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Module l
FAYOLS Principle of Management:
1. DIVISION OF WORK: Work should be divided among individuals and groups to ensure thateffort and attention are focused on special portions of the task. Fayol presented work
specialization as the best way to use the human resources of the organization.
2. AUTHORITY: The concepts of Authority and responsibility are closely related. Authority wasdefined by Fayol as the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. Responsibility
involves being accountable, and is therefore naturally associated with authority. Whoever
assumes authority also assumes responsibility.
3. DISCIPLINE: A successful organization requires the common effort of workers. Penaltiesshould be applied judiciously to encourage this common effort.
4. UNITY OF COMMAND: Workers should receive orders from only one manager.5. UNITY OF DIRECTION: The entire organization should be moving towards a common
objective in a common direction.
6. SUBORDINATION OF INDIVIDUAL INTERESTS TO THE GENERAL INTERESTS : The interests ofone person should not take priority over the interests of the organization as a whole.
7. REMUNERATION: Many variables, such as cost of living, supply of qualified personnel,general business conditions, and success of the business, should be considered in
determining a workers rate of pay.
8. CENTRALIZATION: Fayol defined centralization as lowering the importance of thesubordinate role. Decentralization is increasing the importance. The degree to which
centralization or decentralization should be adopted depends on the specific organization in
which the manager is working.9. SCALAR CHAIN: Managers in hierarchies are part of a chain like authority scale. Each
manager, from the first line supervisor to the president, possess certain amounts of
authority. The President possesses the most authority; the first line supervisor the least.
Lower level managers should always keep upper level managers informed of their work
activities. The existence of a scalar chain and adherence to it are necessary if the
organization is to be successful.
10.ORDER: For the sake of efficiency and coordination, all materials and people related to aspecific kind of work should be treated as equally as possible.
11.EQUITY: All employees should be treated as equally as possible.12.STABILITY OF TENURE OF PERSONNEL: Retaining productive employees should always be a
high priority of management. Recruitment and Selection Costs, as well as increased product-
reject rates are usually associated with hiring new workers.
13. INITIATIVE: Management should take steps to encourage worker initiative, which is definedas new or additional work activity undertaken through self direction.
14.TEAM SPIRIT: Management should encourage harmony and general good feelings amongemployees.
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Douglas McGregor's Theory X & theory Y:
Douglas McGregor has given his theory of motivation called Theory X and Theory Y. He
treated traditional approach to management as 'Theory X' and the professional approach to
management as 'Theory Y'. His theory refers to two sets of employees based on theperception of human nature. Here, theory X and theory Y are two sets of assumptions about
the nature of employees. His theory is based on human behavior.
Theory X
Theory X is based on traditional assumptions about people (employees). Here, the
conventional approach of management is used as a base. It suggests the following features
of an average human being/employee (assumptions about human nature)
Assumptions of Theory X.
1. The average human being is inherently lazy by nature and desires to work as little aspossible. He dislikes the work and will like to avoid it, if he can.
2. He avoids accepting responsibility and prefers to be led or directed by some other.3. He is self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs.4. He has little ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be led but wants security.5. He is not very intelligent and lacks creativity in solving organizational problems.6. He by nature resists to change of any type.
In the case of such employees, self-motivation is just not possible. They will work only
when there is constant supervision on them. A manager has to persuade, punish or reward
such workers in order to achieve organizational goals.
Theory Y
Theory Y is based on modern or progressive or professional approach. Here, the
assumptions about people i.e. employees are quite different.
Assumptions of Theory Y
1. Work is as natural as play, provided the work environment is favorable. Work mayact as a source of satisfaction or punishment. An average man is not really against
doing work.
2. People can be self-directed and creative at work if they are motivated properly.3. Self-control on the part of people is useful for achieving organizational goal. External
control and threats of punishment alone do not bring out efforts towards
organizational objectives.4. People have capacity to exercise imagination and creativity.
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5. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. They havebecome so as a result of experience in organisations.
6. An average human being learns under proper conditions. He is also willing to acceptresponsibility.
7. The intellectual capacity of an average human being is utilised partially under theconditions of modern industrial life.Final Glance on Theory X and Theory Y
Such types of people (employees) are self-motivated and McGregor recommends that
they be motivated by encouraging participation so as to get team work.
Theory Y assumes that people are not by nature, lazy and unreliable. They can be self-
directed and creative at work, if properly motivated. It is for the management to unleash
this potential in individuals (employees). Theory Y emphasizes creating opportunities,removing obstacles, providing guidance and encouraging growth. By using these tools, the
management can integrate individual goals of employees with those of the Organisation.
The assumptions in Theory X and Theory Y are fundamentally distinct. Theory X is static,
rigid, conservative and pessimistic. Theory Y is optimistic, dynamic, flexible and progressive.
It suggests self direction and the integration of individual needs with organizational needs.
On the other hand, more importance is given to external control imposed by the superior on
the subordinate in the Theory X.
Mayo's Hawthorne Experiments:
Elton Mayo was in charge of certain experiments on human behaviour carried out at the
Hawthorne Works of the General Electric Company in Chicago. They conducted a number ofexperiments involving six female workers.
Mayos team altered the female workers working conditions and then monitored how it
affected the workers morale and productivity. The changes in working conditions included
changes in working hours, rest brakes, lighting, humidity, and temperature.
The results during and after the experiments led Mayo to conclude that, workers were motivated by
psychological conditions more than physical working condition.
There is an unwritten understanding between the worker and employer regarding what is
expected from them; Mayo called this the psychological contract.
A workers motivation can be increased by showing an interest on them. Mayo classified
studying the workers (through the experiments) as showing an interest on the workers.
Work is a group activity, team work can increase a workers motivation as it allows people
to form strong working relationships and increases trust between the workers. Work groups
are created formally by the employer but also occur informally. Both informal and formal
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groups should be used to increase productivity as informal groups influence the workers
habits and attitudes.
Workers are motivated by the social aspect of work, as demonstrated by the female workers
socialising during and outside work and the subsequent increase in motivation.
Workers are motivated by recognition, security and a sense of belonging.
The communication between workers and management influences workers morale and
productivity. Workers are motivated through a good working relationship with
management.
Hertzbergs Two Factor Theory Of Motivation
According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in satisfaction while there
are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, the opposite ofSatisfaction is No satisfaction and the opposite of Dissatisfaction is No
Dissatisfaction.
Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories.
a. Hygiene factors:
Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for existence of motivation at
workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for long-term. But if these factors are
absent or if these factors are non-existent at workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction. In
other words, hygiene factors are those factors which when reasonable in a job, pacify theemployees and do not make them dissatisfied. These factors are extrinsic to work.
Hygiene factors are also called as dissatisfiers or maintenance factors as they are
required to avoid dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job environment. The hygiene
factors symbolized the physiological needs which the individuals wanted and expected to be
fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:
Pay- The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It must beequal and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.
Company Policies and administrative policies- The company policies should not betoo rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include flexible working hours,dress code, breaks, vacation, etc.
Fringe benefits- The employees should be offered health care plans (mediclaim),benefits for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.
Physical Working conditions- The working conditions should be safe, clean andhygienic. The work equipments should be updated and well-maintained.
Status- The employees status within the organization should be familiar andretained.
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Interpersonal relations-The relationship of the employees with his peers, superiorsand subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict
or humiliation element present.
Job Security- The organization must provide job security to the employees.b. Motivational factors:
According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as motivators. The
motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are inherent to work. These
factors motivate the employees for a superior performance. These factors are called
satisfiers. These are factors involved in performing the job. Employees find these factors
intrinsically rewarding. The motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were
perceived as an additional benefit. Motivational factors include:
Recognition- The employees should be praised and recognized for theiraccomplishments by the managers.
Sense of achievement- The employees must have a sense of achievement. Thisdepends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.
Growth and promotional opportunities- There must be growth and advancementopportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to perform well.
Responsibility- The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work. Themanagers should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize control
but retain accountability.
Meaningfulness of the work- The work itself should be meaningful, interesting andchallenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.
Limitations of Two-Factor Theory
1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.
2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But the research
conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.
3. The theorys reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the raters (person who
rates). The rater may spoil the findings by analyzing same response in different manner.
4. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find his job
acceptable despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.
5. The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural reaction of
employees when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work.
They will blame dissatisfaction on the external factors such as salary structure, company
policies and peer relationship. Also, the employees will give credit to themselves for the
satisfaction factor at work.
6. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations, Herzbergs Two-Factortheory is acceptable broadly.
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Maslows Hierarchy Of Human Needs
Abraham Maslows theory of human needs is a classical depiction of human motivation.
This theory is based on the assumption that, there is a hierarchy of five needs within each
individual. The urgency of these needs varies. These five needs are as follows,
Physiological needs- These are the basic needs of air, water, food, clothing and shelter. In
other words, physiological needs are the needs for basic amenities of life.
Safety needs- Safety needs include physical, environmental and emotional safety and
protection. For instance- Job security, financial security, protection from animals, family
security, health security, etc.
Social needs- Social needs include the need for love, affection, care, belongingness, and
friendship.
Esteem needs- Esteem needs are of two types: internal esteem needs (self- respect,
confidence, competence, achievement and freedom) and external esteem needs
(recognition, power, status, attention and admiration).
Self-actualization need- This include the urge to become what you are capable of becoming
or what you have the potential to become. It includes the need for growth and self-
contentment. It also includes desire for gaining more knowledge, social- service, creativity
and being aesthetic. The self- actualization needs are never fully satiable. As an individual
grows psychologically, opportunities keep cropping up to continue growing.
According to Maslow, individuals are motivated by unsatisfied needs. As each of these
needs is significantly satisfied, it drives and forces the next need to emerge.
Maslow grouped the five needs into two categories - Higher-order needs and Lower-order
needs. The physiological and the safety needs constituted the lower-order needs. These
lower-order needs are mainly satisfied externally. The social, esteem, and self-actualization
needs constituted the higher-order needs. These higher-order needs are generally satisfiedinternally, i.e., within an individual.
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For eg,Implication of Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory for Managers
As far as the physiological needs are concerned, the managers should give employees
appropriate salaries to purchase the basic necessities of life. Breaks and eating
opportunities should be given to employees.
As far as the safety needs are concerned, the managers should provide the employees job
security, safe and hygienic work environment, and retirement benefits so as to retain them.
As far as social needs are concerned, the management should encourage teamwork and
organize social events.
As far as esteem needs are concerned, the managers can appreciate and reward
employees on accomplishing and exceeding their targets. The management can give the
deserved employee higher job rank / position in the organization.
As far as self-actualization needs are concerned, the managers can give the employees
challenging jobs in which the employees skills and competencies are fully utilized.
Moreover, growth opportunities can be given to them so that they can reach the peak.
Limitations of Maslows Theory
It is essential to note that not all employees are governed by same set of needs. Different
individuals may be driven by different needs at same point of time. It is always the most powerful
unsatisfied need that motivates an individual.
The theory is not empirically supported.
The theory is not applicable in case of starving artist as even if the artists basic needs are not
satisfied, he will still strive for recognition and achievement.
Module ll
Departmentation
The division of labour divides the jobs into smaller activities. In order to coordinate these
activities, they are grouped together. The basis by which these activities are grouped
together are known as departmentation.
It may be defined as the process of forming departments or grouping activities of an
organization into a number of separate units for the purpose of efficient functioning. This
term vary a great deal between different organizations. For example, in business
undertaking, terms are division, department and section; in Government these are called
branch, department and section; in military, regiment, battalion groups and company.
The impact of departmentation is a delineation of executive responsibilities and a grouping
of operating activities.The major benefits of departmentalization are:
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Specialization: Departmentation leads to the benefits of specialization as various
organizational activities are grouped according to their relation with the specific functions
or objectives. Every departmental manager specializes in the tasks assigned to him.
Administrative control: Departmentation helps in effective managerial control because the
standards of performance for each and every department can be laid down precisely. Every
department has a specific objective. This also facilitates keeping expenditure within limits.
Fixation of responsibility: Since organization work is divided into manageable units, and
authority and responsibility are precisely defined, it is easier to fix the accountability of
different managers for the performance of various tasks.
Freedom or autonomy: The departments created through departmentation are semi-
autonomous units. Their heads are given a sufficient degree of authority to run their
departments. This increases the efficiency of the departments.
Development of managers: Departmentation helps in the development of managerial
personnel by providing them opportunities to take independent decisions and initiative. The
executives can develop themselves for promotion to higher jobs.
Span of Control: The departmentation reflects the types of jobs which are groupedtogether. Different persons are involved in performing these jobs. They are required to be
supervised closely.
Decentralization:
The degree, to which decision making power is extended to the lower levels of
management in the organization is called decentralization.
There are some organizations, where top management makes all the decisions and middle
and lower level managers merely implement the decisions taken by the top management.At the other extreme, there are some organizations in which decisions are made at all levels
of management. The first case fits into the centralized structure where as the second one is
highly decentralized.
One of the fourteen principles of Henry Fayol happens to be centralization. According to
him, decreasing the role of subordinates in decision-making is centralization; increasing
their role is decentralization. Fayol believed that managers should retain final responsibility
but at the same time give their subordinates enough authority to do their jobs properly.
Decentralization is the systematic effort to delegate to the lowest levels all authority
except that which can be exercised at central points. It is the pushing down of authority andpower of decision-making to the lower levels of organization. The centers of decision-
making are dispersed throughout the organization. The essence of decentralization is the
transference of authority from a higher level to a lower level. It is a fundamental principles
of democratic management where each individual is respected for his inherent worth and
constitution.
The larger the size of an organization, the more urgent is the need for decentralization.
This does not mean that decentralization is good and centralization is bad.
Decentralization is a correlate of delegation; to the extent that authority is not delegated,
it is centralized. Absolute centralization decreases the role of subordinate managers which
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in turn encourages decentralization. Absolute decentralization is also not possible because
managers cannot delegate all their authority.
Centralization refers to the degree to which decision making is centralized in the
organization. Absolute centralization is untenable because it would mean that subordinates
have no duties, power or authority. Centralization may be essential in small organization.
Virtual Organization
The virtual organization is used to describe a network of independent firms that join
together, often temporarily, to produce a service or product. Virtual organization is often
associated with such terms as virtual office, virtual teams, and virtual leadership. The
ultimate goal of the virtual organization is to provide innovative, high-quality products or
services instantaneously in response to customer demands.
When an organization assembles resources from a variety of firms, a virtual organization
seems to have more capabilities than it actually possesses.
Partners in virtual organizations share risks, costs, and rewards in pursuit of a global market.
The common characteristics of these organizations include a purpose that is motivated by
specific market opportunities, world-class core competence, interdependent relationships,
and permeable boundaries.
Virtual organizations represent structures that are motivated by specific market
opportunities.
Virtual teams: a group of people who interact through interdependent tasks guided by a
common purpose. Unlike conventional teams, a virtual team performs work across space,time, and organizational boundaries.
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Virtual leader: The leader of a virtual organization demands a new set of skills unlike the
skills required in a traditional hierarchy.
e.g. An industry that is known for its use of partners and alliances is the entertainment
industry, which has partnered with the computing, communications, consumer electronics,
and publishing industries to convert movies, textbooks, and other software into digitalformats.
Boundary less Organization:
A boundary less organization is a contemporary approach in organization design. It is an
organization that is not defined by, or limited to, the horizontal, vertical, or external
boundaries imposed by a predefined structure.
The credit for coining the term boundary less organization goes to Mr. Jack Welch of
General Electrics (GE). He wanted GE to become boundary less organization.
The type of organization, which seeks to eliminate the chain of command, have limitless
span of control and replace departments with empowered teams. By removing vertical
boundaries, management flattens the hierarchy, status, and ranks are minimized.
G.E. has been using cross-hierarchical teams, participative decision making practices and
360-degree performance appraisal system to break vertical boundaries.
It is the networked computers (with the help of internet and intra-net), which makes the
boundary less organization possible by allowing people to communicate across inter-
organizational and intra-organizational boundaries. Electronic Mail for example permitshundreds of employee to share information simultaneously and allows ranks and file
workers to communicate directly with senior executives.
Inverted Pyramid Structure:
In traditional management model, authority and decision-making power are concentrated
at the top of an organizational pyramid. Orders are issued and carried out by subordinates.
The inverted pyramid organization is a method oforganization in which facts are presented
in descending order of importance
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Concept: The inverted pyramid is a metaphor for a reversal of traditional management
practices. Employees who are closest to clients or production processes are placed at the
top and managers at the bottom. The employee is empowered with greater decision-making
authority and freedom of action.
In theory, overall organizational performance becomes faster, more adaptable and more
effective
Development: Successfully shifting decisions to employees at the base of the pyramid
requires that those employees develop new skills.
Adequate resources must be devoted to developing a skill set that includes cooperation
and decision making. Employees in an inverted pyramid situation also need more
information and communication.
To make effective decisions, each employee must understand organizational goals and
the role she has in achieving those goals.
Management: To successfully invert the organizational pyramid, management has to be
consistent when shifting decision making to employees. The resources needed to develop
the necessary skill set must be allocated, and the manager should take on the role of
mentor or coach.
Finally, success depends on trusting employees and demonstrating a genuine willingness
to share authority.
LEAN AND FLAT ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE:
Lean Organizational Structure
Lean production is a Japanese system that helps cut down on costs in manufacturing
plants and factories. A company that implements lean techniques should also adopt a lean
organizational structure.
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Identification: In a lean organizational structure, the organizational arrangement should
flow along product and process lines rather than on functional areas. For instance, some
leancompanies set up integrated product and process teams as self-organized work teams.
A dedicated team for each product family could include expertise from differentfunctional areas such as marketing, purchasing, manufacturing, quality assurance and
customer relations.
Reporting Structure: Work teams in lean organizational structures should not be set up to
report through many layers in a hierarchy. Instead, the reporting structure should focus on a
connected set of activities in a horizontal stream.
Benefits: A lean organizational structure helps promote lean objectives such as minimizing
waste through continuous improvement. This sort of structure reduces the need for
nonessential functions and enhances efficiency and flexibility.
Flat Organizational Structure
Features: In a flat organization structure, there are few levels of command that exist
between the employee and the top management. This structure is best suited to small
organizations.
Function: This structure is used by organizations where employees are vested with decision-
making powers. Hotels, spas, restaurants and beauty parlours use this structure. The
employees are required to use their judgement and customize the product as per the
customers specifications.
Advantages: Communication flows are greatly enhanced here. The management and the
employees work together toward achieving organizational goals and objectives. As the roles
of middle men are eliminated, the company does not end up paying unnecessary salaries.
Also, as the employees use their judgment and discretion in carrying out work, the response
times are very fast.
Disadvantages: The main problem here is that an employee might be reporting to more
than one superior. There is no clarity on whose work he must complete first. Also, this
structure is suited only to small organizations that have limited numbers of employees.
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Organizational Team Structure
As an organization grows, its structure becomes increasingly important. A large
organization can't be managed properly unless it has a strong internal structure.
There are several ways to structure an organization, including by function or by
department. One of the most common is a team structure. A team is composed of
employees who work together on a specific project; it's a pragmatic way to group
employees.
A team structure is cross-functional. It combines workers with various skills, like
management, administrative assistants and sales.
Interdepartmental: Cross-functional teams are also interdepartmental; this means that
people from various departments are included. For example, staff from marketing may work
with staff from accounting on a
Advantages: A team structure has the advantage of speeding up the work flow and lowering
costs. It also generally improves employee motivation and eliminates unnecessary layers of
management.
Disadvantages: The disadvantages to a team structure are that it increases the time spent in
meetings, and that time management is more challenging. What's more, staff may feel that
their work with the team conflicts with their work in their department.
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Module lV
Product Life Cycle
The product life cycle is an important concept in marketing. It describes the stages a
product goes through from when it was first thought of until it finally is removed from the
market. Not all products reach this final stage. Some continue to grow and others rise and
fall.
The main stages of the product life cycle are:
Introduction researching, developing and then launching the product Growth when sales are increasing at their fastest rate Maturity sales are near their highest, but the rate of growth is slowing down, e.g.
new competitors in market or saturation
Decline final stage of the cycle, when sales begin to fallThis can be illustrated by looking at the sales during the time period of the product.
A branded good can enjoy continuous growth, such as Microsoft, because the product is
being constantly improved and advertised, and maintains a strong brand loyalty.
Extension strategies extend the life of the product before it goes into decline. Again
businesses use marketing techniques to improve sales. Examples of the techniques are:
Advertising try to gain a new audience or remind the current audience Price reduction more attractive to customers Adding value add new features to the current product, e.g. video messaging on
mobile phones
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Explore new markets try selling abroad New packaging brightening up old packaging, or subtle changes such as putting
crisps in foil packets or Seventies music compilations.
Micromotion Study
It is a technique for recording and timing an activity.
It consists of taking motion pictures of the operation with a clock in the picture (or with a
video camera running at a known speed).
The film is a permanent record of the method and the time and is always ready to be
examined when needed.
Purposes of micromotion study
1. To assist in finding the preferred method of doing the work.
2. To assist in training the workers to understand the meaning of motion study and toenable them to apply motion economy principles in a professional way.
Micromotion study as an aid in improving methods
The procedure of making a micromotion study consists of:
1. Filming the operation to be studied.
2. Analyzing the film.
3. Charting the results of the analysis.
4. Developing the improved method.
The speed of the camera used ranges from 960 to 1000 frames per minute. But faster
cameras may be used to study very fast hand motions or complex operations.The pictures should be enlarged many times to facilitate the analysis of the motions.
Micromotion study should be used when it is economical to do so (short cycle highly
repetitive operations, large volume production, or operation performed by a large number
of workers).
Memomotion Study
In memomotion study, the camera speed is at 60 or 100 frames per minute. In addition to
its use in industrial operations, it is used to study many other operations such as check-inoperations as airline counters, the manner in which customers select items in the store,
traffic flow on highways, and in banks.
It costs less than micromotion study (only costs 6% of the cost of a micromotion study).
ISO 9000 Series
The ISO 9000 Series Standards for Quality Management and Assurance were issued by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987. They reflect an important trend
in business practice. Early in the 20th century, quality was viewed by businesses as an
additional cost of production. However, as businesses realized that high quality leads to
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Treating suppliers as business partners whose success is vital to the success of thebusiness itself and who have invaluable technical expertise which can be utilized in
improving the end customer experience.
To achieve the above you need a set of tools and techniques, which you can apply, toproblem solving or opportunity achievement. The best known TQM Tools and Techniques,
to name a few are:
1. Check sheet: pre-formatted lists for noting incidence, frequency, etc., according toknown useful criteria
2. Pareto chart: a line and bar graph displaying cause/effect ratios, especially biggestrelative cause, based on Pareto theory.
3. Flow chart : A boxes and arrows method of examining activities, potentially used inbrainstorming, also found in business process modelling
4. Cause and effect diagram/Fishbone/Ishikawa Diagrams: for identifying cause &effect patterns, in which primary categories are generally pre-determined according
to context.
5. Histogram: a bar graph displaying data in simple categories which together accountfor a total.
6. Scatter diagram: a graph which plots points (typically very many individualinstances) according to two variables, which produces a useful visual indication of
the relationship between the two variables.
7. Control chart: a standard pattern of performance/time for a given process, often inRun Chart format, which acts as a template to check conformance and deviation.
Check Sheet:
A simple means of data collection. Function to present information in an efficient graphical format. Defining characteristic of a check sheet is that data is recorded by making marks
(checks).
Data is read by observing the location and number of marks on the sheet.
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Pareto chart
Used to identify factors that have the greatest cumulative effect on the system. Pareto principle: 80% of problems stem from 20% of the various causes. A special type of bar chart created by plotting the cumulative frequencies of the
relative frequency in descending order.
For example, if your business was investigating the delay associated with processing
credit card applications, you could group the data into the following categories:
1) No signature2) Residential address not valid3) Non-legible handwriting4) Already a customer5) Other
Flow Chart
Common type of chart. Defined as a pictorial representation of describing a process used to plan stages of a
project.
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Cause and effect diagram/ Ishikawa diagram/Fishbone Diagram
Diagram showing the cause of a certain event. Used to identify potential factors causing an overall effect. Used to see all possible causes of a result and hopefully find the root of process
imperfections. It is known as fishbone diagram because its shape is similar to side view of a fish
skeleton.
Histogram
A Histogram is a graphic summary of variation in a set of data. It enables us to see patterns that are difficult to see in a simple table of numbers.
Can be analyzed to draw conclusions about the data set.
A histogram is a graph in which the continuous variable is clustered into categoriesand the value of each cluster is plotted to give a series of bars.
The below example reveals the skewed distribution of a set of product measurements
that remain nevertheless within specified limits. Without using some form of graphic
this kind of problem can be difficult to analyze, recognize or identify.
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Scatter Diagram
A scatter plot is effectively a line graph with no line - i.e. the point intersectionsbetween the two data sets are plotted but no attempt is made to physically draw a
line.
The Y axis is conventionally used for the characteristic whose behavior we would liketo predict.
Used, to define the area of relationship between two variables.
Control Chart
Control charts are a method of Statistical Process Control, SPC. (Control system forproduction processes).
They enable the control of distribution of variation rather than attempting to controleach individual variation.
Upper and lower control and tolerance limits are calculated for a process andsampled measures are regularly plotted about a central line between the two sets of
limits.
The plotted line corresponds to the stability/trend of the process. Action can betaken based on trend rather than on individual variation.
This prevents over-correction/compensation for random variation, which would lead to
many rejects.
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