PDPU, Gandhinagar,
Gujarat) & Dr. H.S. Patel (LDCE,
Ahmedabad) on Modied Dynamic ConePenetrometer (DCPM) and Modied StateCone Penetrometer (SCPM).
4. Poster
(i) Team of Mukesh A. Patel (Ganpat
University, Meshana, Gujarat), Gautam
Dadhich (PDPU, Gandhinagar, Gujarat &
Dr. Rakesh Kumar (Associate Professor,
SVNIT, Surat.
The list of the educational institutions which
participated in the event organized at MNIT
Jaipur is as under:-
• Arya College of Engg. & Research Center,
Jaipur
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HIGHLIGHTS
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013 7
• Aayojan School of Architecture, Jaipur
• Amity School of Engineering and Technology
• Baldev Ram Mirdha Institute of Technology,
Jaipur • CBS Group of College
• Ganpat University, Meshana, Gujarat
• Global Institute of Technology, Jaipur
• Government Engineering College, Jhalawar
• Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur
• IIT Roorkee
• Jaipur Institute of Technology, Group of
Institutions, Jaipur
• JECRC, Jaipur
• Kautilya Institute of Technology &
Engineering, Sitapura, Jaipur
• L. D. College of Engineering, Ahemdabad
• NIET (NIMS University), Jaipur
• P. I. E. T. Jaipur
• Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University,
Gandhinagar, Gujarat
•
PEC University of Technology• Poornima Group of Institutions, Jaipur
• Poornima Institute of Engineer and
Technology, Jaipur
• Sri Balaji College of Engg. & Tech., Jaipur
• Sri Shakti Institute of Engineering and
Technology
• BMS College of Engineering, Bangalore
•
Orissa College of Engineering, Bhubaneswar • NIT, Surat
The new materials/equipment/instruments
accredited by IRC were also displayed in the
Technical Exhibition. It helped the students
to get an exposure of the emerging materials/
technology/techniques in the road sector.
Glimpses of Prize Distribution & Winning Models
Winner Civil Category (Modied Cone Penetrometer (DCPM) and Modied Static Cone Penetrometer (SCPM)
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HIGHLIGHTS
8 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013
Architecture Category (Elevated Road) Winner (Joint) Electronics Category (Timely information given
to train driver regarding signals, board and approaching trains)
Winner Electronics Category (Tracking and Positioning of any vehicle by using GPS & GSM)
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HIGHLIGHTS
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013 9
W i n n e r ( J o i n t ) E l e c t r o n i c s C a t e g o r y
( M u
l t i S t o r e y e d A u t o m a t i c P a r k i n g S y s t e m )
P r i z e D i s t r i b u t i o n b y S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l ,
I R C
& D i r e c t o r M N I T , J a i p u r
W i n n e r o f A
r c h i t e c t u r e C a t e g o r y ( M e t r o S t a t i o n D e s i g n )
W i n n e r o f P o s t e r C a t e g o r y ( M i c r o s u r f a c i n g : A n I n n o v a t i v e
T e c h n o l o g y f o r P
a v e m e n t P r e v e n t i v e M a i n t e n a n c e )
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12 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013
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16 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013 17
ABSTRACT
Daily and seasonal variations in temperature and moisture
are important factors inuencing the functioning of concrete pavements. In addition to temperature, other environmental
factors that affect rigid pavement performance include humidity,
precipitation, amount of solar radiation etc. This paper is part of
a comprehensive study on High Performance Cement Concrete
Pavements (HPCCPs) conducted at Bangalore University.
Amongst the HPCs, an approach is made in this paper to
determine the realistic temperature differential in High Volume
Fly Ash Concrete (HVFAC). Durability tests such as abrasion,
water absorption and exural fatigue were conducted on HVFAC
in addition to compressive and static exural strength tests. Thetest results show that the HVFAC is a high performance concrete.A HVFAC concrete slab is instrumented with thermocouples, for
monitoring temperature at three regions, interior, edge and corner.
Thermocouples are inserted at top, middle and bottom of the slab.
The variation in pavement temperature is recorded every hour for
seven days. The inuence of climatic conditions such as humidityand number of solar radiation hours on daily and seasonal variations
(summer, winter and monsoon) of temperature differential through
the slab thickness is investigated. The minimum top temperatures
during summer, winter and monsoon seasons were 22.8˚C, 21.30ºCand 21.10ºC respectively. The maximum top temperatures duringsummer, winter and monsoon seasons were 53.9ºC, 42.30ºC and38.60ºC respectively. The maximum temperature differentials
observed during summer, winter and monsoon season were 13.5ºC,13ºC and 8.80ºC respectively. Taking into account the localenvironmental factors and the material properties, temperature
differential prediction models for HVFAC slabs are suggested
in this paper. The temperature differential at any location in
India can be obtained by developing similar prediction models
and substituting values of the environmental parameters in the
prediction models. The values of these parameters are available
from Indian Meteorological Department. Temperature stresses are
evaluated by using the classic Westergaard equations.
1 INTRODUCTION
Temperature is an important factor inuencingthe performance of cement concrete pavements.
The temperature differential is a function of the
heat transfer mechanisms of thermal conduction,
convection and solar radiation. Liu Wei 2005 reports
that environmental factors like humidity, wind,
precipitation, frost etc. also cause variations in
temperature. The cement concrete pavement response
to temperature differences through the slab thickness
is recognized as curling. A positive temperature
difference between the top and bottom surfaces of the
concrete slab during day time causes the slab corners
to curl downwards, while a negative temperature
difference during night time results in upward
curling of slab corners. Since concrete can recover
its original shape after the effects of temperature
variation are removed, the curling due to temperature
variation from daily or seasonal weather condition
can be considered as a transient component of slab
curvature behavior due to environmental loading.
Curling induces stresses in the pavement, since the
pavement is restrained by its weight. The thermally
induced stress caused by such interaction may result
in early pavement cracking. At present, in India
IRC:58 “Guidelines for the Design of Plain Jointed
Rigid Pavements for Highways,” is used for design
of cement concrete pavements. IRC:58 suggests
temperature differential values for different zones in
India to evaluate temperature stresses.
Mechanistic-empirical design is a method of
designing highway pavements. It combines empirical
relationships obtained from the eld data withtheoretical predictions based on the mechanics of
materials. This method relates inputs such as trafc,
loadings, soil strength, climate, etc. to the actual pavement response. Mechanistic-empirical method
* Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Bangalore University, Bangalore, E-mail: [email protected].
** Professor in Highway Engineering, Bangalore University, Bangalore, E-mail: [email protected].
*** Assistant Engineer, Water Resources Department, KPWD, Belgaum
INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL IN HIGH PERFORMANCE
CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
K.S. SURESH K UMAR *, M.S.AMARNATH** AND G.B. AVINASH***
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
18 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013
is more accurate than empirical method because the
empirical method only relies on the eld performance,while the Mechanistic-empirical method combines
both eld performance and theoretical prediction
models. A Mechanistic – Empirical design approach ismade in this study by considering the environmentalfactors, solar radiation and humidity in addition to
air temperature to determine the realistic temperature
differentials in HVFAC.
2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
The present study is part of a comprehensive study
on High Performance Cement Concrete Pavements
(HPCCPs) conducted at Bangalore University.
Amongst the HPCs an approach is made in this paper
to determine the realistic temperature differential inHigh Volume Fly Ash Concrete (HVFAC) only. An
existing HVFAC pavement slab free from vehicular
movement is identied for conducting temperaturestudies. The study area is located in the southern part
of India at Bangalore City, Karnataka, geographically
located at latitude 12º 95`N and longitude 77˚54̀ E. Dimensions of the HVFAC pavement slab are
4400 mm x 3300 mm and thickness 300 mm. The
shoulders have a minimum CBR value of 10% andcompacted with vibratory roller at OMC to achieve
density of 97% MDD. M40 Grade concrete havingmix proportions 1:1.22:1.78 consisting of Binder50:50 (53 Grade cement conrming to IS12269:1987and Fly Ash- Pulverized Fuel Ash conrming toIS3812:2003), water binder ratio 0.38 is used to
cast the slab. To determine the compressive strength
of HVFAC pavement under study, cylindrical core
samples were taken two years after the pavement
was laid. The cylindrical compressive strength was
44.35MPa. The equivalent cube compressive strength
(calculated as per IS: 516-1999 Clause 5.6.1) was
55.44MPa.
3 SLAB INSTRUMENTATION
To record the temperature at different depths of the
concrete slab temperature sensors called thermocouples
are used. A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring
temperature. It consists of two dissimilar metals,
joined together at one end, which produces a small
unique voltage at a given temperature. This voltage is
measured, converted and displayed by an electronic
digital temperature indicator directly as temperature
in degree Celsius. In this study K–type thermocoupleand a temperature indicator capable of measuring
0.1ºC with a range of -10.0ºC to 100.0ºC is used.20 mm diameter holes are drilled at interior, edge andcorner region of the slab. Thermocouples are xed toa wooden bead 16 mm square and 300 mm long such
that the tips of the thermocouples are exactly 25 mm,
150 mm and 275 mm from top of the slab as shown in
Plate 1. The wooden beads are inserted into the hole
and the space around it is grouted using cement slurry.
Fig.1 shows a typical schematic representation of slab
instrumentation.
Plate 1 Thermocouples Fixed to Wooden Bead and
Data Recording
Fig.1 Schematic Representation of Slab Instrumentation
A = 275 mm, B = 150 mm, C = 25 mm,
T = Tip of the Thermocouple
4 DATA ACQUISITION
Each thermocouple has two leads. The leads
are connected to a digital temperature indicator
which directly shows temperature at the tip of the
thermocouple in degree Celsius. Plate 1 shows
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2013 19
thermocouples xed to wooden bead at three levelsand digital temperature indicator connected to leads
for recording temperature. Temperatures at top,
middle and bottom of the slab and air temperature at
about 300 mm from slab top are recorded every hourfor seven days during each season. The temperature
data are manually recorded. Environmental data such
as solar radiation hours and humidity are taken from
the Indian Meteorological Department for Bangalore
region.
5 MONITORING RESULTS AND DATA
ANALYSIS
Pavement top temperatures ranged from 45ºC to52ºC during summer season (last week of April)
and the average air temperature was 34ºC. Duringwinter season (last week of December) pavement
top temperatures ranged from 22ºC to 36ºC and theair temperature ranged from 20ºC to 36ºC. During
monsoon season (last week of June) pavement top
temperatures ranged from 31ºC to 39ºC and the airtemperature ranged from 29ºC to 34ºC. The hourlyvariation of temperature at top, middle and bottom
in the corner region for monsoon season is shown inFig.2.
The temperature of slab is more at the top during day
time and more at the bottom during night time. This is
because the top of the slab is exposed to direct solar
radiation. Variation of temperature at top of slab is
more than that at bottom. This could be due to loss
of heat during transmission. Variation of temperature
is more at edge region than at corner region. This is
due to more loss of heat at edge region as the slab is
in contact with the shoulder. Maximum and minimumtemperatures and day time and night time temperature
differential for summer, winter and monsoon seasons
in HVFAC slab are shown in Table 1.
Fig.2 Hourly Variation of Temperature in HVFAC Slab
Table 1 Temperature and Temperature Differential in HVFAC Pavements
Summer season Winter season Monsoon season
Data Position I E C I E C I E C
Min.
Temp.
T 28.90 28.80 28.40 19.50 22.30 19.60 22.80 21.10 24.20
B 30.10 29.90 29.40 - 18.60 23.60 24.30 20.10 25.60
Max.
Temp.
T 53.90 52.00 51.80 42.30 39.20 37.70 33.90 33.00 38.60
B 49.80 44.30 50.40 - 32.00 31.10 33.80 29.70 34.80
T Diff Night -8.00 -6.80 -8.00 - -6.10 -6.00 -8.80 -6.10 -8.30
T Diff Day 11.40 13.50 13.40 - 13.00 10.30 5.20 5.90 5.00
I is the Interior region, E the edge region and C the corner region. T is top and B is bottom of slab.
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Note :
1. The temperature differentials in the slab refer to the
difference between the top and bottom temperature.
2. Temperature at bottom of slab in the Interior region is
not recorded due to malfunctioning of thermocouple.
It is observed that the day time temperature differential
in the edge region is more than that at interior and
corner regions where as the night time temperature
differential is more in interior region. There is not
much difference between average air temperature
during winter and monsoon season. From Table 1 it
is seen that the temperature differentials are positive
during day time and negative during night time,
Negative night time temperature differential values
are less signicant than positive day time temperaturedifferentials and negative differentials occur much less
often than positive differentials this can be attributed
to the presence of solar radiation during day time.
The pavement top temperature and the temperature
differential are lower during monsoon than winter.
This could be due to precipitation and the presence
of clouds during monsoon thus causing lesser solar
radiation.
6 DEVELOPMENT OF PREDICTION
MODEL FOR TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENTIAL IN HVFAC SLAB
A statistical model is attempted to predict the
temperature differential as a function of pavement top
temperature and depth of the slab. As the pavement
temperature depends on environmental factors it is
desirable to rst develop a model for pavement toptemperature which is dependant on air temperature,
humidity and accumulated solar radiation. For datacorrelation, it is necessary to dene the following;
a) Solar Radiation Hours (SRH): This is denedas the number of hours elapsed from sunrise
to the time peak pavement top temperature is
reached.
b) Percent Humidity (H): It is the humidity at the
peak period.
c) Average daily air temperature (AAIRT): The
average of daily air temperature that occurs
between 9 a.m. to 2 p.m.
6.1 Pavement Top Temperature PredictionModel
The pavement top temperature prediction models are
described by the following equations:
Winter pavement top temperature prediction
model
TTOP=16.25+0.21*AAIRT+1.91*SRH+0.01*H (1)
(n = 7, R 2 = 0.92)
Summer pavement top temperature prediction
model
TTOP=51.51+1.11AAIRT-4.88SRH+0.14*H (2)
(n = 7, R 2 = 0.75)
Monsoon pavement top temperature prediction
model
TTOP=16.69+0.42*AAIRT+1.53*SRH–0.41*H (3)
(n = 7, R 2 = 0.76)
Combined pavement top temperature prediction
model (summer, winter and monsoon season)
TTOP=32.18–0.03*AAIRT+1.48*SRH–0.15*H (4)
(n = 14, R 2 = 0.73)
Where; TTOP is the maximum pavement top
temperature and AAIRT is the average air temperature
in degree Celsius, SRH is the solar radiation period in
hours and H = Humidity in percent.
6.2 Temperature Differential Prediction Model
The prediction models for positive day time
temperature differentials are developed using the
pavement top temperature developed from equations
(1) to (4) and depth of the slab as variables.
ΔT+ = -27.87 + 0.68*TTOP + 0.04*D (5)
Where; ΔT is the positive day time temperaturedifferential in degree Celsius, TTOP is the pavement
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top temperature in degree Celsius and D is the
thickness of the concrete slab.
The maximum temperature differentials actually
recorded during each season are shown in Table 2. The
temperature differentials arrived at using temperature
differential prediction models are shown in
Table 3. The comparison between actual and predicted
temperature differentials during winter season at
edge region is shown in Fig.3. Table 4 shows the
comparison between actual and predicted temperaturestresses.
Table 2 Actual Temperature Differentials Recorded During Each Season
SUMMER SEASON WINTER SEASON MONSOON SEASON
Day I E C I E C I E C
1 4.9 8.8 8.5 - 11.4 9 5.2 5.9 4.2
2 4.9 8.8 8.5 - 13 8.93 3.2 3.3 2.4
3 1.1 6.6 7.6 - 10.4 10.3 2.5 3.1 2.3
4 4.7 8.6 8.3 - 10.2 8.8 0.8 2.8 1.4
5 1.7 7.1 8 - 8.8 9 3.2 2.7 1
6 4.7 8.6 8.3 - 11.3 8.8 3.2 5.2 3.5
7 4.7 8.6 8.3 - 10.6 6.6 5.1 3.1 4.7
Table 3 Temperature Differentials Arrived at Using Prediction Models
SUMMER SEASON WINTER SEASON MONSOON SEASON
Day I E C I E C I E C
1 4.52 7.36 7.44 - 12.38 12.46 7.99 9.8 4.71
2 4.06 7.28 7.56 - 13.82 12.11 6.33 9.3 3.74
3 4.01 7.25 7.57 - 12.62 12.83 7.11 8.25 3.524 4.54 7.36 7.47 - 10.77 11.75 3.8 7.23 2.05
5 3.65 7.16 7.69 - 10.98 11.05 7.13 6.82 2.54
6 3.97 7.23 7.57 - 12.13 11.68 6.83 8.39 3.18
7 4.11 7.25 7.56 - 11.04 10.92 7.79 8.43 3.34
Fig.3 Comparison Between Actual and Predicted Temperature Differentials
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Table 4 Comparison Between Actual and Predicted Temperature Stresses
SUMMER SEASON WINTER SEASON MONSOON SEASON
ACTUAL
TEMPERATURE
STRESSES
Day I E C I E C I E C
1. 0.51 0.82 0.41 - 1.06 0.43 0.54 0.55 0.202. 0.51 0.82 0.41 - 1.21 0.43 0.33 0.31 0.11
3. 0.12 0.61 0.36 - 0.97 0.49 0.26 0.29 0.11
4. 0.49 0.80 0.40 - 0.95 0.42 0.08 0.26 0.07
5. 0.18 0.66 0.38 - 0.82 0.43 0.33 0.25 0.05
6. 0.49 0.80 0.40 - 1.05 0.42 0.33 0.48 0.17
7. 0.49 0.80 0.40 - 0.99 0.32 0.53 0.29 0.22
1. 0.47 0.68 0.36 - 1.15 0.60 0.84 0.91 0.22
CALCULATEDTEMPERATURE
STRESSES
2. 0.42 0.68 0.36 - 1.29 0.58 0.66 0.86 0.18
3. 0.42 0.67 0.36 - 1.17 0.61 0.74 0.77 0.174. 0.48 0.68 0.36 - 1.00 0.56 0.40 0.67 0.10
5. 0.38 0.67 0.37 - 1.02 0.53 0.75 0.63 0.12
6. 0.42 0.67 0.36 - 1.13 0.56 0.71 0.78 0.15
7. 0.43 0.67 0.36 - 1.03 0.52 0.82 0.78 0.16
It is observed from Table 2 that the actual temperature
differential on day three and day ve during summerseason is very low. This is because on these days the
pavement top temperatures dropped when it became
cloudy and there were sudden heavy rainfalls during
the day. After the rain ceased the sky remained cloudy,
that prevented any possibility of increase in pavement
top temperature. It is observed that the temperature
differential from predicted models is slightly more
than the actual temperature differentials, except for
summer season. This could be due to sudden rainfall
on two days. Similarly the temperature stresses
evaluated from the prediction models are on the
higher side. Fig.4 shows the comparison between
actual temperature stresses and predicted temperature
stresses during winter season at edge region.
Fig.4 Comparison Between Actual and Predicted Temperature Stresses
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7 CONCLUSIONS
Analysis of the instrumented concrete slab temperature
data recorded for the three season’s summer, winter
and monsoon yielded the following main ndings:
● The air temperature, solar radiation andhumidity are factors inuencing temperaturedifferential in concrete slabs.
● Negative night time temperature differentialvalues are less signicant than positive day timetemperature differentials. Moreover, negative
differentials occur much less often than positive
differentials.
● There is not much difference between average
air temperature during winter and monsoonseason.
● It is observed that the minimum top temperatureduring summer, winter and monsoon season is
22.8˚C, 21.30˚C, and 21.10˚C respectively.
● It is observed that the maximum top temperaturesduring summer, winter and monsoon season are
53.9 ˚ C, 42.30 ˚C and 38.60˚ C respectively.
● The maximum pavement top temperature during
summer is 21.5% higher than that during winterand 28.4% higher than that during monsoonrespectively.
● The pavement top temperature and thetemperature differential are lower during
monsoon than winter; this can be accredited
due to the presence of clouds thus causing
lesser solar radiation.
REFERENCES
1. Choubane and Tia, 1995 “Analysis and Verication ofThermal Gradient Effects on Concrete Pavements”,
Journal of Transportation Engg., Vol. 121, No. 1.
pp.75-81.
2. IRC:58 “Guidelines for the Design of Plain Jointed Rigid
Pavements for Highways” The Indian Road Congress,
New Delhi.
3. Khanna S.K. and Justo C.E.G. 1996, “Highway
Engineering,” Nem Chand & Bros Roorkie.
4. Liu Wei, 2005, “Improved Model for Analysis of
Load and Thermal Effects on Concrete Pavements”,
Ph.D. Dissertation Report (Unpublished) submitted to
Department of Civil Engineering, National University of
Singapore.
5. Yang H. Huang, 1993, “Pavement Analysis and Design,”Prentice Hall.
6. Yoder E.J. and Witczak M.W., 1975, “Principles of
Pavement Design”, John Wiley and Sons Inc.
7. Wei LIU and Tien Fang FWA, 2003. “Effects of Nonlinear
Temperature Distribution on Thermal Stresses in Concrete
Pavements”, Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for
Transportation Studies, Vol.5, pp 1023 to 1034.
8. Puttappa C.G., 2006, “Investigations on High Performance
Cement Concrete for Pavements”. Ph.D. Dissertation
Report (Unpublished) submitted to Bangalore University.
9. Jose T. Balbo, Andrea A. Severi, 2002, “Thermal Gradientsin Concrete Pavements in Tropical Environment: An
Experimental Appraisal”, Laboratory of Pavement
Mechanics, Sao Paulo, Brazil. TRB paper No. 02-2560.
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Audit involves ofcial inspection of an organizationaccount typically by an inspecting body. In respect of
concrete structures it will mean a critical inspection of
concrete structures, ascertain damages, distresses and
defects appeared during construction or in service life.
The author had an occasion to inspect more than 100
concrete structures which developed either problem
during construction or during in service life, if these
are summarized subject wise, the main issues are as
below:-
A concrete structure is subjected to the effect of water,
disturbances in the earth such as settlements and
earthquakes, the effect of wind and environmental
effects. In ancient Vastushastra there used to be a
prayer at the foundation ceremony and even at the
completion of the work stating that “Let the god of
Rains (Varuna) protect this Vastu, let the earth on
which Vastu is laid protect it from destruction, let the
effect of wind and let the god of Environment protectthis structure”.
In the concrete structures which developed some
defects following main issues cropped up:-
1. Erosion and cavitations of Bridge piers and
foundations due to high velocity.
2. Damage of concrete in buildings and bridges
due to Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) or Delayed
Ettrigingite Formation (DEF).
3. Plastic Shrinkages in the newly laid concrete
due to lack of appropriate curing.
4. Inappropriate construction methods.
QUALITY AUDIT FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTIONS
DR . C V KAND*
5. In respect of Aqueducts damages caused due
to failure of joints and rubbing of canal water
containing sand and pebbles on the bottom
surface of the ducts are seen.
6. Wrong procedure of well sinking and instances
of well sinking in rock.
1 EROSION AND CAVITATIONS
(Fig. 1.1, Fig. 1.2, Fig.1.3)
1.1 Hydro Dynamic Effects
According to current practice and codal requirements,
bridge piers are designed for the static effects caused
due to velocity head, differential head etc. Recent
observations have shown that the bridge piers are
subjected to hydro-dynamic effects such as erosion
and cavitation caused at high stream velocities. The
hydro-dynamic effects are smaller and insignicant
at lower stream velocities and may be ignored but at
higher velocities these effects can cause damage and
failure of structure.
In high level bridges hydro-dynamic effects are
predominantly on piers. Effects on abutments are
not signicant. In submersible bridges the decking,
is subjected to hydro-dynamic effects which are
ultimately transferred to piers. The theoretical background and method of assessment of the effect
is well known. The same is, however, critically
examined, in the light of bridges.
* Retd. Chief Engineer, PWD, Bhopal (MP), E-mail: [email protected]
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1.2 Erosion Due to Suspended Particles in
Streams
Rivers which carry coarse sand or gravel of large
pebbles wears away the masonry or concrete of piers
through abrasion. The deterioration of the submerged
surfaces of masonry or concrete brought about by the
abrasive action of solids in motion in uids is callederosion. The rate of erosion is dependent upon the
following factors.
i. Quantity of sand and gravel in water.
ii. Shape, size and hardness of particles.
iii. Velocity of the current.
There is a relationship between the competent bottom
velocity (the velocity at or above which a certain
particle can be transported) and the size of particle
dragged by the stream. This is given by d = 36.15 V b2
where d is in mm and V b is in m/sec.
The diameter of particles own by current for variousvelocities will be
Velocity m/sec Diameter mm
1.5 80
3.0 330
4.5 730
6.0 1300
7.5 2030
9.0 2930
Model studies, to establish quantum of erosion of
surface of structure in a given period at different
velocities of current in sandy bed, are not available.
According to ACI, if the quantity and size of solids
are small; for example silt in irrigation canal, no
appreciable erosion takes place on good concrete
surface at bottom for velocity up to stream velocities
of 3m/sec. Signicant erosion effect has been observedin structure in sandy river beds where the velocity of
current is more than 4.5m/sec. Hard stone masonrystructures can stand higher velocities without abrasive
action.
Erosion of surface of submerged concrete structure
will take place at velocities higher than 3m/sec. even
if the ow is undisturbed and the shape of the surfaceis smooth and streamlined. If the shape of structure is
not streamlined and the surface has depressions and
there are projected corners, the ow will be disturbed.Separation of ow and formation of eddies will take place at such even spots. The velocity at the disturbed
zone will increase and the stream would scoop out
more quantity of sand from the bed. Increase in
quantity of sand and increase in the velocity will
thus aggravate abrasive action at uneven and un-
streamlined spots in the structure. Movement of sand
is vertical due to pushing up from bed by whirlpool
action and horizontal due to current.
Fig.1.1 Shape of Piers and Current Directions at Pier.
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1.5 Hasdeo Bridge at Champa
In 1956, a submersible bridge was undertaken across
Hasdeo River velocity of current is 9m/sec. During
construction some foundation and decks got washed
away in oods, due to high velocity. The bridge wasthen converted into a high level bridge. The high
level bridge is provided with some wall type piers
and some piers with 3 circular columns connected by
diaphragms. Within 3 to 4 years of completion, it was
observed that surfaces of concrete are eroded exposingthe metal in concrete matrix. Colcrete steining of one
of the well foundation was damaged in nearly 75%circumference of upstream dredge hole of an ‘eight’
shaped well. Depth of damaged portion was 1.8m. In
another well, after damage of colcrete steining, RCC
columns inside were also damaged due to erosion.
These damages were obviously due to erosion caused
by high stream velocity and further that the concrete
was not suitable to withstand the fury of water currents.
The plain concrete piers of Railway Bridge on d/s of
this road bridge also showed surface erosion. The
old railway bridge was provided with stone masonry piers. The bridge was deserted. However, one pier
is standing. The stones of the masonry have large
bushes. The bushes show seriations along bedding
plane of the stone due to erosion. The case shows that
circular columns with diaphragms are not suitable for
high stream velocity. Detailed investigation of this
case brought out that specications of concrete piersmust be compatible with stream velocity. Colcrete is
not suitable for well steining. It is not being used now
a day.
1.6 Deolon Bridge (Sone River) Near Shahhol
(M.P.)
This submersible bridge was completed in 1950.
In the oods of 1975 the bridge was submerged fornearly 36 hours with 5.8m, water above the bridge. On
receding of the oods it was noticed that the bridgehad almost completely washed away. Maximum mean
velocity of the stream was 6.1 m/sec. At 300m on the
downstream, rocky hillocks project in the river on both
banks. The channel is constricted and the river takes
a sharp turn. All these caused disturbance of the owand increase in velocity. The structure was designed
for a velocity of 3m/sec only. It was noticed that piers
fell in different directions. Foundations of the bridge
were laid on bouldery strata. Some piers got uprooted
even from foundation level. Investigations showed
that at the location where river width is constricted
there is a fault zone, a deep hole in rocky bed having
depth of 15m. This has occurred due to high velocity
of water at construction site.
A tower of a high power line on the bank of river
consisted of 4 steel rail sections. The rails sheared off
at the top of footing of the concrete block as if cut by
a hacksaw. A large vortex was formed at the bridge
site on account of physical features and it appears
the tower was in worst zone of the vortex. This was
a typical effect of cavitation, caused due to vortices
Fig. 1.3
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at high velocity as explained in previous paragraph.
Fall of piers was not along the direction of river. Piers
fell in various directions and this shows turbulent owhaving deviations angles larger than 200. Inadequate
assessment of velocity, bad seating and foundations
on Bouldary strata are the causes of failure of the
bridge.
Photo 1.1, Photo 1.2, Photo 1.3, Photo 1.4 and
Photo 1.5
Cavitations and Erosion Damages
Photo.1.1 Photo.1.2
Photo 1.3 Erosion of the Stone Masonry at High Velocity
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2 ALKALI SILICA REACTION (ASR) OR
DELAYED ETTRIGINGITE FORMATION
(DEF)
2.1 Alkali silica (aggregate) reaction is a recent
phenomenon and is known as cancer of concrete. It
attacks when moisture for one reason or another gets
into the concrete structure and reacts with the alkali
produced by certain types of cements. The resulting
alkaline solution then reacts with silica found in
some types of aggregate and sand and make the gel
a powerfully moisture attracting element. The gel
expands as it gathers more moisture and causes the
concrete to crack. These cracks allow more moisture
into the concrete and the problem gets worse. Several
concrete structures in U.K. have suffered premature
damage due to ASR. In India recently, we have come
across this phenomenon in Hirakud dam spillway and
Rihind dam power house structure and repairs are
done. High alkali content in cement also causes ASR.
Cements in India contain 0.4 to 1 percent alkali. It
is advisable to restrict it to 0.6 percent. The reaction
takes place in presence of moisture. Alkali silica
reaction can be controlled by selection of non-
reactive aggregate, use of low alkali cement, by
adding pozollana in cement, by controlling moist
condition. Alkali silica reaction will be at surface
due to presence of rain water. Surfaces can be given
waterproong paint treatment to minimize the effect.ASR occurs only when aggregate contains such
element which can react with alkalis in cement. It
does not occur in all concretes. ASR cause pot holes
in deck slab of bridges. Such holes were observed in
several bridges in western Madhya Pradesh where
local sand was used. This local sand contains 30%
Ferruginous compounds. The tests were carried out at
National soil and material laboratory at CWPC, Delhi.
IS 383 (Table 1) says that deleterious material should
not be more than 5% in river sands. Chemical tests of
sand should be obligatory.
2.2 Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF) – in steam
cured precast concrete slabs of M40 strength, the slabs
were staked and these were to be placed on precast
girders and provide composite deck slab. Several cracks
were noticed in the precast slabs. This can happen due
to: a.) presence of sulphate in aggregates which cause
delay in gaining strength, this phenomenon is caused
due to delay in Ettringite formation. However, there
are no precedence of DEF in India. b.) If water cement
ratio in precast steam cured slab is less than 0.4 the
slabs have to be cured for two days after removal from
the steam curing. According to Neveele if this is not
done cracks appear in the slab.
Photo 2.1, Photo 2.2 and Photo 2.3
Photo 1.4 Cavitation Damage
Photo 1.5 Cavitation Damage
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3 CRACKS IN DECK SLAB OF THREE
BRIDGES
3.1 Background
Cracks in the deck slabs of bridges were observed in the
longitudinal and lateral direction of three Bridges.
3.2 Nature of Crack:-
In Bridge No.1 the cracks are in the longitudinal and
lateral directions over the location of steel. Width
of crack at top of slab was found to be 25,15,10,10
and 5mm at ve locations, there are 36 cracks in thewidth of 11.2m. In Bridge No.2 & 3 similar cracks
were observed. Cracks in Bridge No.1 & 2 are
wider, in Bridge No.3 Cracks are not wide but these
are throughout the span. At bottom of slab, precast
concrete sacricial slab was used as a formworkand hence it was not possible to see if cracks have
occurred. However, the core data showed that cracks
are not extended generally below top of steel in top
slab.
3.3 The Likely Reasons of Cracks are Generally
as below:-
1. When steel inside the concrete is corroded, its
volume is increased and the concrete cracks,
such cracks are found along the vertical steel in
columns and at the bottom of deck slab.
2. Cracks can also occur due to defective that is
weak concrete.
3. If the Structure is in hot areas and where hot
winds are present and where curing of concrete
is not started as per the requirements of the type
of cement used, plastic shrinkage cracks occur.
3.4 Material Used & Method of Construction
The materials used in all the bridges is crushed granite
aggregate of black colour, the river sand, Grade 53
cement of Ultratech (as per clause 302.1 of IRC:21
& IS 12269), construction chemicals (IS-9103), water
for concreting. All these materials have been tested
according to codal requirements and no defect was
found in the materials of concreting. Aggregate &
sand are as per IS 383. Testing of these is as per IS
2386. Concreting was done by using concrete pumps
and the slump was 80 to 100mm. This is also alright.
Cement and Fly Ash: Ultratech cement of 53 Grade is
used for the RCC work. But this also causes shrinkage
effects as observed in many Bridges and Buildings.
Photo 2.1 RCC Box Type Deck in an Area Which Contains Sand
with Ferruginous Compounds
Photo 2.2 Beginning of Pot Holes in Deck
Photo 2.3 Pot Holes in Deck due to ASR
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For RCC bridges & buildings grade 33 or grade 43 are
preferable. However there is no codal ban on using
53 Grade cement for RCC work. 20% Fly ash if addedin the cement, this should in fact reduce shrinkage.
The above information reveals that there is no faultin the material used or in the procedure of concreting.
It is therefore necessary to examine the procedure
adopted for curing of concrete.
3.5 Testing of Concrete Laid at Site by Non
Destructive Tests
Following Non-Destructive test were carried out:
1. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test and 2. Core Test
UTPV test show that there are no doubtful or medium
results. The depth of crack was also measured and itwas found to be from 20mm to 40mm that is up to the
top of Steel bars only in one case the depth is more.
3.6 Reasons for Cracks
Since the materials used for concreting and the method
of concreting did not display any defect, cracks might
have occurred due to method adopted for curing of
concrete in the hot weather with low humidity which
is prevalent in this region. The record of temperature
during concreting and the ambient temperature
shows that the bridges are located in hot region and
the temperature during concreting has been more
than 30ºC. It is a hot area where besides temperaturehot winds also exist. It appears, on completing the
concrete curing or watering of concrete was started
late. Normally when Grade 53 cement is used the
practice is to cover the concrete by Tarpaulin placed
on test cubes on fresh concrete so that Tarpaulin does
not touch the concrete. After 2 hours ponds are made
with earth and these are gradually lled with water. If
curing is delayed and if the concrete is in hot weather,it suffers from plastic shrinkage. Since the steel
reinforcement is approximately has 40mm cover, the
shrinkage will go up to the top of the steel bar without
interruption. It cannot go deeper due to presence of
bar and the cracks will be developed on steel along
the direction of steel. This is what appears to have
happened at site as can be seen from photographs of
cracks.
3.7 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
The American concrete Institute in ACI 116 denesPlastic Shrinkage Cracking as cracking that occurs in
the surface of fresh concrete soon after it is placed and
while it is still plastic. These cracks forms becauseof loss of bleed water from the surface of the fresh
concrete by evaporation. The tensile strength of fresh
concrete is very low since the concrete has not had time
to set, the volume changes caused by this evaporation
of the bleed water results in the formation of plastic
shrinkage cracks. The critical condition exists when
the rate of evaporation of surface moisture exceeds
the rate at which the rising bleed water can replace
it. Water reaching below the surface forms menisci
between ne particle of cement and aggregate causinga tensile force to develop in the surface layer. If the
concrete layers have started to set and has developed
sufcient tensile strength to resist the tensile forces,cracks do not form. If the surface dries very rapidly,
the concrete may still be plastic, and the cracks do not
develop at that time; but the plastic cracks will surely
form as soon as the concrete stiffens a little more.
3.8 Rehabilitations Measures
The test results show that the strength of concrete
is not reduced. There is no need of providing epoxyconcrete. However, cement mortar 1:1.5 with ne sandand 15% polymer should be grouted. The procedurefor grouting will be to make small holes in the concrete
going up to 30mm at 300mm c/c. An area of about
1m x 1m be selected and perplex pipe of 10mm
diameter be xed in the holes, all except one hole beclosed at top and grouting should be done at pressure
from the open hole till the grout comes in the other
holes. A specialized agency be engaged to do this work.
In this manner grouting should be done and the wider
cracks be nished by the same mortar if not lled bygrouting. In future the freshly laid concrete be covered
by Tarpaulin and placed above test cubes as mentioned
above, after about 2 hours. Earthen pond be made and
water should be lled in the ponds gradually, 7 daysafter grouting the wearing coat can be laid. IS: 456
of 2000 Para 13.5 contained instructions for curing.
These should be followed.
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Photo 3.1, Photo 3.2, Photo 3.3 and Photo 3.4
4 INAPPROPRIATE CONSTRUCTION
METHODS
Geotechnical investigations was carried out for two
separate bridges. Each bridge has two separate 2-lane
bridges. Thus there are total 4 bridges which contain
18 well foundations. Geotechnical investigations was
carried out by three different organizations namely
by DPR consultants, by proof consultants and also by
the contractor. All these three separate geotechnical
consultants concluded that the soft rock is available
at different depths in the well foundations, and
recommended Safe Bearing Capacity of not more than80 T/m2. The design consultants proposed sinking of
wells 5 to 7m in the soft rock and considered passive
resistance in the design of wells, when the work was
in progress sinking of wells in rock could be done
only by blasting. In that process the wells are
● badly tilted and shifted,
● the well steining is cracked
The investigation of these tilted and shifted well
was carried out and following glaring facts came tonotice.
i. In about less then 300m from the site of these
bridges there are existing bridges constructed
before Independence during British regime.
These are submersible bridges. The bridge
register shows that the foundations are taken
only 4m below the bed level and laid on hard
Photo 3.1 Plastic Shrinkage
Photo 3.2 Plastic Shrinkage on Location of Steel Bars
Photo 3.3 Core Test
Photo 3.4 Core Test
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rock. However, this data was not collected
during geotechnical investigation.
ii. During sinking of the well large pieces of rock
extracted by blasting could be seen at the site
near the wells. Cubes of 100 mm x 100 mm x
100 mm were chiseled out from these pieces
and tested in the laboratory. In one case the
safe bearing capacity was 300 T/m2, in another
case it was 400 T/m2 (by adopting factor of
safety 8) against the recommended capacity by
the geotechnical experts of 80 T/m2.
iii. The rectication of tilted and shifted pier wellswhich is causing more than 33% base area in
tension is being done by providing Anchorrods in the tension zones and also all around
the periphery. 32 mm Anchor rods are anchored
2.5 m in rock and grouted by 1:1.5 cement
mortar with 15% polymer. 2 bars of 32 mm are proposed to be anchored in 110 mm diameter
bore. The bars are raised and anchored in the
well cap with transverse circular stirrups. These
anchor rods will take entire tension coming
on the foundations and the direct load will be
taken by the rock below. The cracks in the wellsteining have occurred because of blasting.
These will be grouted by 1:3 Epoxy mortar. The
entire well is lled up by concrete of the samestrength of well steining.
iv. In respect of abutment well there are 2
alternatives:
a. To provide pre-stressed concrete active
anchorages and x them in the rock below and in the well cap above.
b. To provide RCC block wall near the well
and lay the well cap on the well and this
block with a view to relive the well from
lot of tension and provide also some
anchor rods, similar to pier wells.
v. IRC:78 clause 705.3.2 recommends that in
case of hard rock the seating of the well shall
be such that the 75% perimeter is seated onrock and a sump (shear key) of 300mm is
cut in hard rock and 6 dowel bars of 25 mm
diameter are anchored in rock. The same code
also recommends that the boring chart shall bereferred to constantly during sinking for taking
adequate care while piercing different type of
strata by keeping boring chart at the site and
plotting the soil as obtained for the well sinking
and comparing it with earlier bore data to take
prompt decision. Ignoring these precautions can
cause distresses of the type as explained above.
There is no fault of concrete; the fault lies in the
construction methodology.
Photo 4.1, Photo 4.2, Photo 4.3 and Photo 4.4
Photo 4.1 Tilted Well
Photo 4.2 Tilted Well
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5 CONDITION SURVEY OF AQUEDUCT
CUM BRIDGE
5.1 Background and Details of Aqueduct
This Aqueduct cum Road Bridge was completed in
March 1991 on lump sum contracts with contractors
design. It is now about 20 years old. Certain problems
are being faced in the Aqueduct.
The structural details of the Aqueduct are as below
Total Length 966 meters
Span arrangement 19 spans of 38.5 metres
main spans
10 spans of 9.97 metres
Height from Lowest 33 m
bed to Soft
Duct size Twin duct 3.425 x 2.60
5.2 Observations
5.2.1 The conventional copper expansion joint are
provided on the inner side of the duct. There is a gap
of 50mm on the inner side of the aqueduct wall. This
is lled up by Shalitex board to make it water tight.While nalizing the estimate there was a proposal to provide 25mm water proof coat on the inside of the
duct. It was however proposed to do after observing
the performance of the aqueduct during its operation.
5.2.2 Canal water coming from Dam carries sand
and pebbles and these rub on the top surface of the
bottom slab of the duct. Concrete is badly eroded and
aggregate get exposed.
5.2.3 Besides Sand and the pebbles as mentioned
above some larger stones of the size of masonry
stones were found inside the duct. Nobody could
explain how these stones have come because such
stones cannot ow with a small velocity of 3.9 m/s.These appears to have been brought later and may be
for some maintenance operation but not removed.
5.2.4 Five Expansion joints of the aqueduct are
damaged by miscreants who have broken the concrete
outside the copper plate in the joint and removedthe copper plate. There is a leakage through joints
when the canal water is let in the vertical steels in the
concrete which was broken is exposed at some place.
5.2.5 The Shalitex board at joints which are not
broken is also damaged at places. The depth of water
at highest water level inside the canal is only 2.5 m.
5.2.6 The expansion joints at road level are only in
the road way width. These are not extended in the
footpath portion; therefore the rain water is leaking
through the joints and caused dirty water marks on
the soft of cantilever slab, on the vertical sides of theducts. Then due to water owing from the top of piercap down to the pier such dirty water marks are also
seen on the pier.
5.2.7 The aqueduct was inspected after severe
Earthquake of 1997. It was brought out that plants have
Photo 4.3 Tilt & Shift
Photo 4.4 Tilt Being Reduced by Eccentric Loading
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sprouted on the pier cap and at the expansion joints
outside. It was suggested that this should be removed
and the roots lled with lime powder and Asafoetida.Generally these are Pipal trees. It appears that this has
not been done; more such plants are supported on pier
cap.
5.3 Causes of Distresses and Rectications
5.3.1 The canal water in the aqueducts bring with
it silt, sand and pebbles. These ow along with thewater slowly but when the discharge is stopped these
get accumulated and the ow characteristics expectedin the aqueduct is affected. That is why water gets
stagnant inside the aqueduct even when the canal
discharge is stopped. Inquiry reveled that there is no
maintenance manual for the aqueduct. Criterion for
the maintenance for the bridges is adopted for the
aqueduct. But the IRC criterion does not have any
guidelines for the ow of water inside of the duct andthe expansion joints in the duct. It has now become
necessary to have such a maintenance manual for the
aqueduct which will take into account the effect of
ow inside the duct.
5.3.2 These types of expansion joints are giving
trouble in many aqueducts. Incidences of braking of
joints with a view to remove costly metal like copper
plates are observed. This is an age old joint and
its replacement is not easy. In case of bridges strip
seal expansion joints are provided replacement of
these joints is simple. Polymer expansion joints are
available It is better to change these expansion joints
by elastomeric expansion joints.
5.3.3 It is advised that details of the expansion jointand the procedure of its xing should be obtained fromthe manufacturers. Normally the expansion joints are
xed by the manufacturer and they take the guaranteeof its functioning.
5.3.4 It has been brought out that the top surface of the
bottom slab has eroded. Erosion resistance capacity of
M35 concrete is rather low. However, epoxy mortar
with three parts of calcenite sand and one part of
epoxy has erosion resistance nearly three times than
that of M35 concrete. Therefore 15mm thick epoxy
mortar should be laid over the bottom slab and also
on the sides of this aqueduct to improve the erosion
resistance.
5.3.5 The accumulation of sand, silt & pebbles shows
that duct has not been cleaned for years. It is felt that
every year this must be cleaned at least twice once
before the ood season and second after the oodseason.
5.3.6 The canal alignment on both sides also needs to
be cleaned of the debris and branches of trees, which
get accumulated around the columns in the transition
structures. It is better to avoid columns in transition
structure as has been done in recent aqueducts.
5.3.7 The erosion of concrete in the piers and wells is
not signicant at this stage but this should be observedevery year.
5.3.8 Wherever stalactite phenomenon is observed it
is due to minor leakages. It is advisable to grout these
spots by cement grout and stop these leakages. Since
this is bridge cum aqueduct, the bridge engineers
cannot ignore such defects in the duct.
Photo 5.1, Photo 5.2, Photo 5.3, Photo 5.4, Photo 5.5
and Photo 5.6
Photo 5.1 Erosion at Base of Aqueduct
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6 AUTOGENEOUS HEALING OF
CONCRETE (Figs. 6.1 and 6.2)
6.1 Human body has a property to heal up woundsand restore it to its original texture. Similarly, it is
observed that observed that cracks in concrete also
heal up. Three examples are cited.
6.2 In one bridge 15 m precast pre-tensioned
girders closely spaced (18 girders in a width of
8m) are provided. The pre-tensioned girders were
brought on the river bank and stacked on the river bed
Photo 5.2 Damage of Expansion Joint.
Photo 5.3 Obstruction at Canal Transition
Photo 5.4 Stalactite Phenomenon
Photo 5.5 Damage at Junction of Well Cap and Well Steining
Photo 5.6 Expansion Joints in Aqueduct
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before lifting. 4 girders showed cracks at mid span.
Investigation showed that only half length of the
girder was supported on bed and the remaining half
was overhanging. These girders were not designed
for such a cantilever prole. Vertical cracks occurredat the mid span. When the girders were placed on
level supports on both ends cracks closed. Water was
sprayed for 24 hours on the girders. Cracks healed up.
This is called autogenous healing of cracks. One girder
was then tested for full design load and it behaved as
expected like an un-cracked girder. Four such girders
are used in the bridge two girders at each end and
bridge is serving the trafc since 1964 without anytrouble.
6.3 It was decided to erect a small full scale model
with ve girders on the bank and test it for destructionwith a view to ascertain share of load among girders
and maximum destruction load. Two and half times
design live load was placed. More than 100 cracks
developed but the structure did not collapse. Loadwas retained for 48 hours and then removed. This was
in 1969. The model is preserved at site. Not a single
crack was visible when observed on 19/6/97. Cracks
closed.
6.4 An RCC bracket was constructed at site and it
was desired to ascertain destruction load and behavior
of joints. Two and half time design load was placed
and retained for 48 hours. Bracket cracked profusely.
This was in 1980. The bracket was retained. In ood
of 1996 it fell down. All cracks have healed up.
Load Test for Destruction, Cracks Totally Closed on Removal of Loads.
Model Preserved at Sher Bridge Near Narsinghpur in Madhya Pradesh.
Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2
7 CONCLUSIONS
The Audit for quality control Constructions of 6 case
studies deliberated in this paper has brought out thatsome distresses in the concrete bridge structures have
occurred not on account of any defect in the concrete.
These have occurred due to inadequate appreciation
of forces of nature like water current and environment
or due to wrong methods of construction. Following
lessons should be kept in mind:-
1. The shape of bridge piers and specication of
concrete should be compatible with the velocity
of the stream.
2. Velocity of the stream more than 6m/sec cancause not merely hydro-static effects but also
hydro-dynamic effects such as erosion and
cavitation of piers and this should be considered
in the design and specications.
3. If the chemical impurities in the aggregates and
sands are more than 5% (IS 383) it can causeAlkali-Silica reaction, which is the cancer of
the concrete. Therefore, aggregate and sands
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should be tested for chemical impurities.
4. Cracks caused in concrete structures can be
autogenously healed by removing the causes of
the cracks and constantly watering the cracked
concrete for 24 hours. Such cracked beamswhich are healed up are provided in bridges and
are surviving for more than 25 years.
5. The green concrete done in hot weather (more
than 30ºC) should be covered by Tarpaulinand providing water ponds for curing after 2
hours. It is extremely necessary to follow the
precautions of curing contained in clause 13.5
of IS 456 of 2000. This is more obligatory for
structures where Grade 53 concrete is used. If
the precautions are not taken, Plastic Shrinkage
cracks occur on the surface of concrete slabs.6. The bed level inside aqueducts gets badly
eroded on account of sand and pebbles owingin canal water. It is therefore, necessary to
provide epoxy mortar 1:3 on the inner surfaces
of aqueducts below water level.
7. The conventional expansion joints of aqueducts
are not easy to replace. The copper plate is
broken and stolen. It is advisable to provide
polymer type of expansion joints. The surfaces
of concrete where steel is exposed & corroded
should be repaired by polymer modied mortar
on removing the rust on steel bars by sand blasting or by chemicals.
8. While carrying out geotechnical investigations
the foundation levels and the type of strata in
the existing bridges must be investigated and
the actual strata obtained during sinking be
compared with the data given in the bore log
and modications may be carried out in thedesigns if necessary.
9. Expected life of concrete structures is 100
years. This life can be ensured by keeping in
mind some of the issues during constructionas mentioned above and also by frequent
inspection i.e. Audit for quality concrete.
REFERENCES
1. Hydraulic investigations and problems of Bridges by
C.V.Kand & A.K.Saxena, IRC 1989.
2. Environment and materials investigations and problems
of Bridges by C.V.Kand, IRC 1997.
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ABSTRACT
The last decade witnessed unprecedented raise in output to the
tune of 7% of world’s GDP. The BRIC countries contributedlargely to this unprecedented growth. Paradoxically, the gathered
momentum of growth rate of Asia Pacic region had made thedeveloping countries to subtly suggest the growth as a proigacytowards un sustainability demanding in the controlled growth rate
who were ironically talking about red tapism and bureaucracy not
in very far past.
Ironically, by the turn of 2008 and the beginning of 2009, the
global recession led by United States had put India and Chinaon centre stage, where they were expected to play major roles
in reviving the world’s economy by growth rates enabled by
mammoth infrastructure development plans. As this paper being
written during August 15, 2012, once again the European and
Western economies which were showing the signs of recovery till
then, seem to be plummeting.
With the emphasis on fast growing economy, the developing
countries will aim at achieving the above by creation of
facilities to provide housing, sanitation and water supply, public
transportation facilities, reach-ability to education and adequate
employment opportunities which demands mammoth materials
and energy consumption.
Apart from this, the governmental efforts to bring in vast foreign
investment to cater for thickly populated big markets, will warrant
major chunk of the allocation in the plans for infrastructure
development, where the civil engineering fraternity can contribute
in optimizing and reducing the costs of the projects, which can be
used for further sustainable development.
Whenever, the sustainability in construction is addressed and
discussed in any kind of forums, it is always conned to that part ofconcrete technology where Ordinary Portland Cement is partially
replaced by mineral admixtures to reduce energy consumption
from fossilised sources and also CO2 emissions to environment.The author has been advocating sustainable construction beyond
this connement by extending the same to Value engineering,Rationalization of codes, Hazard mitigation, New technologies
and materials, Sustainable structural systems since 2002 in
National and International forums.
SUSTAINABILITY, CHALLENGES & OPPRTUNITIES
IN BRIDGE BUILDING
V. N. HEGGADE*
1 INTRODUCTION
By virtue of enormous performance of China, India
and Russia in 2007, the world output was raised by 7%in GDP (with out adjusting for ination), catapultingthe world economy. The Chinese and Indian economy
with its unprecedented economic growth of more than
5% might have potentially elevated the Asia and pacicregion on par with economies of European Union and
United States with in a decade. The alarming growth
rate of the developing countries caused concerns to
the globe as a whole as there were sufcient evidenceto establish the relationship between depletion in non
renewable energy resources (fossilised) with Climate
change and the Growth rate.
The Fig.111 projects the accelerated consumption in
non-renewable energy sources while the GHG (Green
House Gas) emissions leading to climate change as
presented in Fig.211 depicts that the emissions in
developing countries would cross over developed
countries by around 2015.
* Member-Board of Management, Gammon India Ltd., Mumbai, E-mail: [email protected]
Fig.1 Projected Energy Consumption Sources
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While the energy consumption
per capita of developed countrieswhose GDP is high, is glaring
from the Fig.3 that warrants the
austerity measures for reducing
the consumption, the developing
countries like China and India
whose growth rates are high
have also very high population
(Table 1) which can make the
consumption leapfrog for a small
increment in growth rate.
paradoxically, the developed Western and European
world are in the phase of their infra structure
maintenance as such have to nd market in developingcountries for their growth.
Obviously, the statistics above indicate that the
countries living standards improve with the increase
in the GDP and decreases with enhanced population.
The increased consumption of energy and materials
culminate in the growing accumulation of construction
waste, hazards and emissions, necessitating the
sustainability options to reduce the depletion in non
renewable energy resources and potential climate
change and their consequences.
2 SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION
Whenever, we are talking about sustainability in
transportation sector, we are inadvertently pushed in
to ancient realm of bridges, materials and practices
that are testimony of endurance. It is not surprising
that the English word sustainability itself has its origin
in ancient Latin word ‘sustenere’, meaning long term
compatibility. Hither to, though the methodology to
quantify the sustainability measure is not evolved, there
are universal indicators viz Ecological, Economical
and Social8. (Fig.4)
Fig.2 Green House Gas Emission by Region
Fig.3 Energy Consumption Country Wise
The strongest enabl