Insights From International Relations Theory

8/12/2019 Insights From International Relations Theory

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A COMPLIANCEBASEDTHEORYOFINTERNATIONALLAW

Andrew T. Guzman

Marc !"# $%!"

A&&'&(an( Pr)*e&&)r )* Law# B)a+( Ha++ Sc))+ )* Law# ,n'-er&'( )*Ca+'*)rn'a a( Ber/e+e. I )we (an/& () Da-'d Car)n# S(e0en C)'# 1ac/G)+d&m'(# Bened'c( 2'n3&4ur# Er'c P)&ner# 2a+ Rau&('a+a# Be( S'mm)n 1)nY))# and 0ar('c'0an(& a( (e B)a+( Ha++ In(erna(')na+ Law and P)+'('c& W)r/&)0 *)re+0*u+ d'&cu&&')n& and c)mmen(&. S0ec'a+ (an/& () 1eann'e Sear& and N'c)+a&1ame&. Ran Wa(erman 0r)-'ded e5ce++en( re&earc a&&'&(ance. I am 3ra(e*u+ () (e1)n M. O+'n F)unda(')n *)r *'nanc'a+ a&&'&(ance. C)n(ac(63uzman7+aw.4er/e+e.edu.


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Abstract

T'& Ar('c+e e5am'ne& 'n(erna(')na+ +aw *r)m (e 0er&0ec('-e )* c)m0+'ance.,&'n3 'n&'3(& *r)m 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n& (e)r# (e Ar('c+e ad)0(& a (e)r 'n w'cc)m0+'ance c)me& a4)u( 'n a m)de+ )* ra(')na+# &e+*8'n(ere&(ed &(a(e&. S0ec'*'ca++#&(a(e& are c)ncerned a4)u( 4)( re0u(a(')na+ and d'rec( &anc(')n& *)r (e'r c)nduc(.

Te m)de+ a++)w& u& () c)n&'der 'n(erna(')na+ +aw 'n a new +'3(. M)&(&(r'/'n3+# )ne '& *)rced () rec)n&'der (w) )* (e m)&( *undamen(a+ d)c(r'na+ 0)'n(& 'n(e *'e+d 9 (e de*'n'(')n& )* cu&()mar 'n(erna(')na+ +aw :CIL; and )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw'(&e+*. A re0u(a(')na+ m)de+ )* c)m0+'ance ma/e& '( c+ear (a( CIL a**ec(& (e 4ea-')r)* a &(a(e 4ecau&e )(er &(a(e& 4e+'e-e (a( (e *'r&( &(a(e a& a c)mm'(men( (a( '( mu&()n)r. A *a'+ure () )n)r (a( c)mm'(men( ur(& a &(a(e+aw? w'()u(a+&) 'nc+ud'n3 &)*( +aw. A3reemen(& &uc a& m'n'&(er'a+ acc)rd& )r mem)randa )*under&(and'n3 re0re&en( c)mm'(men(& 4 a &(a(e w'c# '* 4reaced# w'++ a-e are0u(a(')na+ 'm0ac(. F)r ('& rea&)n# (e&e &)*( +aw a3reemen(& &)u+d 4e 'nc+uded 'n

(e de*'n'(')n )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw.

Te Ar('c+e a+&) ca++& *)r a re*)cu&'n3 )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw &c)+ar&'0. Becau&e'n(erna(')na+ +aw w)r/& (r)u3 re0u(a(')na+ and d'rec( &anc(')n we mu&( rec)3n'ze(a( (e&e &anc(')n& a-e +'m'(ed *)rce. A& a re&u+(# 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '& m)re +'/e+ ()a-e an 'm0ac( )n e-en(& wen (e &(a/e& are re+a('-e+ m)de&(. Te 'm0+'ca(')n '& (a(man )* (e ()0'c& (a( rece'-e (e m)&( a((en(')n 'n 'n(erna(')na+ +aw 9 (e +aw& )* war#(err'()r'a+ +'m'( arm& a3reemen( and &) )n 9 are un+'/e+ () 4e a**ec(ed 4'n(erna(')na+ +aw. On (e )(er and# '&&ue& &uc a& 'n(erna(')na+ ec)n)m'c ma((eren-'r)nmen(a+ '&&ue and &) )n# can m)re ea&'+ 4e a**ec(ed 4 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. T'&&u33e&(& (a( (e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw academ &)u+d *)cu& 3rea(er a((en(')n )n (e +a((er

&u4@ec(& and +e&& )n (e *)rmer.


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INTERNATIONALLAW6 A COMPLIANCEBASEDTHEORY

I. INTROD,CTION.............................................................................!

II. EISTING THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW.................

A. TRADITIONALLEGALTHEORIES..................................................B. INTERNATIONALRELATIONSTHEORIES.....................................!

III. A THEORY OF COMPLIANCE.................................................!

A. A THEORYOFTHEIRRELEANCEOFINTERNATIONALLAW.....!

B. A MODELOFINTERNATIONALLAW..........................................$!C. APPLYINGTHEMODEL9 BILATERALINESTMENTTREATIES..$D. DYNAMICISS,ES.......................................................................%E. THELEELOFCOMMITMENT....................................................F. INTERNATIONALLAWANDCOORDINATION ..............................

I. IOLATION AND COMPLIANCE...........................................

A. REP,TATIONALSANCTIONS.......................................................B. DIRECTSANCTIONS....................................................................""C. WHENWILLSANCTIONSWOR2BEST....................................."D. ACCEPTANCEOFSANCTIONS.....................................................%

. RETHIN2ING INTERNATIONAL LAW...................................!

A. TREATIES....................................................................................$B. A NEWDEFINITIONOFC,STOMARYINTERNATIONALLAW.....C. A NEWDEFINITIONOFINTERNATIONALLAW...........................D. REISITINGEISTINGTHEORIES ..............................................E. THEPROBLEMOFLARGESTA2ES..............................................

I. CONCL,SION............................................................................


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I. INTRODUCTION

In(erna(')na+ +aw &c)+ar&'0 +ac/& a &a('&*ac()r (e)r )* w and wen &(a(e&c)m0+ w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. Cer(a'n+# m)&( +e3a+ &c)+ar& and 0rac('(')ner& 4e+'e-e(a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw ma((er& 'n (e &en&e (a( '( a**ec(& (e 4ea-')r )* &(a(e&.!

Fur(erm)re# ('& 4e+'e* '& c)n&'&(en( w'( em0'r'ca+ e-'dence 'nd'ca('n3 (a('n(erna(')na+ +aw ma((er&.$ Ne-er(e+e& ()&e (e)r'e& (a( a-e 4een ad-anced 4+e3a+ &c)+ar& are 3enera++ c)n&'dered *+awed 4ecau&e (e are d'**'cu+( () rec)nc'+ew'( m)dern 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n& (e)r# re+ ea-'+ )n a5')ma('c c+a'm& a4)u(na(')na+ 4ea-')r# and +ac/ a c)eren( (e)r )* c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. Tea4&ence )* a c)eren( (e)r ma e50+a'n w m)&( c)n-en(')na+ 'n(erna(')na+ +aw&c)+ar&'0 d)e& n)( a&/ w (ere '& c)m0+'ance 4u( ra(er &'m0+ a&&ume& a& muc.

Te *a'+ure () under&(and (e c)m0+'ance dec'&')n '& (r)u4+'n3 4ecau&ec)m0+'ance '& )ne )* (e m)&( cen(ra+ =ue&(')n& 'n 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. Indeed# (ea4&ence )* an e50+ana(')n *)r w &(a(e& )4e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw 'n &)me 'n&(ance& andn)( 'n )(er& (rea(en& () underm'ne (e -er *)unda(')n& )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. I*'n(erna(')na+ +aw ma((er '( mu&( 4e (e ca&e (a( '( a+(er& &(a(e 4ea-')r 'n &)mec'rcum&(ance&. W'()u( an under&(and'n3 )* ('& c)nnec(')n 4e(ween 'n(erna(')na+ +awand &(a(e ac(')n &c)+ar& cann)( )0e () 0r)-'de u&e*u+ 0)+'c ad-'ce w'( re&0ec( ()'n(erna(')na+ +aw. W'()u( a (e)r )* c)m0+'ance# we cann)( e5am'ne (e r)+e )*(rea('e cu&()mar 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# )r )(er a3reemen(&. N)r can we c)n&'der )w ()'m0r)-e (e *unc(')n'n3 )* (e 'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+ &&(em# )r de-e+)0 a w)r/a4+e (e)r

)* 'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+ and re3u+a()r c))0era(')n.A( 0re&en(# (e 4e&( &)urce )* (e)r re+e-an( () 'n(erna(')na+ +aw and

c)m0+'ance c)me& n)( *r)m +e3a+ &c)+ar&'0# 4u( *r)m 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n&." Te&e

!See LO,ISHEN2IN# HOWNATIONSBEHAE"8" :!;J A4ram Cae& K An()n'a CaeOn Compliance# " INT


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Compliance)*ased heory

(e)r'e )we-er# are )*(en &/e0('ca+ )* (e r)+e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw a& () 0+a 'n (e3)-ernance )* (e 'n(erna(')na+ &&(em# and )*(en '3n)re >'n(erna(')na+ +aw?a+()3e(er. T) da(e# ne'(er c)n-en(')na+ 'n(erna(')na+ +aw &c)+ar n)r ()&e ad)0('n3an 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n& a00r)ac# a& 0re&en(ed a &a('&*ac()r m)de+ (a( '& ca0a4+e )*

e50+a'n'n3 w &(a(e& c)m0+ w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw 'n &)me c'rcum&(ance& and -')+a(e'( 'n )(er&. In(erna(')na+ +aw &c)+ar&'0 a&&ume& a '3 +e-e+ )* c)m0+'ance and0r)-'de& +'((+e (e)re('ca+ *ramew)r/ w'('n w'c () e5am'ne (e c)m0+'ance dec'&')nw'+e 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n& &c)+ar& +ar3e+ '3n)re (e r)+e )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw 'nna(')na+ dec'&')n ma/'n3.

T'& Ar('c+e draw& )n 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n& (e)r () de-e+)0 a 4e((er (e)r )*c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. ,n+'/e (rad'(')na+ 'n(erna(')na+ +aw &c)+ar&'0# (e(e)r de-e+)0ed ere e50+a'n& c)m0+'ance w'('n a m)de+ )* ra(')na+# &e+*8'n(ere&(ed&(a(e&. C)m0+'ance e5'&(& 4ecau&e &(a(e& are c)ncerned w'( 4)( (e re0u(a(')na+'m0+'ca(')n& and (e d'rec( &anc(')n& )* -')+a('n3 (e +aw. Te m)de+ e50+a'n& n)( )n+w na(')n& c)m0+# 4u( a+&) w and wen (e -')+a(e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw.

YALE 1. INTW d) na(')n& )4e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw T'& rema'n& am)n3 (e m)&( 0er0+e5'n3 =ue&(')n& 'n'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n&.?;J T)ma& M. Franc/#Le#itimacy in the International System# $ AM. 1. INTTe &ur0r'&'n3 ('n3 a4)u( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '& (a( na(')n& e-er )4e '(& &(r'c(ure& )rcarr )ur '(& manda(e&.?;J Bened'c( 2'n3&4ur# he Concept of Compliance as a -unction of Competin#Conceptions of International Law" ! MICH. 1. INTC)m0+'ance< '& )ne )* (ecen(ra+ c)nce0(& 'n curren( and 0r)0)&ed re&earc 0r)@ec(& u&'n3 &)c'a+ &c'ence me()d& () &(ud (e e**ec(and &'3n'*'cance )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw.?;.

3uzmanC)m0+'anceandIL.d)cLa&( 0r'n(ed $$%%! !%6"6%% AM

$


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Ta( ar('c+e re&0)nd& () (e ar3umen( (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '& mere+e0'0en)mena+ 4 c)n&(ruc('n3 a m)de+ )* ra(')na+# &e+*8'n(ere&(ed &(a(e& 'n w'c'n(erna(')na+ +aw d)e 'n *ac(# ma((er.

On (e )(er and# (e m)de+ a+&) ra'&e& *undamen(a+ =ue&(')n& a4)u(

'n(erna(')na+ +aw a& '( '& curren(+ &(ud'ed. B (a/'n3 (e =ue&(')n )* c)m0+'ance&er')u&+# we 3a'n a new 0er&0ec('-e )n 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# and (a( new 0er&0ec('-e*)rce& u& () =ue&(')n &)me )* (e cen(ra+ '&&ue& 'n 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. T)u3 (eana+&'& 'm0ac(& )(er a&0ec(& )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# *)ur 0r'mar 'm0+'ca(')n& )* (eana+&'& are d'&cu&&ed 'n (e 0a0er.

F'r&(# (e ana+&'& &u33e&(& (a( (e curren( under&(and'n3 )* cu&()mar'n(erna(')na+ +aw :CIL; '& 'nade=ua(e. T) &=uare CIL w'( a &en&'4+e (e)r )*c)m0+'ance and 'n(erna(')na+ +aw re=u're& a new de*'n'(')n )* CIL. Te e5'&('n3de*'n'(')n )* CIL a& 4een (e &u4@ec( )* a 3rea( dea+ )* cr'('c'&m# and &)me a-e 3)ne&) *ar a& () &u33e&( (a( n) &uc +aw e5'&(&. !% Ra(er (an a((em0('n3 () &a+-a3e (e(rad'(')na+ de*'n'(')n# ('& Ar('c+e 0r)0)&e& a new )ne (a( *)cu&e& )n we(er )r n)( aru+e )* cu&()mar 'n(erna(')na+ +aw a**ec(& 4ea-')r. I( '& &)wn (a( (e re=u'remen(&)* w'de&0read &(a(e 0rac('ce and a &en&e )* +e3a+ )4+'3a(')n d) n)( c)n(r'4u(e () a u&e*u+under&(and'n3 )* CIL. B &(ud'n3 CIL w'('n a re0u(a(')na+ m)de+# and w'( a *)cu&)n c)m0+'ance# '( '& 0)&&'4+e () ac'e-e a dee0er under&(and'n3 )* (a( *)rm )*'n(erna(')na+ +aw.

Sec)nd# (e Ar('c+e ca++en3e& )ur under&(and'n3 )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '(&e+*.Wen '( '& c)n&'dered *r)m (e 0er&0ec('-e )* c)m0+'ance# '( '& c+ear (a( (e c+a&&'ca+de*'n'(')n )* >'n(erna(')na+ +aw? '& under8'nc+u&'-e and &)u+d 4e 4r)adened () 'nc+uden)( )n+ (rea('e& and cu&()mar 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# 4u( a+&) a3reemen(& &uc a&m'n'&(er'a+ acc)rd mem)randa )* under&(and'n3# and &) )n. L'/e (rea('e& and

cu&()mar 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# (e&e 'n&(rumen(& a**ec( (e 'ncen('-e& )* c)un(r'e& and#(ere*)re# &)u+d 4e c)n&'dered 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. Inc+ud'n3 (em a++)w& u& () &(ud (e*u++ ran3e )* 'n(erna(')na+ )4+'3a(')n& w'('n a &'n3+e (e)re('ca+ *ramew)r/# and# un+'/e(rad'(')na+ (e)r'e e50+a'n& w &uc a3reemen(& e5'&( and w (e are &) 0)0u+ar.T'& a00r)ac# (en# re&)+-e& (e e5'&('n3 de4a(e re3ard'n3 >&)*( +aw? 4 0)'n('n3 )u((a( '( &)u+d n)( 4e c)n&'dered d'**eren( 'n /'nd *r)m )(er *)rm& )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw.Ra(er# '( &)u+d 4e rec)3n'zed a& 0ar( )* a &0ec(rum )* c)mm'(men( a+)n3 w'c &(a(e&c))&e () +)ca(e (e'r 0r)m'&e&.

T'rd# '( '& dem)n&(ra(ed (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '& m)&( +'/e+ () a**ec( )u(c)me&wen (ere are man re0ea(ed 'n(erac(')n& and eac )* ()&e 'n(erac(')n& 'n-)+-e&

Te m)de+ a& (e mer'( )* 4e'n3 c)n&'&(en( w'( 4)( c)n-en(')na+ w'&d)m and em0'r'ca+e-'dence &)w'n3 (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw ma((er a& we++ a& (e )4&er-a(')n (a( (e +aw '& &)me('me&-')+a(ed. See" e,#,# Be( A. S'mm)nMoney and the Law: Why Comply with the Public InternationalLaw of Money# $ YALE 1. INT


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re+a('-e+ &ma++ &(a/e&. A+()u3 ('& c+a'm '& n)( new# '( +ead& () (e c)nc+u&')n (a((e ()0'c& w'c a-e (rad'(')na++ e+d cen(er &(a3e 'n 'n(erna(')na+ +aw 88 &uc a& (e+aw& )* war# neu(ra+'(# arm& c)n(r)+# and &) )n 88 are 0rec'&e+ (e ()0'c& 'n w'c'n(erna(')na+ +aw '& +ea&( +'/e+ () 4e re+e-an(. T'& c)nc+u&')n a& (w) +e&&)n& *)r

'n(erna(')na+ +aw &c)+ar&'0. Te *'r&( '& (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw &c)+ar&'0 ma 4eundu+ *)cu&ed )n (e&e ()0'c&. Te *ac( (e are ar3ua4+ (e m)&( 'm0)r(an( '&&ue& 'n'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n& d)e& n)( 'm0+ (a( (e &)u+d *)rm (e cen(er0'ece )*'n(erna(')na+ +aw 4ecau&e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw w'++ )*(en 4e una4+e () a**ec( )u(c)me&.Sc)+ar& ma a-e a 3rea(er 'm0ac( )n uman we++84e'n3 '* (e de-)(e m)re ener3 ()area& 'n w'c 'n(erna(')na+ +aw can a+(er )u(c)me& m)re re+'a4+. Te&e 'nc+ude aran3e )* 'm0)r(an( area& 'nc+ud'n3 ec)n)m'c '&&ue en-'r)nmen(a+ '&&ue +a4)r '&&ueand &) )n. Te &ec)nd# &)mewa( m)re &u4(+e# +e&&)n '& (a( (e &(ud )* (e&e '&&ueand (e de&'3n )* 'n(erna(')na+ 'n&('(u(')n& &)u+d 0r)ceed w'( an under&(and'n3 )* (e+'m'(& )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. In(erna(')na+ +aw can 0+a a r)+e 'n enc)ura3'n3c))0era(')n# 4u( can )n+ d) &) '* )4+'3a(')n& are &(ruc(ured 'n a *a&')n (a( reduce& (e

'm0)r(ance )* eac c)m0+'ance dec'&')n. F)r e5am0+e# an arm& (rea(# 4 '(&e+* maa-e +'((+e &ucce&& 4u( a (rea( (a( 0r)-'de& *)r 0er')d'c 'n&0ec(')n& 4 a neu(ra+ ('rd0ar( ma &(and a muc 3rea(er cance )* ac'e-'n3 (e 3)a+ )* arm& c)n(r)+.

F)ur(# '( '& &)wn (a( &anc(')n& *)r -')+a(')n& )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw are 3enera++n)( )0('ma+. Becau&e &anc(')n& c)n&'&( 0r'mar'+ )* wea/ m'+'(ar )r ec)n)m'c0un'&men( and re0u(a(')na+ +)&&e (e are )*(en ()) wea/ () ac'e-e )0('ma+c)m0+'ance.!! ,nder cer(a'n c'rcum&(ance )we-er# &anc(')n& can 4e ra(')na+'zed and&(a(e& can 4e 3'-en 4e((er 'ncen('-e&. In 0ar('cu+ar# &(a(e& can a( ('me& 4e 'nduced ()-)+un(ar'+ &u4m'( () d'&0u(e re&)+u(')n 0r)cedure& and acce0( &anc(')n&. T'& '&0)&&'4+e were a *a'+ure () acce0( a &anc(')n +ead& () an e-en 3rea(er +)&&. Te Ar('c+ed'&cu&&e& (e c'rcum&(ance 'n w'c (a( can )ccur# and )w 'n(erna(')na+ 'n(erac(')n&

can 4e &(ruc(ured () enc)ura3e '(.

,nder&(and'n3 )w () enc)ura3e 0ar('c'0a(')n 'n d'&0u(e re&)+u(')n0r)cedure& 'n (urn &ed& +'3( )n (e r)+e )* 'n(erna(')na+ )r3an'za(')n&. Te&e 4)d'e&a-e an 'm0)r(an( r)+e 4ecau&e (e can 4e u&ed () c))rd'na(e 'n(erna(')na+ 'n(erac(')n&'n &uc a wa a& () 'ncrea&e (e +'/e+'))d (a( &(a(e& w'++ &u4m'( (em&e+-e& () (eau()r'( )* d'&0u(e re&)+u(')n 4)d'e&. Te )4-')u& e5am0+e )* ('& &)r( )* 4ea-')r '&&een a( (e W)r+d Trade Or3an'za(')n :WTO;. A+()u3 cer(a'n+ n)( a *+aw+e&&0r)ce& (e WTO '& a4+e () re&)+-e d'&0u(e& am)n3 mem4er& and 'm0)&e &anc(')n&c+)&er () (e )0('ma+ +e-e+.!$

!!SeeCae& K Cae supran)(e 555# a( $8. E-en wen (e are e**ec('-e# d'rec( 0un'('-e

&anc(')n& &uc a& em4ar3)e& ma a( ('me 4e ()) ar w'c a+&) *a'+& () 3enera(e )0('ma+ c)m0+'ance.!$Te d'&0u(e re&)+u(')n 0r)cedure& a( (e WTO are 4e'n3 &(ud'ed 'n a 3r)w'n3 +'(era(ure w)&e3)a+ '& () under&(and )w (e&e 0r)cedure& a**ec( (e dec'&')n& )* &(a(e& () 4r'n3 and +'('3a(e ca&e&. SeeAndrew T. Guzman K Be( S'mm)n T) Se((+e )r Em0ane+ An Em0'r'ca+ Ana+&'& )* L'('3a(')n andSe((+emen( a( (e WTO# *)r(c)m'n3# 1. Le3. S(ud. :$%%$;J Cr'&('na R. Se-'++a# E50+a'n'n3 Pa((ern& )*GATTWTO Trade C)m0+a'n( Wea(eread Cen(er *)r In(erna(')na+ A**a'r W)r/'n3 Pa0er Ser'e& 8%!# 1anuar !J Y)un3 Du/ Par/ K Ge)r3 C. ,m4r'c(# WTO D'&0u(e Se((+emen( !8$%%%6 AS(a('&('ca+ Ana+&' " 1. In(


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Te Ar('c+e 0r)ceed& a& *)++)w&. Par( II d'&cu&&e& (e m)&( 0r)m'nen((e)r'e& )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw *r)m 4)( (rad'(')na+ +e3a+ &c)+ar&'0 and 'n(erna(')na+re+a(')n& 0er&0ec('-e&. Par( III 0re&en(& (e m)de+ )* c)m0+'ance. An (e)r )*c)m0+'ance mu&( c)me () (erm& w'( (e *ac( (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# )we-er (a( (erm&

'& de*'ned# a& -'r(ua++ n) en*)rcemen( mecan'&m.!

Wen a &(a(e -')+a(e&'n(erna(')na+ +aw (ere are *ew *)rma+ 0r)cedure& (r)u3 w'c )(er c)un(r'e& can'n-)/e &anc(')n&.!" Ta( '& n)( () &a# )we-er# (a( (e -')+a(')n )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '&w'()u( c)&(. Tw) c)&(& are )* cen(ra+ 'm0)r(ance and w'++ 4e (e *)cu& )* ('& Ar('c+e.F'r&(# *)++)w'n3 a c)un(rW &)u+d ru+e un&u00)r(ed 4 an e**ec('-e &(ruc(ure)* c)erc')n c)m0ara4+e () a na(')na+ 0)+'ce *)rce# ne-er(e+e&& e+'c'( &) muc c)m0+'ance# e-en a3a'n&(0erce'-ed &e+*8'n(ere&(# )n (e 0ar( )* &)-ere'3n &(a(e&?;.

!"See ABRAMCHAYESK ANTONIAHANDLERCHAYES# THENEWSOEREIGNTY6 COMPLIANCEWITH INTERNATIONAL REG,LATORY AGREEMENTS$8J $8!% :d'&cu&&'n3 (e wea/ne&& )* 0un'('-e&anc(')n& *)r -')+a(')n )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw;.



9/73


ma'n(enance )* 'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+ &(ruc(ure& '& wa&(ed and (e &(ud )* (a( &u4@ec( '& a*u('+e endea-)r (a( &)u+d 4e a4and)ned. De&0'(e (e *undamen(a+ 'm0)r(ance )* (ec)m0+'ance =ue&(')n# and (e dee0 *a'( (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+ &c)+ar& a-e 'n (e'm0)r(ance )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# (e +e3a+ academ a& *a'+ed () de-e+)0 a &a('&*ac()r

(e)r () e50+a'n '(. T'& Par( 0re&en(& (e m)&( 0r)m'nen( a((em0(& )* (e 'n(erna(')na++aw +'(era(ure () e50+a'n c)m0+'ance. I( a+&) 0re&en(& (e)r'e& *r)m 'n(erna(')na+re+a(')n& (a( a-e 4e3un () *'+(er 'n() (e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw +'(era(ure# 'nc+ud'n3 (e'n&('(u(')na+'&( (e)r (a( ('& ar('c+e 4u'+d& u0)n.!

A. Traditional Leal T!eories"

A+()u3 a 3rea( dea+ )* 'n/ a& 4een &0'++ed 'n (e d'&cu&&')n )* 'n(erna(')na++aw and '(& 'm0ac( )n &(a(e 'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+ &c)+ar&'0 &('++ +ac/& a &a('&*ac()r(e)r )* c)m0+'ance. T'& &ec(')n 0re&en(& *)ur 0r)m'nen( (e)r'e& ad-anced 4 +e3a+&c)+ar&. Te *'r&(# (e mana3er'a+ m)de+# '& a u&e*u+ and we++ rea&)ned (e)r# 4u( )n+a00+'e& () (a( &u4&e( )* 'n(erna(')na+ a3reemen(& (a( re&)+-e c))rd'na(')n 0r)4+em&.Te rema'n'n3 (ree (e)r'e& are +e&& u&e*u+ and rea++ d) n)( )**er &u**'c'en( (e)re('ca+&(ruc(ure () *ur(er )ur under&(and'n3 )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw and c)m0+'ance.

!. Te Mana3er'a+ M)de+

Pera0& (e m)&( &a('&*'n3 )* (e (rad'(')na+ +e3a+ (e)r'e& )* 'n(erna(')na+ +awand c)m0+'ance '& 0r)-'ded 4 Cae& K Cae&." Te ar3ue (a( (e >en*)rcemen(m)de+? )* c)m0+'ance 9 'n w'c c)m0+'ance '& ac'e-ed (r)u3 c)erc'-e mecan'&m&&uc a& &anc(')n& 9 &)u+d 4e re0+aced w'( wa( (e (erm (e mana3er'a+ m)de+#w'c re+'e& 0r'mar'+ )n >a c))0era('-e# 0r)4+em8&)+-'n3 a00r)ac.? Cae& KCae& c+a'm (a( &(a(e& a-e a 3enera+ 0r)0en&'( () c)m0+ w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw (a(

'& (e 0r)duc( )* (ree *ac()r&. F'r&(# c)m0+'ance a-)'d& (e need () reca+cu+a(e (e c)&(&and 4ene*'(& )* a dec'&')n# and (ere*)re# &a-e& (ran&ac(')n c)&( 3enera('n3 ane**'c'enc 4a&ed ra(')na+e *)r c)m0+'ance. Sec)nd# (e ar3ue (a( (rea('e& are c)n&en(8

!F)r a d'&cu&&')n )* (e c)m0+'ance +'(era(ure (a( addre&&e& 4)( (e +e3a+ and 0)+'('ca+ &c'encede4a(e# &ee 2a+ Rau&('a+a K Anne8Mar'e S+au3(er# C)n&'der'n3 C)m0+'ance# *)r(c)m'n3 'n Te

Hand4))/ )* In(erna(')na+ Re+a(')n& :W. Car+nae T. R'&&e K B. S'mm)n ed&.;.$F)r an acc)un( )* >anc'en( and 0r'm'('-e? 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# w'c 0reda(e& (e (rad'(')na+-'ew& de&cr'4ed ere'n# &ee 2)# supra n)(e 555# a( $%"8$% and c)rre&0)nd'n3 n)(e&.

See Dun)** K Trac(man# supra n)(e 555# a( $ :>Pa&( e**)r(& () 'den('* an under+'n3&(ruc(ure *)r (e +aw )* (rea('e& a-e 0r)-en un&a('&*ac()r?;. 2)# supra n)(e 555# a( $8$%J Se(ear#supran)(e 555# a( !" :cr'('c'z'n3 (w) (e)re('ca+ @u&('*'ca(')n& *)r (e +aw )* (rea('e&;.

"See supran)(e 555.Id,a( .See id,a( ".



10/73


4a&ed 'n&(rumen(& (a(# (ere*)re# &er-e (e 'n(ere&(& )* (e 0ar('c'0a('n3 &(a(e&. F'na++#(e ar3ue (a( c)m0+'ance '& *ur(ered 4 a 3enera+ n)rm )* c)m0+'ance.

Te mana3er'a+ m)de+ 0re&en(& a ()u3(*u+ and u&e*u+ acc)un( )* a cer(a'n c+a&&)* (rea('e 4u( *a++& &)r( )* a 3enera+ (e)r )* c)m0+'ance )r a c)m0+e(e de&cr'0(')n )*

'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+ a3reemen(&. Te Cae& K Cae& m)de+ 0r)-'de& a &a('&*'n3acc)un( )* a3reemen(& de&'3ned () re&)+-e c))rd'na(')n 0r)4+em 4u( d)e& e50+a'n )w'n(erna(')na+ +aw a&&'&(& 'n )(er &'(ua(')n&.

In (e ca&e )* c))rd'na(')n 3ame '( '& (rue (a( &(a(e& are +'/e+ () c)m0+ w'(an a3reemen( '* '( '& we++ &0ec'*'ed. I* (a( '& (e ca&e# Cae& K Cae& are c)rrec( (a((ere '& n) need () *)cu& )n en*)rcemen(. Re&)urce& are 4e((er d'rec(ed a( (e &)r( )*mana3er'a+ '&&ue& (a( (e rec)mmend# 'nc+ud'n3 (ran&0arenc () en&ure &ucce&&*u+c))rd'na(')n#d'&0u(e &e((+emen(#and ca0ac'( 4u'+d'n3.!% Eac )* (e&e (ecn'=ue a&de&cr'4ed 4 Cae& K Cae a&&'&(& c))rd'na(')n e**)r(&.

Te mana3er'a+ m)de+# )we-er# '& +e&& u&e*u+ wen c)n&'der'n3 (e u&e )*

'n(erna(')na+ +aw 4e)nd c))rd'na(')n 3ame&. C)n&'der *'r&( (e e50+ana(')n )* wna(')n& c)m0+ w'( (e +aw. A+()u3 '( '& (rue (a( (ran&ac(')n& c)&(& are &a-ed(r)u3 a ru+e )* c)m0+'ance# (e&e c)&(& are n)( +'/e+ () 4e +ar3e and# 'n an e-en(#(ere are man )(er &(ra(e3'e& (a( can +ead () &'m'+ar c)&( &a-'n3&. F)r e5am0+e# a4e((er &(ra(e3 *r)m (e 0er&0ec('-e )* a &(a(e w)u+d 4e () ma/e '(& c)m0+'ancedec'&')n& 4a&ed )n (e a-a'+a4+e e-'dence w'()u( an 0re&um0(')n 'n *a-)r )r a3a'n&(c)m0+'ance. T'& w)u+d ma5'm'ze (e 0r)4a4'+'( )* ma/'n3 (e a00r)0r'a(e c)'ce#and a-)'d (ran&ac(')n c)&(&. O(er &(ra(e3'e& w)u+d 4e 4e((er &('++. In 3enera+ (e 4e&(&(ra(e3 '& () 'n-e&( 'n 'n*)rma(')n 3a(er'n3 un('+ (e mar3'na+ c)&( )* add'(')na+'n*)rma(')n '& e=ua+ () (e mar3'na+ 4ene*'( )* (a( 'n*)rma(')n 'n (erm& )* '(& e**ec( )n(e 0r)4a4'+'( )* ma/'n3 (e c)rrec( c)'ce and (e c)&( )* a m'&(a/e. Once (e )0('ma+

am)un( )* 'n*)rma(')n '& 3a(ered# (e )0('ma+ &(ra(e3 '& () 4a&e (e dec'&')n )n (a('n*)rma(')n w'()u( a 0re&um0(')n 'n *a-)r )* c)m0+'ance.

Te &ec)nd e50+ana(')n *)r c)m0+'ance '& (e c)n&en( 4a&ed (e)r w'c '&d'&cu&&ed 'n Par( II.A.$ 4e+)w. A& '& &(a(ed 'n (a( &ec(')n# (e c)n&en( (e)r cann)(e50+a'n w &(a(e 4ea-')r w)u+d 4e 'n*+uenced 4 (e e5'&(ence )* an 'n(erna(')na++e3a+ )4+'3a(')n.

F'na++# Cae& K Cae& ma/e& a 3enera+ a00ea+ () n)rm& 'n )rder () e50+a'nc)m0+'ance. Te c+a'm (a( a n)rm e5'&(& 'n *a-)r )* c)m0+'ance# )we-er# '& +'((+em)re (an an a&&er(')n (a( na(')n& c)m0+ w'( (e +aw. I( 0r)-'de& n) (e)re('ca+e50+ana(')n# and '& n)( e+0*u+ 'n under&(and'n3 &(a(e 4ea-')r.

>I* (e a3reemen( '& we++ de&'3ned 9 &en&'4+e# c)m0reen&'4+e# and w'( a 0rac('ca+ ee ()0r)4a4+e 0a((ern& )* c)nduc( and 'n(erac(')n 9 c)m0+'ance 0r)4+em& and en*)rcemen( '&&ue& are +'/e+ ()4e mana3ea4+e. I* '&&ue& )* n)nc)m0+'ance and en*)rcemen( are endem'c# (e rea+ 0r)4+em '& +'/e+ () 4e(a( (e ne3)('a('n3 0r)ce&& d'd n)( &ucceed 'n 'nc)r0)ra('n3 a 4r)ad en)u3 ran3e )* (e 0ar('e&'n(ere&(&.? Id,a( .

Seeid, a( !8!.See id, a( $%!8$$.!%Seeid, a( !8$%!.



11/73


Becau&e (e mana3er'a+ m)de+ en-'&')n& a c))rd'na(')n 3ame# (e 0r)0)&ed&(ra(e3'e& () enance c)m0+'ance are n)( e+0*u+ 'n )(er c)n(e5(&. F)r e5am0+e#Cae& K Cae& 4e+'e-e (a( d'&0u(e re&)+u(')n '& a u&e*u+ *ea(ure and can enancec)m0+'ance. Te d) n)( 4e+'e-e# )we-er (a( d'&0u(e re&)+u(')n need& () 4e

manda()r )r (a( (ere mu&( 4e 4'nd'n3 &anc(')n& *)r a *a'+ure () c)m0+. Te'r -'ew)* d'&0u(e re&)+u(')n '& &u00)r(ed 4 a 4e+'e* (a( a *a'+ure () c)m0+ '& (e re&u+( )* am'&(a/e )r a +ac/ )* c)mmun'ca(')n. I* (a( '& (rue# d'&0u(e &e((+emen( )n+ need& ()&er-e a& a *)rum 'n w'c 'n*)rma(')n '& &ared and e50ec(a(')n& c+ar'*'ed. In *ac(#m)re can 4e &a'd under (e mana3er'a+ m)de+. Becau&e &(a(e& are m)de+ed a&c))0era('-e# (ere '& n) need *)r 4'nd'n3 +aw )* an /'nd. S'm0+e &(a(emen(& '* 'n(ere&(and 'n(en(# w'()u( an n)(')n )* c)mm'(men( are en)u3 () re&)+-e m)&( c))rd'na(')n3ame&. Tere ' (ere*)re# n) need *)r 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# a& c)nce'-ed 4 ('& m)de+# ()4e >4'nd'n3? )r 'rre-)ca4+e. I( '& 0rec'&e+ 4ecau&e &(a(e& d) n)( a-e () 4e c)m0e++ed() ac( 'n a 0ar('cu+ar wa (a( d'&0u(e re&)+u(')n d)e& n)( a-e () 4e c)m0u+&)r )r4ac/ed 4 &anc(')n&.

Wen a &(a(e -')+a(e& (e +aw 4ecau&e (e +aw '& c)n(rar () '(& 'n(ere&()we-er# ('& *)rm )* d'&0u(e re&)+u(')n w'++ *a'+. Wen (e 0ar('e& 'n(ere&(& are a( )dd&9 a& '& (rue 'n 'n&(ance& )* 'n(en(')na+ -')+a(')n 9 ne3)('a(')n& are c)nduc(ed >'n (e&ad)w? )* (e u+('ma(e &anc(')n *)r -')+a(')n. In (e a4&ence )* &uc &anc(')n (e)**end'n3 0ar( a& n) 'ncen('-e () acce0( a ne3)('a(ed &)+u(')n (a( 'n-)+-e& an0un'&men( )r c)n&(ra'n( )n *u(ure 4ea-')r. T' 'n (urn# 'm0+'e& (a( (e +aw 0r)-'de&n) 'ncen('-e () c)m0+. I* )ne ma/e& (e d'&0u(e re&)+u(')n manda()r# )n (e )(erand# and 0r)-'de& &)me *)rm )* &anc(')n *)r a *a'+ure () c)m0+ w'( (e ru+'n3# '( '&0)&&'4+e () 'ncrea&e c)m0+'ance e-en )u(&'de )* c))rd'na(')n 3ame&.

Te mana3er'a+ m)de+# (en# '& a u&e*u+ 4u( 'nc)m0+e(e m)de+ )* 'n(erna(')na+a3reemen(& and c)m0+'ance. A& +)n3 a& )ne '& )n+ 'n(ere&(ed 'n c))rd'na(')n 3ame '(0r)-'de& a 3))d 3u'de () c)m0+'ance and na(')na+ 4ea-')r. I* )ne &ee/& () under&(and3ame& 'n w'c &(a(e&< ma/e a3reemen(& (a( ca++ u0)n (em () ac( a3a'n&( (e'r )wn'n(ere&(& 'n e5can3e *)r c)nce&&')n& *r)m )(er &(a(e a d'**eren( m)de+ '& needed.Ta( m)de+ '& ad-anced 'n ('& Ar('c+e.

$. C)n&en( and Trea('e&

Te m)&( c)mm)n+ e+d ra(')na+e *)r (e re+e-ance )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# ande&0ec'a++ (rea('e () na(')na+ c)nduc( '& 4a&ed )n (e n)(')n )* c)n&en(.!! Te c)n&en(84a&ed ar3umen( 4e3'n& w'( (e c+a'm (a( &)-ere'3n &(a(e& are n)( &u4@ec( () an)4+'3a(')n un+e&& (e a-e c)n&en(ed () '(.!$ F)r e5am0+e# L)u'& Hen/'n &(a(e& (a( >a

!!SeeSe(ear#Iterati%e Perspecti%e# supran)(e 555# a( !J Sm'(# supra n)(e 555# a( !8.T)u3 m)&( *re=uen(+ d'&cu&&ed 'n (e c)n(e5( )* (rea('e (e u&e )* c)n&en( a& an e50+ana(')n *)r (e4'nd'n3 carac(er )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '& a+&) 0re&en( 'n d'&cu&&')n& )* cu&()mar 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. SeeBYERS# supra n)(e 555# a( :!;J M. O. C'4undu# Ma.in# Customary International Law hrou#hMunicipal !d/udication: ! Structural In0uiry" A. 1. INTQLL. !%# !!$$ :!;.

!$>Te ru+e& 4'nd'n3 u0)n &(a(e& (ere*)re emana(e *r)m (e'r )wn *ree w'++ . . . . Re&(r'c(')n&u0)n (e 'nde0endence )* &(a(e& cann)( (ere*)re 4e 0re&umed? S,S, Lotus Case# !$ P.C.I.1. :&er. A;N). !%# a( !.



12/73


&(a(e '& n)( &u4@ec( () an e5(erna+ au()r'( un+e&& '( a& -)+un(ar'+ c)n&en(ed () &ucau()r'(.?! T'& c+a'm '& ea&'+ rec)nc'+ed w'( (e +aw )* (rea('e& w'c 'nc+ude&de(a'+ed ru+e& c)ncern'n3 (e =ue&(')n )* c)n&en( and we(er '( a& 4een 3'-en. !" Te&ec)nd# and m)re 0r)4+ema('c# &(e0 'n (e c)n&en(84a&ed (e)r 'n-)/e& (e )*(8re0ea(ed

&(a(emen( (a( (rea('e& are () 4e )4eed.!

Pr)0)nen(& )* a c)n&en(84a&ed -'ew ar3ue(a( c)n&en( () 4e 4)und 3enera(e& a +e3a+ )4+'3a(')n and cau&e& &(a(e& () c)m0+ w'(()&e )4+'3a(')n&.

Cr'('c& )* (e c)n&en(84a&ed (e)r ar3ue (a( '( cann)( e50+a'n w 'n(erna(')na++aw '& 4'nd'n3 4ecau&e '( *a'+& () e50+a'n w '( 0re-en(& na(')n& *r)m &'m0+w'(draw'n3 (e'r c)n&en(.! Trea('e& are )* +'m'(ed u&e '* '( '& n)( 0)&&'4+e *)r a na(')n() ma/e an 'rre-)ca4+e c)mm'(men(. L'/e d)me&('c c)n(rac( (rea('e& are muc m)re0)wer*u+ '* (e +aw 0r)-'de& a mecan'&m *)r &uc c)mm'(men(&. In (e a4&ence )* ana4'+'( () c)mm'(# a na(')n c)u+d &'m0+ w'(draw '(& c)n&en( *r)m an (rea( *)und ()4e 'nc)n-en'en(. A c)n&en(84a&ed -'ew# (ere*)re# m'3( +ead )ne () c)nc+ude (a(# a& a(e)re('ca+ ma((er# (rea('e& &)u+d a-e n) e**ec( 4ecau&e na(')n& need )n+ c)m0+

wen (e w)u+d c)m0+ 'n (e a4&ence )* (e (rea(. ! A+()u3 )*(en re0ea(ed# ('&cr'('c'&m '& '(&e+* un&a('&*ac()r. I* )ne can a&&er( (a( c)n&en( '& en)u3 () 4'nd &(a(ew can '( n)( 4e &'m'+ar+ a&&er(ed (a( '( '& 0)&&'4+e () c)n&en( () 'rre-)ca4+ec)mm'(men(&!

Te rea+ 0r)4+em w'( a c)n&en(84a&ed -'ew +'e& n)( w'( a &(a(eI &ee n)('n3 ca&u'&('c 'n (e

ar3umen( (a( 0ar('e& () a (rea( c)n&en( n)( )n+ () 0ar('cu+ar (erm& 4u( a+&) () (e 3enera+ n)(')n (a((e'r c)n&en( mu&( n)( 4e w'(drawn.?;.

!I w'++ ar3ue 4e+)w (a( '( '& n)( =u'(e accura(e. See infra Par( III.E:d'&cu&&'n3 )w &(a(e& can4e >4)und? 4 'n*)rma+ a3reemen( cu&()m# and 0rac('ce;.



13/73


&(a(e& w'( an 'ncen('-e () )4e (e +aw. Te &(andard rend'(')n )* (e c)n&en( (e)r*a'+& () addre&& ('& 0)'n(. Ra(er# ad-)ca(e& )* (e (e)r &'m0+ rec'(e (e ma5'm (a(>(rea('e& are () 4e )4eed.?$% T'& &(a(emen(# )we-er# '& e'(er de-)'d )* c)n(en( )ra&&ume& (e c)nc+u&')n. I* (e &(a(emen( '& read () mean (a( (rea('e& &)u+d 4e )4eed#

a& a n)rma('-e ma((er# '( &a& n)('n3 a4)u( )w &(a(e& w'++ ac(ua++ 4ea-e. I*# )n (e)(er and# '( '& read () mean (a( &(a(e& d)# 'n *ac(# )4e (rea('e (en '( '& &'m0+a&&um'n3 c)m0+'ance w'()u( e50+ana(')n.

Tu e-en '* c)n&en( '& ()u3( () 4e an 'm0)r(an( e+emen( 'n (e e&(a4+'&men()* an 'n(erna(')na+ )4+'3a(')n# '( )**er& n) e50+ana(')n *)r c)m0+'ance. In add'(')n ()c)n&en( (ere mu&( 4e &)me *)rce (a( cau&e& &(a(e& () c)m0+ w'( (e )4+'3a(')n& ()w'c (e a-e c)n&en(ed. Becau&e '( *a'+& () e50+a'n w (e 4ea-')r )* na(')n& '&can3ed 4 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# (e c)n&en( (e)r cann)( c+a'm () 4e a &a('&*ac()re50+ana(')n )* c)m0+'ance.

. Le3'('mac Te)r

T)ma& Franc/ a& ad-anced a 3enera+ (e)r )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw (a( a& c)me() 4e /n)wn a& +e3'('mac (e)r.$! Te (e)r a((em0(& () e50+a'n w na(')n& *ee+c)m0e++ed () )n)r (e'r 0r)m'&e&. ,n+'/e c)n&en( (e)r# +e3'('mac (e)r a((em0(&() 3) 4e)nd (e &(a(emen( (a( (rea('e& are () 4e )4eed and &ee/& () e50+a'n wna(')n& m'3( )4e (em. In (e end# )we-er# (a( a((em0( (a/e& (e 'n=u'r n) *ur(er(an d)e& c)n&en( (e)r. Te *undamen(a+ 0rem'&e under+'n3 +e3'('mac (e)r '&(a( &(a(e& )4e ru+e& (a( (e 0erce'-e () a-e >c)me 'n() 4e'n3 'n acc)rdance w'( (er'3( 0r)ce&&.?$$

Franc/ ar3ue& (a( *)ur *ac()r& de(erm'ne we(er a &(a(e c)m0+'e& w'('n(erna(')na+ )4+'3a(')n&. Te&e *ac()r& are de(erm'nac# &m4)+'c -a+'da(')n#

c)erence# and aderence.$

Were (e&e *)ur *ac()r& are 0re&en(# +e3'('mac (e)r0red'c(& a &(r)n3 0re&&ure ()ward c)m0+'ance# and were (e are a4&en( '( 0red'c(& a-er +'m'(ed 'm0e(u& () c)m0+'ance.$"

In 4r'e*# de(erm'nac re*er& () (e c+ar'( )* (e ru+e )r n)rmJ$ &m4)+'c-a+'da(')n re*er& () (e 0re&ence )* 0r)cedura+ 0rac('ce& )r r'(ua+& (a( 0r)-'de a ru+ew'( &m4)+'c 'm0)r(ance and +e3'('macJ$c)erence re*er& () (e c)nnec(')n 4e(ween

$%See supran)(eErr)r6 Re*erence &)urce n)( *)und.$! Franc/# supra n)(e 555J THOMAS M. FRANC2# FAIRNESS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND

INSTIT,TIONS:!;.$$Fran/# supran)(e 555# a( %.$SeeFRANC2# supran)(e Err)r6 Re*erence &)urce n)( *)und#a( ".$"In m)re 3enera+ (erm Franc/ de&cr'4e& +e3'('mac a& >a 0r)0er( )* a ru+e . . . w'c '(&e+*

e5er(& a 0u++ ()ward c)m0+'ance . . . 4ecau&e ()&e addre&&ed 4e+'e-e (a( (e ru+e )r 'n&('(u(')n a& c)me'n() 4e'n3 and )0era(e& 'n acc)rdance w'( 3enera++ acce0(ed 0r'nc'0+e& )* r'3( 0r)ce&&.? FRANC2#supran)(eErr)r6 Re*erence &)urce n)( *)und a( $"8$.

$See id,a( $.$See id, a( %8.


!%


14/73


ra(')na+ 0r'nc'0+e& and (e ru+eJ $and aderence re*er& () (e c)nnec(')n 4e(ween (eru+e and ()&e &ec)ndar ru+e& u&ed () 'n(er0re( and a00+ (e 0r'mar ru+e. $

Le3'('mac (e)r d)e& n)(# )we-er# ade=ua(e+ e50+a'n w &(a(e& d) )r&)u+d care a4)u( +e3'('mac. I( +ea-e& ()) man )* (e cen(ra+ =ue&(')n& re3ard'n3

c)m0+'ance and na(')na+ 4ea-')r 'n (e 4+ac/ 4)5 )* >+e3'('mac.? Te c+a'm (a(na(')n& -')+a(e 'n(erna(')na+ ru+e& 4ecau&e )* (e >0erce'-ed +ac/ )* +e3'('mac )* (eac(ua+ )r 0r)0)&ed ru+e& (em&e+-e& and )* (e ru+e8ma/'n3 and ru+e8a00+'n3'n&('(u(')n& )* (e 'n(erna(')na+ &&(em? 4e3& (e =ue&(')n. W &)u+d we e50ec(na(')n& () )n)r ru+e& (a( en@) +e3'('mac w'+e '3n)r'n3 )(er& In an e-en(# (ec+a'm (a( +e3'('mac '& (e dr'-'n3 *)rce 4e'nd c)m0+'ance '& an a&&er(')n# ra(er (an(e re&u+( )* a (e)re('ca+ *ramew)r/ )r em0'r'ca+ &(ud.$

De&0'(e '(& a((em0( () 'den('* (e rea&)n& *)r c)m0+'ance# +e3'('mac (e)r *a'+&*)r (e &ame rea&)n (a( (e c)n&en( 4a&ed (e)r *a'+& 9 '( d)e& n)( 0r)-'de a m)de+ )*c)m0+'ance &) muc a& an a&&er(')n (a( na(')n& )4e (e +aw. I( *a'+& () e50+a'n w>+e3'('mac? +ead& () c)m0+'ance# w (e *)ur *ac()r& d'&cu&&ed 4 Franc/ are'm0)r(an(# )w (e 'n(erac( w'( )(er mea&ure& )* a na(')nT) (e e5(en( ru+e& e5'4'( +e3'('mac (e a00ear () e5er( a &(r)n3 0u++ )n &(a(e& () c)m0+

w'( (e'r c)mmand&. T) (e e5(en( +e3'('mac '& n)( 0re&en(# ru+e& &eem () 4e ea&'er () a-)'d 4 a &(a(e(em0(ed () 0ur&ue '(& &)r(8(erm &e+*8'n(ere&(.? Franc/# supran)(e 555# a( !$. N)('ce ere (a( Franc/'m0+'e& (e e5'&(ence )* a (en&')n 4e(ween a &(a(e& &e+*8'n(ere&( and '(& w'++'n3ne&& () c)m0+. In (em)de+ 0re&en(ed 'n ('& Ar('c+e# &(a(e& a+wa& ac( 'n (e'r )wn &e+*8'n(ere&(.

% Add'(')na+ cr'('c'&m& )* +e3'('mac (e)r a-e 4een ad-anced e+&ewere. Am)n3 (ec)m0+a'n(& are c+a'm& (a( (e *)ur *ac()r& 'n-)+-ed are -a3ue and d'**'cu+( () e-a+ua(e# and (a( (e (e)rd)e& n)( (e++ u& )w () a33re3a(e (em. See 2)# supra n)(e 555# a( $"!8$".

!SeeHar)+d H. 2)# ransnational Le#al Process# NEBRAS2AL. RE. !!# !8" :!";J2)# supra n)(e 555.


!!


15/73


(e&e n)rm& +ead& () (e'r 'nc)r0)ra(')n w'('n (e d)me&('c +e3a+ 'n&('(u(')n& )* &(a(e&w'c# 'n (urn# +ead& () c)m0+'ance.$

Te (ran&na(')na+ +e3a+ 0r)ce&& c+a'm can 4e d'-'ded 'n() (w) c)m0)nen(&. Te*'r&( '& (e c+a'm (a( d)me&('c +e3a+ 'n&('(u(')n& 0+a a cr'('ca+ r)+e. T'& c+a'm '&

cer(a'n+ c)rrec(. Tere '& n) d)u4( (a( (e ac(ua+ dec'&')n )* we(er )r n)( () c)m0+w'( )r -')+a(e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '& made 4 d)me&('c 'n&('(u(')n&. N)r '& (ere and)u4( (a( d)me&('c 0)+'('c& ma((er () (e c)m0+'ance =ue&(')n. Te e5(en( () w'c a&(a(e c)m0+'e& w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '& 'n*+uenced 4 d)me&('c 'n(ere&( 3r)u0 (e0)wer )* (e e5ecu('-e re+a('-e () (e +e3'&+a(ure# (e e+ec()ra+ cc+e# (e &(a(e )* (ed)me&('c ec)n)m# and &) )n.

Te &ec)nd c+a'm )* (e (ran&na(')na+ +e3a+ 0r)ce&& (e)r '& (a( d)me&('c'n&('(u(')n& &)me)w 'n(erna+'ze (ran&na(')na+ +e3a+ n)rm& and (a( ('& +ead& ()c)m0+'ance. I( '& ere (a( (e (e)r 4ec)me& 0r)4+ema('c. I( a& n) e50+ana(')n )*w cer(a'n +e3a+ n)rm& are 'n(erna+'zed )r )w ('& 'n(erna+'za(')n (a/e& 0+ace. E-en '*)ne a&&ume +'/e Pr)*e&&)r 2)# (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+ n)rm& are 'n(erna+'zed# )new)u+d e50ec( d)me&('c +e3a+ n)rm& 9 'n 0ar('cu+ar (e n)rm )* 0ur&u'n3 (e 'n(ere&(& )*d)me&('c dec'&')n ma/er& 9 () 4e 'n(erna+'zed m)re read'+. Wen 'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+n)rm& are a( )dd& w'( (e &e+*8'n(ere&( )* (e &(a(e# '( '& d'**'cu+( () e50+a'n w (e'n(erna(')na+ n)rm& w)u+d (r'um0. I* d)me&('c c)ncern& (r'um0# )we-er# (e'n(erna+'za(')n )* +e3a+ n)rm& a& n) 'm0ac( )n )u(c)me&.

In add'(')n# '( a00ear& () 4e a&&umed (a( re0ea(ed 'n(erac(')n +ead& () (e'n(erna+'za(')n )* n)rm& (a( are c)n&'&(en( w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# 4u( ('& a&&um0(')n '&n)( e50+a'ned. I( &eem& e=ua++ 0+au&'4+e (a( (e 'n(erna+'zed n)rm& are unre+a(ed ()'n(erna(')na+ +aw. F)r e5am0+e# ra(er (an 'n(erna+'ze n)rm& )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw#(ran&na(')na+ ac()r& m'3( 'n(erna+'ze (e n)rm (a( 0)wer*u+ na(')n& (r'um0 )-er

wea/er na(')n )r (a( ec)n)m'c 'n*+uence re&)+-e& 'n(erna(')na+ d'&0u(e&.W'()u( an under&(and'n3 )* w d)me&('c ac()r& 'n(erna+'ze n)rm& )*

c)m0+'ance 'n (e 'n(erna(')na+ arena# and a (e)r )* w ('& 'n(erna+'za(')n (end&()ward c)m0+'ance# (e (e)r +ac/& *)rce." L'/e (e c)n&en( 4a&ed a00r)ac and+e3'('mac (e)r# (e (ran&na(')na+ +e3a+ 0r)ce&& a00r)ac '& u+('ma(e+ *)unded )n a&un&u00)r(ed a&&um0(')n (a( (e +aw '& *)++)wed. I( d'**er& *r)m (e 0r')r (e)r'e& 'n(a( '( c)n&'der& (e re+e-an( un'( )* ana+&'& () 4e 'nd'-'dua+& and 'n(ere&( 3r)u0& ra(er(a( (e &(a(e# 4u( (en &'m0+ a&&er(& (a( (e&e ac()r& *)++)w 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. W'()u(a m)re c)m0+e(e (e)r )* w (e&e ac()r& *)++)w (e +aw# (e (e)r rema'n&un&a('&*ac()r. A((em0(& () re&cue (e (e)r 4 ar3u'n3 (a( +aw8a4'd'n3 4ea-')r '&'n(erna+'zed 4ecau&e d)me&('c 'n&('(u(')n& and ac()r& )4&er-e (e c)m0+'ance )* *)re'3n

$See2)#Le#al Process# supran)(eErr)r6 Re*erence &)urce n)( *)und#a( $%" :>I( '& (r)u3('& re0ea(ed 0r)ce&& )* 'n(erac(')n and 'n(erna+'za(')n (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw ac=u're& '(& >&('c/'ne&? (a(na(')n8&(a(e& ac=u're (e'r 'den('(# and (a( na(')n& de*'ne 0r)m)('n3 (e ru+e )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw a& 0ar()* (e'r na(')na+ &e+*8'n(ere&(.?;

See Par( II.B.."Te a&&um0(')n (a( &(a(e& 'n(erna+'ze a n)rm )* c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw ' 'n &)me

&en&e# an a&&um0(')n )* (e -er c)nduc( (a( (e (e)r &ee/& () e50+a'n.


!$


16/73


&(a(e& and *)re'3n (ran&na(')na+ ac()r& '& &'m0+ () a&&ume (e e5'&(ence )* c)m0+'ancera(er (an e50+a'n '(.

Pera0& (e m)&( &er')u& 0r)4+em w'( (e (e)r '& (a( '( d)e& n)( 0r)-'de anrea+ (e)re('ca+ &(ruc(ure. ,+('ma(e+# '( '& &'m0+ an a&&er(')n (a( 'n(erna+'za(')n (a/e&

0+ace and +ead& () c)m0+'ance. W'()u( a 0r)0er (e)re('ca+ a00ara(u (e (e)rcann)( e50+a'n w a 0ar('cu+ar +e3a+ n)rm ma 4e re&0ec(ed 'n )ne c)n(e5( and '3n)red'n an)(er. N)r d)e& '( 0r)-'de a m)de+ )* dec'&')n ma/'n3 4 (e &(a(e. W'()u( &uca m)de+# (e (e)r cann)( 4e a00+'ed () 0r)duce 0red'c(')n& a4)u( wen &(a(e& w'++c)m0+ w'( (e +aw and wen (e w'++ n)(# n)r can '( )**er &(ra(e3'e& () 'ncrea&e (e+e-e+ )* c)m0+'ance. F'na++# 4ecau&e (e (e)r 4)'+& d)wn () a &'m0+e a&&er(')n a4)u(na(')na+ 4ea-')r# '( cann)( e50+a'n w &)me &(a(e& are c)n&'dered +aw8a4'd'n3 w'+e)(er& are c)n&'dered 0ar'a&. In *ac(# (e (e)r &u33e&(& @u&( (e )00)&'(e 9 '( &u33e&(&(a( &(a(e& w'++ m)-e 'ne5)ra4+ ()ward 3rea(er c)m0+'ance.

#. International Relations T!eories

A+()u3 (rad'(')na+ a00r)ace& () +e3a+ &c)+ar&'0 rema'n c)mm)n# 'n recen(ear& a new a00r)ac a& emer3ed () ca++en3e (e (rad'(')na+ me()d)+)3. T'&a00r)ac c)me& 0r'mar'+ *r)m 0)+'('ca+ &c'ence and (e (e)r )* 'n(erna(')na+re+a(')n a+()u3 '( a+&) a& r))(& 'n (e ec)n)m'c& +'(era(ure. A de(a'+ed (a5)n)mand re-'ew )* (e 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n& +'(era(ure '& 4e)nd (e &c)0e )* ('& 0a0er.In&(ead# ('& &ec(')n )**er& a (um4na'+ &/e(c )* (e m)&( re+e-an( &c))+& )* ()u3(.

!. Ne)8Rea+'&(&

Ne)8rea+'&( (e)r# an )u(3r)w( )* c+a&&'ca+ rea+'&m# (rea(& &(a(e& a& un'(arac()r& and (e re+e-an( un'( 'n 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n&. ,nder (e&e a&&um0(')n

'n(erna(')na+ c))0era(')n w'++ e5'&( )n+ wen '( '& 'n (e 'n(ere&( )* (e a**ec(ed &(a(e&.Te 'n(ere&(& )* &(a(e& are 4e+'e-ed () 4e 0)wer and &ecur'(# and 0)wer '& c)n&'dered ()4e (e 0r'mar 'n*+uence )n 'n(erna(')na+ 4ea-')r."% C)ncern& a4)u( 0)wer and&ecur'( cau&e &(a(e& () *)cu& n)( )n+ )n (e a4&)+u(e 3a'n& (e m'3( ma/e *r)mc))0era(')n# 4u( a+&) )n (e re+a('-e 3a'n&. T'& '& &) 4ecau&e a &(a(e '& a+wa&c)ncerned (a( e-en '* '( 3a'n& *r)m c))0era(')n# an)(er &(a(e ma 3a'n e-en m)re 9

In *ac(# 4ecau&e (e (e)r rec)3n'ze& (a( &(a(e dec'&')n& are ac(ua++ (e re&u+( )* an 'n(erna+0)+'('ca+ 0r)ce& wa( '& needed '& a 0u4+'c c)'ce (e)r )* &(a(e ac(')n.

>Te 0r)ce&& )* 'n(erac(')n and 'n(erna+'za(')n 'n (urn +ead& a na(')na+ 3)-ernmen( () en3a3e'n new m)de& )* 'n(ere&(8rec)3n'(')n and 'den('(8*)rma(')n 'n a wa (a( e-en(ua++ +ead& (e na(')n8&(a(e 4ac/ 'n() c)m0+'ance.? 2)#Le#al Process" supra n)(e Err)r6 Re*erence &)urce n)( *)und.

See supran)(e !.Pr)*e&&)r A44)(( a& u&e*u++ ca(e3)r'zed (e 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n& +'(era(ure. See A44)((#Prospectus# supran)(e 555.

F)r a d'&cu&&')n )* c+a&&'ca+ rea+'&m# &ee E.H. CARR# THETWENTYYEARCRISIS!!8!JGEORGE F. 2ENNAN# AMERICAN DIPLOMACY !%%8!% :!!;J HANS 1. MORGENTHA,# POLITICSAMONG NATIONS6 THE STR,GGLE FOR POWER AND PEACE :!";J Han& 1. M)r3en(au# Positi%ism"-unctionalism" and International Law# " AMER. 1. INT


17/73


ma/'n3 (a( )(er &(a(e a 3rea(er 0)(en('a+ &ecur'( (rea(. T'& c)ncern ma/e& &(a(e&re+uc(an( () en3a3e 'n c))0era(')n wen '(& 0ar(ner& &(and () 3a'n m)re (an '( d)e&.

Te c)nc+u&')n )* ('& +'(era(ure# a( +ea&( *)r &)me &c)+ar '& (a( 'n(erna(')na++aw a& +'((+e )r n) 'nde0enden( 'm0ac( )n (e 4ea-')r )* &(a(e&."! C)m0+'ance w'(

'n(erna(')na+ +aw '& e50+a'ned a& a c)'nc'dence 4e(ween 'n(erna(')na+ +aw 9 w)&ec)n(en( '& &a'd () 4e +ar3e+ c)n(r)++ed 4 0)wer*u+ &(a(e& 'n an e-en( 9 and (e &e+*8'n(ere&( )* na(')n&."$ In(erna(')na+ +aw# (ere*)re# '& &'m0+ an e0'0en)men)n.

Cr'('c'&m )* ne)rea+'&m can 4e *)und 'n (e 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n& +'(era(ure# and'( &er-e& n) 0ur0)&e () re0r)duce a++ )* (a( cr'('c'&m ere. F)r 0re&en( 0ur0)&e& '( '&&u**'c'en( () &'m0+ 'den('* &)me )* (e d'**'cu+('e& w'( ad)0('n3 a rea+'&( 0er&0ec('-e)n 'n(erna(')na+ +aw."

Te rea+'&( c)nc+u&')n (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '& 'rre+e-an( '& d'**'cu+( () rec)nc'+ew'( (e )4&er-a(')n (a( a 3rea( dea+ )* ('me# ener3# and m)ne are &0en( 'n )rder ()crea(e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. F)r e5am0+e# (e ,ru3ua R)und ne3)('a(')n& (a( +ed () (e

e&(a4+'&men( )* (e WTO +a&(ed e'3( ear& and c)n&umed en)rm)u& re&)urce&. I( a+&)a**ec(ed (e 0)+'('ca+ *)r(une& )* 3)-ernmen(& ar)und (e w)r+d. I* '( '& (e ca&e (a('n(erna(')na+ +aw d)e& n)( ma((er# w d'd &(a(e& de-)(e &) man re&)urce& () (e&ene3)('a(')n& 1u&( a& ra(')na+ 'nd'-'dua+& w)u+d n)( e50end re&)urce& 'n )rder ()c)m0+e(e a c)n(rac( (a( a& n) e**ec( )n 4ea-')r# (ere '& n) rea&)n () ('n/ (a( &(a(e&w)u+d &0end re&)urce& 'n )rder () c)m0+e(e (rea('e& and )(er a3reemen(& (a( a-e n)'m0ac( )n &(a(e&. N)r w)u+d &(a(e& )r n)n8&(a(e ac()r& e50end re&)urce& 'n )rder ()'n*+uence (e &(a(u& )* cu&()mar 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# a& a& 4een d)ne 'n &uc *'e+d& a&*)re'3n 'n-e&(men(#""uman r'3("and en-'r)nmen(a+ +aw." In add'(')n# wen '( '&c+a'med (a( a +aw a& 4een -')+a(ed :()u3 '( '& n)( c+ear w an)ne w)u+d e-en4)(er () ma/e &uc a c+a'm;# &(a(e& w)u+d a-e n) rea&)n () 0r)c+a'm (e'r 'nn)cence

a& (e &) )*(en d)."

Fur(erm)re# em0'r'ca+ and anecd)(a+ e-'dence a& 4e3un ()emer3e 'nd'ca('n3 (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw d)e 'ndeed# 'n*+uence &(a(e 4ea-')r. "

"!SeeF.A. B)+e# he Irrele%ance of International Law# CALIF. WEST. INTW'+e na(')n 3enera++# &('++ den (a( (eare -')+a('n3 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# )*(en (e den'a+ mere+ *a+&'*'e& (e *ac(&.?;

"See" e,#,# Be( A. S'mm)nMoney and the Law: Why Comply with the Public InternationalLaw of Money?# $ YALE1. INT


18/73


$. In&('(u(')na+'&( Te)r

Te &ec)nd 'm0)r(an( ca(e3)r )* 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n& (e)r'e& '& (a( )*'n&('(u(')na+'&(&." L'/e ne)rea+'&m# 'n&('(u(')na+'&m -'ew& &(a(e& a& (e 0r'mar

'n(erna(')na+ ac()r& and (rea(& (em a& ra(')na+ un'(ar a3en(& 'n(erac('n3 'n ananarc'ca+ w)r+d.% Fur(erm)re# +'/e ne)rea+'&m# 'n&('(u(')na+'&m (a/e& a 3ame(e)re('c a00r)ac () (e &(ud )* 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n&. T'& a00r)ac a& &'3n'*'can(0r)m'&e *)r (e &(ud )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# 4u( '( a& e( () 4e w'de+ a00+'ed 4'n(erna(')na+ +aw &c)+ar&.!

,n+'/e ne)8rea+'&( )we-er# 'n&('(u(')na+'&(& 4e+'e-e (a( 'n(erna(')na+c))0era(')n '& 0)&&'4+e# and (a( 'n(erna(')na+ 'n&('(u(')n& can 0+a a r)+e 'n *ac'+'(a('n3(a( c))0era(')n. Te ar3ue (a( (e&e 'n&('(u(')n& can e+0 &(a(e& )-erc)me 0r'&)ner'n(erna(')na+ +aw a& a &'3n'*'can( 'm0ac( )n 3)-ernmen(&+'4era+? &(ruc(ure# 4 w'c '& mean( re0re&en(a('-e 3)-ernmen(#0r)(ec(')n )* c'-'+ and 0)+'('ca+ r'3( and a @ud'c'a+ &&(em 3u'ded 4 (e ru+e )* +aw#

(end () *)++)w 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# a( +ea&( am)n3 (em&e+-e&.

L'4era+ (e)r'e& )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# +'/e 0u4+'c c)'ce (e)r'e& 'n (e &(ud )*d)me&('c +aw# are am0ered 4 (e c)m0+e5'( )* a m)de+ (a( re@ec(& (e a&&um0(')n )*un'(ar &(a(e ac()r&. An e5am'na(')n )* c)m0+'ance w'('n a +'4era+ *ramew)r/ '& rea++an e5am'na(')n )* (e d)me&('c 0)+'('c& )* c)un(r'e& (a( m'3( +ead () a dec'&')n ()c)m0+ w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. Te 0r)4+em '& (a( 'n(erac(')n& am)n3 d)me&('c'n(ere&( 3r)u0& are un0red'c(a4+e and (e re&u+(& ma n)( 4e &(a4+e )-er ('me. Becau&e)* (e c)m0+e5'( )* 'n(ere&( 3r)u0 0)+'('c '( '& d'**'cu+( () 3enera(e 0red'c(')n& a4)u(

See Andrew M)ra-c&'/# a.in# Preferences Seriously: ! Liberal heory of International

Politics# ! INT


20/73


)w na(')n& 4ea-e. In&(ead# (e c)n&('(u(')na+ and 0)+'('ca+ rea+'('e& )* eac c)un(rmu&( 4e c)n&'dered. Te 0r)4+em w'( +'4era+ (e)r'e (en# '& (a( (e are )-er+c)m0+e5. Becau&e (e are 4e((er &u'(ed () 0)&'('-e acc)un(& )* 4ea-')r ra(er (an0red'c(')n (e d) n)( +ead () a 3enera+ m)de+ )* c)m0+'ance.

A+()u3 ('& Ar('c+e d)e& n)( ad)0( a +'4era+ a00r)ac# '( '& n)( 'n c)n*+'c( w'((a( &c))+. Te (e)r ad-anced ere and (e +'4era+ &c))+ are 4e&( -'ewed a&c)m0+emen(ar. Te a&&um0(')n ere'n '& (a( &(a(e& are un'(ar ac()r& en3a3ed 'n (e0ur&u'( )* na(')na+ 3)a+&. Le*( un&0ec'*'ed are (e 0ar('cu+ar 3)a+& )* (e c)un(r.L'4era+ (e)r '& )ne wa )* &(ud'n3 (e&e 3)a+&. Tu )ne can -'ew +'4era+ (e)r a&a me()d)+)3 w)&e )u(0u( 9 (e 0)+'c de&'re& )* &(a(e& 9 '& u&ed a& an 'n0u( *)r (e(e)r )* c)m0+'ance 0re&en(ed ere.

III. A THEOR$OFCO%&LIANCE

T'& Par( 0re&en(& (e 4a&'c (e)r )* c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. A

3))d (e)r &)u+d 4e a4+e () e50+a'n 4)( 'n&(ance& )* c)m0+'ance and 'n&(ance& )*4reac. A& d'&cu&&ed 'n (e 0re-')u& Par(# (rad'(')na+ +e3a+ (e)r'e& )* c)m0+'ance w'('n(erna(')na+ +aw d) n)( 0r)-'de a c)n&(ruc('-e wa () ('n/ a4)u( c)m0+'ance 'n 0ar(4ecau&e (e cann)( e50+a'n 'n&(ance& )* 4reac. On (e )(er and# a m)de+ a+&) mu&(4e a4+e () e50+a'n )w 'n(erna(')na+ +aw can ac( a& an 'nde0enden( *)rce ()wardc)m0+'ance. Rea+'&(& d) n)( den (a( na(')n& )*(en ac( 'n a manner (a( '& c)n&'&(en(w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. Te ar3ue (a( (e e5'&(ence )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw a& n) e**ec()n na(')na+ 4ea-')r and (a( 'n&(ance& )* >c)m0+'ance? are mere+ ca&e& 'n w'c (ena(')n


21/73


a&&ume (a( (e 3)-ernmen( 0ur&ue& (e 0u4+'c 'n(ere&(. An a+(erna('-e -'ew# 0u4+'cc)'ce (e)r -'ew& 3)-ernmen( dec'&')n& a& (e 0r)duc( )* 'n(ere&( 3r)u0 0)+'('c& andar3ue& (a( (e&e dec'&')n& w'++ n)(# 'n 3enera+# +ead () 4ea-')r (a( '& c)n&'&(en( w'((e na(')na+ 'n(ere&(. ,nder ('& 0u4+'c c)'ce )r +'4era+ -'ew# dec'&')n ma/er& are

m)de+ed a& 'nd'-'dua+& 0ur&u'n3 (e'r )wn )4@ec('-e& ra(er (an a& (e *a'(*u+ a3en(&)* (e'r c)n&('(uenc'e&.$ Te ad-an(a3e )* a 0u4+'c c)'ce a00r)ac '& '(& a4'+'( ()0r)-'de a 0)&'('-e acc)un( )* 3)-ernmen( ac('-'( (a( '& d'**'cu+( () e50+a'n (r)u3m)re (rad'(')na+ m)de+& )* 3)-ernmen( 4ea-')r. Te d'**'cu+( 'n a00+'n3 0u4+'cc)'ce () n)rma('-e ana+&e )we-er# '& (a( (e )u(c)me )* 'n(ere&( 3r)u0 0)+'('c& '&-er d'**'cu+( () 0red'c(." F)r (e 0ur0)&e& )* ('& ar('c+e '( '& n)( nece&&ar () c))&e4e(ween (e 0u4+'c 'n(ere&( and 0u4+'c c)'ce m)de+&. T'& '& &) 4ecau&e (e Ar('c+ed)e& n)( a((em0( () m)de+ (e 0r)ce&& 4 w'c na(')na+ 3)a+& are de(erm'ned. Ra(er#na(')na+ 3)a+& are a&&umed () 4e 3'-en and (e m)de+ e50+a'n& (e c)nd'(')n& underw'c (e 0ur&u'( )* &uc 3)a+& +ead& () c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. F)r ('&rea&)n# (e Ar('c+e can acc)mm)da(e 4)( (e)r'e& )* 3)-ernmen( 4ea-')r.

A. A T!eor' o( t!e Irrele)ance o( International La*

Te *'r&( &(e0 'n under&(and'n3 (e (e)r )* c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '&() under&(and a (e)r )* (e 'rre+e-ance )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. T'& '& &) 4ecau&e (e&'m0+e&( ra(')na+ ac()r m)de+ )* c)un(r 4ea-')r +ead& () (e c)nc+u&')n (a('n(erna(')na+ +aw d)e& n)( ma((er. 1u&( &uc a m)de+ '& 0re&en(ed 'n ('& &ec(')n. Once(a( 4a&'c m)de+ '& under&())d# '( '& 0)&&'4+e () 'den('* (e a&&um0(')n& )* (e m)de+(a( +ead () (e 'rre+e-ance re&u+(. B re+a5'n3 ()&e a&&um0(')n a& '& d)ne 'n (e ne5(&ec(')n# a m)de+ )* c)m0+'ance '& 3enera(ed 'n w'c 'n(erna(')na+ +aw ma((er&.

Te m)&( 4a&'c m)de+ )* c)un(r 4ea-')r '& a )ne8&)( 3ame 'n w'c &(a(e&

dec'de we(er )r n)( () c)m0+ w'( a 0ar('cu+ar ru+e )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw.

F)rc)ncre(ene& &u00)&e (a( (w) c)un(r'e& a-e a3reed () a 4an )n &a(e++'(e84a&edwea0)n& and (e dec'&')n a( and '& we(er )r n)( () c)m0+ w'( (e 4an.

A&&ume (a( eac c)un(r '& 4e((er )** '* '( -')+a(e& (e a3reemen( w'+e (e )(erc)un(r c)m0+'e&. Fur(erm)re# a&&ume (a( 4)( are 4e((er )** '* (e 4)( c)m0+ (an

$SeeM'cae+ E. Le-'ne K 1enn'*er L. F)rrence# R e#ulatory Capture" Public Interest" and thePublic !#enda" 1.L. ECON. K ORG. ! :&0ec'a+ '&&ue !%; :>Pu4+'c c)'ce ana+&(& 0)&(u+a(e (a(0e)0+e &)u+d 4e e50ec(ed () ac( n) +e&& ra(')na++ )r &e+*8'n(ere&(ed+ a& 0)+'('c'an& )r 4ureaucra(& (an(e d) 'n (e c)ur&e )* (e'r 0r'-a(e e5can3e& 'n mar/e(&.?;J Ge)r3e 1. S('3+er# he heory of (conomicRe#ulation# $ BELL1. ECON. K MGMT. SCI. :!!;J DANIELA. FARBERK PHILLIPF. FRIC2EY# LAWKP,BLICCHOICE6 A CRITICALINTROD,CTION! :!!;.

See Par( .D.$,."SeeA44)((#Prospectus# supran)(e 555J G)+d&m'( K P)&ner# supran)(e 555.See infra Par( .D.$.Te 4a&'c& )* 3ame (e)r are a-a'+a4+e 'n man )(er &)urce and w'++ n)( 4e re0ea(ed ere.

F)r re+e-an( d'&cu&&')n& 'n (e c)n(e5( )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# &ee Se(ear# supra n)(e 555J A44)((#Prospectus# supran)(e 555J G)+d&m'( K P)&ner# supran)(e 555. F)r m)re c)m0reen&'-e 0re&en(a(')n&)* 3ame (e)r# see DO,GLASG. BAIRD# ROBERTH. GERTNER# K RANDALLC. PIC2ER# GAMETHEORYAND THE LAW :!";J ERIC RASM,SSEN# GAMES AND INFORMATION6 AN INTROD,CTION TO GAMETHEORY:!;J DREWF,DENBERGK 1EANTIROLE# GAMETHEORY:!!;#


!


22/73


'* (e 4)( -')+a(e. T'& &'(ua(')n '& re0re&en(ed 'n F'3ure I. Te 3ame '& &'m0+ (e0r'&)ner


23/73


de-e+)0men( )* &0ace84a&ed wea0)n& (e 4ad &(a(e c)rre&0)nd& () a &'(ua(')n 'n w'c(e 0ar('e& a-e an 'ncen('-e () de-e+)0 &0ace84a&ed wea0)n& 4ecau&e# *)r e5am0+e#d)'n3 &) enance& (e'r &ecur'(.

Te 3))d &(a(e c)rre&0)nd& () (e &'(ua(')n 'n w'c (e 0ar('e& a-e an

'ncen('-e () c)m0+ w'( (e (rea( 0r)-'&')n& 'nde0enden(+ )* (e'r 'n(erna(')na+)4+'3a(')n. Ima3'ne# *)r e5am0+e# (a( (e (ecn)+)3 *)r (e c)n&(ruc(')n )* a &a(e++'(e84a&ed wea0)n& &&(em '& ()) 0r'm'('-e () ma/e (e &&(em e**ec('-e and (e c)&( '&0r)'4'('-e# ma/'n3 '( a 0))r u&e )* 3)-ernmen( re&)urce&. In ('& &'(ua(')n# ne'(er0ar( w)u+d de-e+)0 &a(e++'(e84a&ed wea0)n e-en '* (ere were n) (rea( 'n *)rce.F'3ure II re0re&en(& (e 3))d &(a(e# 'n w'c (e (rea( '& 'rre+e-an(.

Fi+re II

C)un(r $

C)un(r !

C)m0+ ')+a(e

C)m0+ !%#!% #

')+a(e # "#"

In F'3ure II# '* 4)( c)un(r'e& -')+a(e (e (rea( (e are 4)( w)r&e )** 4ecau&e#*)r e5am0+e# (e w'++ a-e &0en( a +ar3e &um )* m)ne *)r a &&(em (a( '& unre+'a4+e.I* C)un(r One -')+a(e& (e (rea(# (a( c)un(r '& w)r&e )** a& a re&u+( )* (e m)ne&0en( and (e )(er c)un(r a+&) &u**er& a +)&& 4ecau&e e-en an unre+'a4+e wea0)n&&&(em 'n (e and& )* a 0)(en('a+ enem '& unde&'ra4+e. I* 4)( c)m0+ w'( (e (rea(#)we-er# 4)( en@) (e ma5'mum 0)&&'4+e 0a)**. M)re 'm0)r(an(+# c)m0+'ance '&(e d)m'nan( &(ra(e3 *)r 4)( 0ar('e&. Re3ard+e&& )* (e ac(')n (a/en 4 (e )(er0ar(# eac c)un(r '& 4e((er )* '* '( c)m0+'e& w'( (e (rea(.

C)m4'n'n3 (e 3))d and 4ad )u(c)me& 'e+d& a (e)r )* na(')na+ 4ea-')r (a(

'& c)n&'&(en( w'( (e )4&er-a(')n (a( c)un(r'e& )4e (e'r 'n(erna(')na+ )4+'3a(')n&muc )* (e ('me. Te ana+&'& '& a+&) c)n&'&(en( w'( (e -'ew (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +awd)e& n)( ma((er. Ra(er (an c)n&'der 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# c)un(r'e& &'m0+ d) wa( '& 'n(e'r 'n(ere&(. S)me('me& ('& a00en& () 4e c)n&'&(en( w'( (e'r 'n(erna(')na+)4+'3a(')n a& 'n (e e5am0+e )* &(a(e& c))&'n3 n)( () de-e+)0 &a(e++'(e84a&ed wea0)n&4ecau&e (e (ecn)+)3 '& 'nade=ua(e. A( )(er ('me (e e5'&(ence )* an )4+'3a(')n0+a& n) r)+e 'n (e )u(c)me# a& 'n (e e5am0+e )* &(a(e& c))&'n3 () de-e+)0 &uc


$%


24/73


wea0)n& de&0'(e (e 0re&ence )* a (rea(. T'& m)de+ 9 'n w'c 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '&'rre+e-an( 9 a& 4een ad-anced 4 (e ne)8rea+'&( &c))+ 'n 'n(erna(')na+ re+a(')n&.!%

Te a4)-e m)de+ a& (e mer'( )* 4e'n3 &'m0+e and e+e3an(# and '& a4+e ()e50+a'n 'n&(ance& )* 4)( )4&er-ed c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ )4+'3a(')n& and

-')+a(')n& (ere)*. Te (e)r cann)(# )we-er# e50+a'n )(er )4&er-ed 4ea-')r. I(cann)( e50+a'n# *)r e5am0+e# w c)un(r'e& c)nc+ude (rea('e& 'n (e *'r&( 0+ace. Tene3)('a(')n )* 'n(erna(')na+ (rea('e& and )(er 'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+ 'n&(rumen(& c)n&ume&re&)urce& (a( c)u+d 4e u&ed 'n )(er wa&. I* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw d)e& n)( a-e an'm0ac( )n 4ea-')r# (ere '& n) rea&)n *)r a c)un(r () wa&(e re&)urce& )n 'n(erna(')na++e3a+ c)n-en(')n& and ne3)('a(')n&. Te &ame *und uman ca0'(a+# and 0)+'('ca+ener3 c)u+d 4e de-)(ed () )(er 3)-ernmen(a+ )4@ec('-e&. N)r can '( e50+a'n wc)un(r'e& 'n-e&( re&)urce& () dem)n&(ra(e (a( (e are 'n c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na++aw. I* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw a& n) 'm0ac( )n 4ea-')r# c)un(r'e& &)u+d '3n)re '(. Wa(we )4&er-e# )we-er# '& a((em0(& 4 c)un(r'e& () @u&('* (e'r ac(')n& under 'n(erna(')na++aw. Te m)de+ a+&) *a'+& () e50+a'n (e e5'&(ence )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw d'&0u(e

re&)+u(')n 0r)ce&&e& () w'c na(')n& &)me('me& &u4m'( (e'r d'&0u(e&. I* 'n(erna(')na++aw d)e& n)( ma((er# (ere '& n) rea&)n *)r &uc 0r)cedure&. F'na++# (e (e)r '&c)n(rad'c(ed 4 em0'r'ca+ da(a &u33e&('n3 (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw d)e 'ndeed# 'n*+uence&(a(e 4ea-')r.!!

#. A %odel o( International La*

In a *'n'(e+ re0ea(ed 0r'&)ner


25/73


1u&( a& c)m0+'ance w'( 0r)m'&e& a( (e d)me&('c +e-e+ re=u're& (e e5'&(ence )*dama3e a m)de+ )* c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw re=u're& a mecan'&m (r)u3w'c na(')n& are &anc(')ned *)r -')+a(')n& (ere)*. Te *'n'(e+ re0ea(ed 3ame )* (e0re-')u& &ec(')n can 3enera(e a m)de+ )* e**ec('-e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw )n+ '* (ere e5'&(&

an en('( (a( can cred'4+ c)mm'( () &anc(')n'n3 ()&e w) -')+a(e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw#muc +'/e c)ur(& &anc(')n d)me&('c -')+a(')n&.

T)&e w) ar3ue (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw a& +'((+e )r n) 'm0ac( )n na(')na+4ea-')r# (ere*)re# are ac(ua++ ma/'n3 (e c+a'm (a( (e e5'&('n3 0ena+('e& *)r a-')+a(')n )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw are 'n&u**'c'en( () can3e (e e=u'+'4r'um )* (e 3ame. A&men(')ned# (e u&e )* a *'n'(e+ re0ea(ed 3ame w'()u( a c)erc'-e c)m0+'ancemecan'&m# '& e=u'-a+en( () a&&um'n3 (a( re&u+(.

T) 3enera(e a m)de+ 'n w'c 'n(erna(')na+ +aw ma((er (en# '( '& nece&&ar ()'den('* a mecan'&m (r)u3 w'c -')+a(')n& are &anc(')ned 'n &)me *a&')n. E-en()&e w) 4e+'e-e (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw 0+a& an 'm0)r(an( r)+e 'n re3u+a('n3 c)nduc( 'n(e 'n(erna(')na+ c)mmun'( mu&( c)ncede (a( (ere '& a( 4e&( a wea/ &&(em )* me('n3)u( 0un'&men(& *)r -')+a(')n& )* +aw.!$ Ne-er(e+e& a m)de+ )* 'n(erna(')na+ +awmu&( (urn )n (e 'm0ac( )* &anc(')n& )n &(a(e&.! I( '& 'm0)r(an( () n)(e# )we-er# (a((e (erm &anc(')n a& u&ed a4)-e enc)m0a&&e& m)re (an @u&( d'rec( 0un'&men(&re&u+('n3 *r)m a *a'+ure () +'-e u0 () )ne


26/73


n)( a4+e () ma/e *u++ 'rre-)ca4+e c)mm'(men( '( '& c+ear (a( (e 3rea(er a &(a(ene3)('a(e? '& u&ed a& a &)r(and. T'& &(a3e re0re&en(& (e dec'&')n )* )ne )r m)rec)un(r'e& () en(er 'n() an 'n(erna(')na+ a3reemen(# re3ard+e&& )* we(er (e (erm& )* (a( a3reemen( are4ar3a'ned )-er a( (e ('me. F)r e5am0+e# 'n (e ca&e )* cu&()mar 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# (ere '& n) 0r)ce&& )**)rma+ ne3)('a(')n&. Ne-er(e+e& a c)un(r can &ee/ () reduce '(& )4+'3a(')n 4 rema'n'n3 a 0er&'&(en()4@ec()r. An)(er e5am0+e w)u+d 4e (e dec'&')n 4 a &(a(e () @)'n :)r n)( @)'n; an e5'&('n3 a3reemen(.F)r e5am0+e# '* P)+and were 'n-'(ed () @)'n (e E,# '(& dec'&')n () acce0( )r dec+'ne (e 'n-'(a(')n w)u+d=ua+'* a& >ne3)('a(')n? *)r 0re&en( 0ur0)&e&.

!

I( can a+&) +ead () a &anc(')n (r)u3 *)rma+ d'&0u(e &e((+emen( mecan'&m &uc a& ()&e )*(e WTO. ,nder a00r)0r'a(e c'rcum&(ance (e&e &anc(')n& are e&0ec'a++ +'/e+ () 4e &ucce&&*u+# a& '&d'&cu&&ed infraPar( I.B.

!I am n)( (e *'r&( () 'den('* re0u(a(')n a& an 'm0)r(an( '&&ue 'n 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. SeeHEN2IN#supran)(eErr)r6 Re*erence &)urce n)( *)und# a( "8 :+'&('n3 *ac()r& 'n a c)un(r


27/73


ma arm '(& a4'+'( () )4(a'n &uc an a3reemen( 4ecau&e (e c)un(r'e& 'n-)+-ed#'nc+ud'n3 Me5'c)# c)u+d c)me () d)u4( (e w'++'n3ne&& )* (e ,n'(ed S(a(e& () )n)r '(&c)mm'(men(&. In dec'd'n3 we(er )r n)( () ad)0( (e 0r)0)&ed (ar'**# (en# (e ,n'(edS(a(e& mu&( 'nc+ude 'n '(& ca+cu+u& (e c)&( )* (a( ac(')n )n '(& FTAA e**)r(&.

Re(urn'n3 () a m)re 3enera+ d'&cu&&')n# F'3ure III 0re&en(& (e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw3ame. In (e *'r&( 0er')d# &(a(e& dec'de we(er )r n)( () en(er 'n() a +e3a+ )4+'3a(')n.F)r 0re&en( 0ur0)&e an )4+'3a(')n '& de*'ned a& a 0r)m'&e () )(er &(a(e&. Pu( a&'de *)r(e m)men( (e 0rec'&e *)rm )* (e 0r)m'&e# w'c c)u+d 4e a (rea(# an 'n*)rma+a3reemen(# cu&()mar 'n(erna(')na+ +aw# )r an )(er *)rm& )* 0r)m'&e. I* n) 0r)m'&e '&made# (e &(a(e '& *ree () en3a3e 'n wa(e-er c)nduc( '( c))&e& 'n 0er')d $ w'()u(&u**er'n3 an &anc(')n. In 0er')d $ (e &(a(e )* (e w)r+d '& re-ea+ed. In (e >3))d?&(a(e# (e 'n(ere&(& )* (e re+e-an( c)un(r'e& c)n-er3e and ()&e (a( c)m0+ w'( (ea3reemen( rece'-e a '3er 0a)** (an '* (e ad -')+a(ed (e a3reemen(. A& a re&u+(#a++ c)un(r'e& c)m0+ and eac rece'-e& a 0a)** )* !% 'n ('& 0er')d and !% 'n eac0er')d (erea*(er.$$ Le(('n3 >r? re0re&en( (e d'&c)un( ra(e 9 (a( ' (e e5(en( () w'c

(e c)un(r -a+ue& 4ene*'(& ()da )-er 4ene*'(& +a(er 9 eac c)un(r rece'-e& a 0a)**&(ream )* !% !%:!r; !%:!r;$ . !%:!r;r.$ T) &'m0+'* *ur(er# +e(R:!r;r. We can (en re0re&en( (e 0a)** () eac c)un(r a& !%R. In (e 3))d &(a(ec)un(r'e& 4ea-e 'n (e &ame wa we(er (ere '& an a3reemen( )r n)(# 'nd'ca('n3 (a('n(erna(')na+ +aw d)e& n)( a**ec( (e 4ea-')r )* &(a(e&.

,FIGUREIIIGOES HERE-

I* (e c)un(r'e& *'nd (em&e+-e& 'n (e >4ad? &(a(e# )we-er# (e *ace a

0r'&)ner


28/73


0er')d and (ree 'n eac 0er')d (erea*(er.$" Tu (e c)un(r mu&( c))&e 4e(ween (w)0)&&'4+e 0a)** &(ream&6

I* '( c)n('nue& () c)m0+6 :!r; :!r;$ .

I* '( d)e& n)( c)m0+6 :!r; :!r;

$

.Pu( an)(er wa# '* an a3reemen( '& 'n 0+ace# >cea('n3? carr'e& w'( '( a

re0u(a(')na+ &anc(')n. In (e e5am0+e 3'-en# we can re0re&en( (e &u43ame 'n w'c (e0ar('e& are 'n (e 4ad &(a(e )* (e w)r+d and a-e a +e3a+ )4+'3a(')n a& *)++)w&6

Fi+re I

C)un(r $

C)un(r !

C)m0+ ')+a(e

C)m0+

R# R R8!# R

')+a(e R# R 8! R# R

Te 0a)** () a c)un(r (a( cea( (ere*)re# '& R$ '* (e )(er c)un(rc)m0+'e& and R '* (e )(er c)un(r cea(&. Te 0a)** *)r a c)un(r (a( c)m0+'e& '&R '* (e )(er c)un(r c)m0+'e& and R8! '* (e )(er c)un(r -')+a(e& (e +aw.

F'3ure I dem)n&(ra(e& )w (e re0u(a(')na+ e**ec( )* a -')+a(')n a+(er& (edec'&')n 0r)ce&&. An e=u'+'4r'um 'n w'c 4)( c)un(r'e& c)m0+ 'n e-er 0er')d '&&u&(a'na4+e 'n ('& 3ame *)r a &u**'c'en(+ +)w d'&c)un( ra(e :c)rre&0)nd'n3 () a&u**'c'en(+ +ar3e R;. In )(er w)rd *)r a &u**'c'en(+ +)w d'&c)un( ra(e a c)un(r w'++c)m0+ w'( '(& 'n(erna(')na+ )4+'3a(')n e-en wen '( w)u+d n)( a-e d)ne &) 'n (ea4&ence )* (a( )4+'3a(')n. I( c)m0+'e& 'n )rder () a-)'d (e re0u(a(')na+ +)&& (a( w)u+dc)me w'( a -')+a(')n )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw.

$"Ta( ' '( earn& 'n ('& 0er')d 4ecau&e (e )(er 0ar( c)m0+'e& w'+e '( -')+a(e& (ea3reemen(# 4u( 'n eac 0er')d (erea*(er (ere '& n) a3reemen( 'n 0+ace &) 4)( 0ar('e& de*ec( and (ec)un(r earn& .

$N)(e (a( 4ecau&e R:!r;r# R '& a+wa& 3rea(er (an !.


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29/73


Re0u(a(')n# (ere*)re# cau&e& *u(ure re+a(')n&'0& () 4e a**ec(ed 4 ()daIn(erna(')na+ re3'me&

a+(er (e 'n*)rma(')n a-a'+a4+e () 3)-ernmen(& and (e )00)r(un'('e& )0en () (emJ c)mm'(men(& made ()&u00)r( &uc 'n&('(u(')n& can )n+ 4e 4r)/en a( a c)&( () re0u(a(')n. In(erna(')na+ re3'me& (ere*)recan3e (e ca+cu+a(')n& )* ad-an(a3e (a( 3)-ernmen(& ma/e.?;

$Te 'n-a&')n )* 2uwa'( '& (e m)&( )4-')u& &uc -')+a(')n# 4u( '( '& n)( (e )n+ )ne. Tec)n('nued re*u&a+ () )n)r (e (erm& )* (e 0eace a3reemen( (a( *)++)wed (e Per&'an Gu+* War# (e0erce0(')n (a( Ira= a& &0)n&)red 'n(erna(')na+ (err)r'&( ac('-'(# and ear+'er (rea( -')+a(')n& &uc a& (e!! un'+a(era+ >cance++a(')n? )* (e ! 4)rder a3reemen( 4e(ween Iran and Ira= a++ re0re&en( 'n&(ance&'n w'c Ira= a& &)wn '(&e+* () 4e an unre+'a4+e 0ar(ner. See ,NITED NATIONS# YEARBOO2 OF THE,NITEDNATIONS# !!# -)+. :,n'(ed Na(')n& !; a( $8.


$


30/73


A c)un(r (a( de-e+)0& a re0u(a(')n *)r c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+)4+'3a(')n& &'3na+& () )(er c)un(r'e& (a( '( '& c))0era('-e. T'& ac(')n a++)w& (e &(a(e() en@) +)n38(erm re+a(')n&'0& w'( )(er c))0era('-e &(a(e&. Am)n3 (e 4ene*'(& are4)( a 3rea(er a4'+'( () ma/e 4'nd'n3 0r)m'&e& and a reduc(')n 'n (e 0erce'-ed need

*)r m)n'()r'n3 and -er'*'ca(')n. Te de-e+)0men( )* a re0u(a(')n *)r c)m0+'ance#(ere*)re# 0r)-'de& 4ene*'(& () a c)un(r. A *a'+ure () +'-e u0 () )neG)-ernmen(& c)m0+ w'( (e'r +e3a+c)mm'(men(& +ar3e+ () 0re&er-e (e'r re0u(a(')n.?;.

!See RAYA,G,ST# INTERNATIONALB,SINESSLAW :$%%%;.$,n'(ed S(a(e& -. A+-arez8Maca'n# %" ,.S. :!$;.

See 2)# supran)(eErr)r6 Re*erence &)urce n)( *)und#a( $%. In ('& e5am0+e '( ma 4e (eca&e (a( (e reac(')n )* Me5'can au()r'('e& wa& a *)rm )* re(a+'a(')n ra(er (an a reac(')n () a can3e 'n(e re0u(a(')n )* (e ,n'(ed S(a(e&. E-en '* ('& '& (rue# )we-er# re0u(a(')n '& 'n (e 4ac/3r)und 4ecau&e(e rea&)n () re(a+'a(e *)r m'&c)nduc( 4 (e ,.S. '& () e&(a4+'& a re0u(a(')n *)r &uc re(a+'a(')n 'n (e)0e )* 'n*+uenc'n3 *u(ure 4ea-')r. F)r a d'&cu&&')n )* A+-arez8Maca'n &ee W'++'am 1. Ace-e heLe#ality Of ransborder !bductions: ! Study Of +nited States %, !l%are6)Machain# SW. 1.L. K TRADEAM. !%! :!;J Andrew L. S(rau& ! $lobal Paradi#m Shattered: he 7urisdictional &ihilism of theSupreme Court8s !bduction 'ecision in !l%are6)Machain# TEMP. L. RE. !$% :!";J 2r'&('n BerdanWe'&&man# C)mmen(#(5traterritorial !bduction: he (ndan#erment of -uture Peace" $ ,.C. DAISL.RE. " :!";J Manue+ R. An3u+) K 1ame& D. Reard)n# 1r.# he !pparent Political and !dministrati%e(5pediency (5ception (stablished by the Supreme Court in +nited States %, 4umberto !l%are6)Machain

to the Rule of Law as Reflected by Reco#ni6ed Principles of International Law# ! B.C. INTQLK COMP. L.RE. $" :!;.

"

I &)u+d n)(e a( ('& 0)'n( (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+ &c)+ar& a-e +)n3 under&())d (a( re0u(a(')nma((er&. A+()u3 (e e**ec( )* re0u(a(')na+ c)n&(ra'n(& a-e n)( 4een e50+)red a& *)rma++ and *u++ a&('& Ar('c+e (r'e& () d)# )ne can *'nd c)mmen(& &ca((ered (r)u3)u( (e 'n(erna(')na+ +aw +'(era(ure'm0+'n3 (a( (e&e &c)+ar& under&())d a++ a+)n3 (a( re0u(a(')n and re0ea( 0+a were 'm0)r(an( 'n (e'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+ &&(em. See" e,#,# Ian 1)n&()ne# reaty Interpretation: he !uthority of Interpreti%eCommunities# !$ MICH. 1. INT


31/73


Te de-e+)0men( and de&(ruc(')n )* a re0u(a(')n )ccur& )-er +)n3er 0er')d& )* ('me(an d) 'nd'-'dua+ dec'&')n& re3ard'n3 c)m0+'ance w'( an )4+'3a(')n# 4u( (e arene-er(e+e&& (e re&u+( )* 3)-ernmen( dec'&')n&.

N)('n3 'n (e (e)r ad-anced 'n ('& Ar('c+e &u33e&(& (a( a++ c)un(r'e& w'++

wan( () 0re&er-e a re0u(a(')n *)r )n)r'n3 (e'r c)mm'(men(&. C)un(r'e& (a( dec'dea3a'n&( de-e+)0'n3 a &(r)n3 re0u(a(')n *)r c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ )4+'3a(')n&c))&e &)r(8(erm 4ene*'(& )-er +)n38(erm 3a'n&. T)&e c)un(r'e& are m)re +'/e+ ()'3n)re 'n(erna(')na+ c)mm'(men(& and# a& a re&u+(# are +e&& +'/e+ () *'nd 0ar(ner& w'++'n3() re+ )n &uc c)mm'(men(&. In (e e5(reme ca&e )* a c)un(r (a( a& zer)re0u(a(')na+ ca0'(a+# 'n(erna(')na+ +aw ac(& a& an 'nde0enden( *)rce )n+ () (e e5(en((a( '( 3enera(e& d'rec( &anc(')n a& d'&cu&&ed 'n Par( I.B.

F'na++# n)(e (a( re0u(a(')n# wen e5am'ned 'n a++ '(& d'men&')n need n)(a+wa& 4e a *)rce ()ward c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. Na(')n& 0re*er a re0u(a(')n*)r c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw &) (a( (e are 4e((er a4+e () 4'nd (em&e+-e& 'n(e *u(ure# 4u( (e are a+&) c)ncerned a4)u( )(er a&0ec(& )* (e'r re0u(a(')n. F)re5am0+e# a re0u(a(')n )* &'d'n3 w'( a++'e& can 4e -a+ua4+e# a& can a re0u(a(')n *)r()u3ne&&. F)r e5am0+e# dur'n3 (e C)+d War# (e ,n'(ed S(a(e& a( -ar')u& ('me&&)u3( () e&(a4+'& a re0u(a(')n *)r aderence () a 0)+'c )* c)n(a'nmen( )*c)mmun'&m. Suc *)rce& can 0r)-'de 'ncen('-e& e'(er *)r )r a3a'n&( c)m0+'ance#de0end'n3 )n (e c'rcum&(ance&. Te&e )(er a&0ec(& )* re0u(a(')n# (ere*)re# mu&( 4e(a/en 'n() acc)un( wen c)n&'der'n3 (e c)m0+'ance =ue&(')n. T'& )4&er-a(')n d)e&n)('n3 () underm'ne (e (e)r 4e'n3 ad-anced a& +)n3 a& '( '& rec)3n'zed (a( ('&Ar('c+e *)cu&e& )n )n+ )ne a&0ec( )* re0u(a(')n. Ra(er (an underm'ne (e (e)r# ('&0)'n( rem'nd& u& (a( (e re0u(a(')na+ '&&ue& d'&cu&&ed ere'n a-e +'m'(ed *)rce 9 (ecann)( 0re-en( a++ -')+a(')n& )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw and 'n &)me c'rcum&(ance ma n)(0re-en( an &uc -')+a(')n&.

C. A//l'in t!e %odel 0 #ilateral In)est1ent Treaties

Te re0u(a(')na+ (e)r )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw can 4e a00+'ed () a w'de ran3e )*&(a(e 4ea-')r. F)r rea&)n& d'&cu&&ed 4e+)w# '( 0red'c(& (a( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw w'++ a-e a3rea(er 'm0ac( )n ec)n)m'c ma((er& (an )n m'+'(ar and &ecur'( ma((er&. T)'++u&(ra(e )w (e (e)r can 4e a00+'ed () a &0ec'*'c ()0'c# ('& &ec(')n d'&cu&&e&4'+a(era+ 'n-e&(men( (rea('e& :BIT&; and )w (e a**ec( c)un(r 4ea-')r.

See2e)ane# wo Optics# supra n)(e 555# a( "J 2'n3&4ur# supra n)(e 555# a( $8. See Par( .E# d'&cu&&'n3 c'rcum&(ance& 'n w'c 'n(erna(')na+ +aw '& un+'/e+ () a-e

&u4&(an('a+ e**ec(.See Par( .E.F)r a de(a'+ed d'&cu&&')n )* BIT &ee Andrew T. Guzman# Why L'Cs Si#n reaties that 4urt

hem: (5plainin# the Popularity of *ilateral In%estment reaties# A. 1. INT


32/73


C)n&'der a c)un(r (a( a& &'3ned a BIT 'n w'c '( 0r)m'&e& n)( () e50r)0r'a(e*)re'3n 'n-e&(men(. A&&ume *)r (e 0ur0)&e& )* ('& e5am0+e (a( (e c)un(r ma/e&('& 0r)m'&e 4ecau&e d)'n3 &) 'ncrea&e& (e *+)w )* *)re'3n d'rec( 'n-e&(men( 'n() (ec)un(r."% E-en a*(er ma/'n3 (e 0r)m'&e# )* c)ur&e# (e c)un(r c)u+d c))&e ()

e50r)0r'a(e (e +)ca+ a&&e(& )* *)re'3n *'rm&. T) ma/e (e e5am0+e c)ncre(e# a&&ume(a( (e a-a'+a4+e a&&e(& a-e a ()(a+ -a+ue () (e c)un(r )* U!%% M'++')n. T'& 0)(en('a+3a'n )* U!%% M'++')n mu&( 4e we'3ed a3a'n&( (e c)&( )* an e50r)0r'a(')n# w'c m'3('nc+ude &e-era+ c)m0)nen(&. F'r&(# (e -')+a('n3 c)un(r +)&e& (e 4ene*'(& curren(+4e'n3 0r)-'ded 4 *)re'3n *'rm& 'nc+ud'n3# *)r e5am0+e# (e (a5 re-enue& *r)m (e&e*'rm (ecn)+)3'ca+ (ran&*er& 0r)-'ded# em0+)men(# and &) )n."! Su00)&e (a( ('& +)&&am)un(& () U"% M'++')n."$ Sec)nd# (e c)un(r '& +'/e+ () &u**er a re0u(a(')na+ +)&& 'n(e ee& )* *)re'3n 'n-e&()r&. Te ac( )* e50r)0r'a(')n &'3na+& a w'++'n3ne&& () &e'ze (ea&&e(& )* *)re'3ner and reduce& (e a((rac('-ene&& )* (e c)un(r () 0)(en('a+ *u(ure'n-e&()r&. F)re'3n 'n-e&()r& are +e&& +'/e+ () 'n-e&( '* (e 4e+'e-e (e )&( c)un(r mae50r)0r'a(e (e'r 'n-e&(men(. Su00)&e (a( (e re0u(a(')na+ +)&& (ran&+a(e& 'n() a +)&& )*

*u(ure 'n-e&(men(# w'c (e c)un(r -a+ue& a( U"% M'++')n. F'na++# (e c)un(r w'++&u**er a +)&& )* re0u(a(')na+ ca0'(a+ w'( re&0ec( () )(er c)un(r'e&. P)(en('a+ (rea(0ar(ner& w'++ -'ew (e c)un(r a& a +e&& re+'a4+e 0ar(ner and w'++ 4e +e&& w'++'n3 () en(er'n() *u(ure a3reemen(&. A&&ume (a( ('& +)&& '& e=u'-a+en( () U% M'++')n.

N)('ce (a( )n+ a 0)r(')n )* (e a4)-e c)&(& can 4e a((r'4u(ed () 'n(erna(')na++aw. Bene*'(& (a( are +)&( 4ecau&e e5'&('n3 *)re'3n *'rm& e'(er &()0 )0era('n3 )r)0era(e +e&& e**'c'en(+ a*(er e50r)0r'a(')n are n)( a**ec(ed 4 (e +e3a+ c)mm'(men(& )*(e c)un(r. Te +)&& )* re0u(a(')n 'n (e ee& )* )(er &(a(e )we-er# '& (e re&u+( )* a-')+a(')n )* an 'n(erna(')na+ )4+'3a(')n. Te ac( )* e50r)0r'a('n3 'n (e *ace )* a (rea(0r)m'&'n3 n)( () d) &) dem)n&(ra(e& a w'++'n3ne&& )n (e 0ar( )* (e c)un(r () -')+a(e'n(erna(')na+ c)mm'(men(&. O(er c)un(r'e& w'++ (a/e ('& 'n() acc)un( wen dea+'n3

w'( (e c)un(r. F'na++# (e reac(')n )* 0)(en('a+ *)re'3n 'n-e&()r& '& 0ar('a++# ()u3n)( en('re+# a *unc(')n )* (e e5'&(ence )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. E-en 'n (e a4&ence )* an

O(er e5am0+e& c)u+d )4-')u&+ 4e c)&en ere. B'+a(era+ 'n-e&(men( (rea('e& are &e+ec(ed4ecau&e (e c)&(& and 4ene*'(& are m)re ea&'+ under&())d and e-a+ua(ed 'n (e c)n(e5( )* &uc (rea('e&(an 'n man )(er e5am0+e&. I( '& 'm0)r(an( () n)(e# )we-er# (a( d'**'cu+( e50re&&'n3 c)&(& and4ene*'(& 'n d)++ar (erm& d)e& n)( re0re&en( a 0r)4+em *)r (e (e)r 0re&en(ed.

"%Te e50r)0r'a(')n )* *)re'3n )wned a&&e(& )ccurred numer)u& ('me& 'n (e (wen('e( cen(ur.S)me e5am0+e& 'nc+ude (e Me5'can e50r)0r'a(')n )* a3rar'an and )'+ 0r)0er('e& 4e(ween !! and !"%J(e S)-'e( e50r)0r'a(')n& *)++)w'n3 (e Ru&&'an re-)+u(')nJ (e E30('an e50r)0r'a(')n& (a( +ed () (eSuez cr'&'&J Cu4an e50r)0r'a(')n& *)++)w'n3 (e r'&e () 0)wer )* F'de+ Ca&(r)J (e (a/'n3 )* 0ar('a+)wner&'0 'n c)00er m'ne& 'n C'+e 'n !!J and e50r)0r'a(')n& 4 Iran *)++)w'n3 (e *a++ )* (e Sa.See LIPSON# STANDINGG,ARD# PROTECTINGFOREIGNCAPITAL INTHENINETEENTHANDTWENTIETH

CENT,RIES:!;J Bur()n K In)ue#(5propriation of -orei#n)Owned -irms in 'e%elopin# Countries# !1. WORLDTRADEL. :!";J De(+e- a3( -orei#n In%estment Ris. Reconsidered: he 1iew fromthe 9;


33/73


'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+ c)mm'(men(#"a dec'&')n () e50r)0r'a(e w'++ a-e a c'++'n3 e**ec( )n*u(ure 'n-e&(men(. T'& e**ec( '& 'nde0enden( )* (e e5'&(ence )* an 'n(erna(')na+ +e3a+c)mm'(men(. T) (e e5(en( (a( 'n-e&()r& -'ew (e +e3a+ )4+'3a(')n c)n(a'ned 'n (e BITa& a cred'4+e c)mm'(men(# )we-er# (e c)un(r 4ec)me& m)re a((rac('-e () 'n-e&()r&

and ma en@) '3er +e-e+& )* 'n-e&(men(. I* e50r)0r'a(')n underm'ne& ('&c)n*'dence# a 0)r(')n )* (e +)&( 'n-e&(men( can 4e a((r'4u(ed () a re0u(a(')na+ e**ec(re&u+('n3 *r)m (e -')+a(')n )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. Fu(ure 0r)m'&e& n)( () e50r)0r'a(ew'++ +ac/ cred'4'+'(# ma/'n3 '( d'**'cu+( () reca0(ure (a( 'n-e&(men(.

In dec'd'n3 we(er )r n)( () -')+a(e '(& 'n(erna(')na+ c)mm'(men(# (e c)un(rc)m0are& (e ()(a+ c)&(& )* d)'n3 &) () (e ()(a+ 4ene*'(&. ,&'n3 (e num4er& 3'-ena4)-e# '( '& c+ear (a( (e c)un(r 0re*er& () )n)r '(& c)mm'(men(. A -')+a(')n )* (e(rea( w)u+d 'm0)&e a +)&& )* U!!% M'++')n and 'e+d a 3a'n )* )n+ U!%% M'++')n 9 a ne(+)&& )* U!% M'++')n. N)('ce a+&) (a( (e )u(c)me '& can3ed a& a re&u+( )* 'n(erna(')na++aw. In (e a4&ence )* a +e3a+ )4+'3a(')n# (e e50r)0r'a('n3 c)un(r w)u+d n)( &u**er (eU% M'++')n re0u(a(')na+ +)&& 'n (e ee& )* )(er &(a(e& &) '(& ()(a+ +)&& *r)m (e

e50r)0r'a(')n w'++ 4e n) m)re (an U% M'++')n. Becau&e (e 4ene*'(& *r)me50r)0r'a(')n are U!%% M'++')n# (e e50r)0r'a(')n w)u+d cau&e a ne( 3a'n a4&en( (e'n(erna(')na+ c)mm'(men(."" T'& e5am0+e dem)n&(ra(e& (a( a re0u(a(')na+ +)&& cana**ec( dec'&')n& e-en wen (e +)&& '& c)n&'dera4+ +e&& (an (e ()(a+ 0)(en('a+ 3a'n&*r)m (e ac(')n. T'& '& &) 4ecau&e (ere w'++ (0'ca++ 4e )(er c)&(& (a( (e c)un(rmu&( (a/e 'n() acc)un(. Te re0u(a(')na+ c)n&e=uence& )* an ac(')n can a+(er (e)u(c)me '* (e are en)u3 () ('0 (e 4a+ance )* c)&(& and 4ene*'(& 'n *a-)r )*c)m0+'ance.

I* we ma/e d'**eren( a&&um0(')n& a4)u( (e num4er )* c)ur&e# we can 3enera(ed'**eren( re&u+(&. F)r e5am0+e# '* (e 3a'n *r)m e50r)0r'a(')n '& U$%% M'++')n w'+e (e)(er num4er& are uncan3ed# (e c)un(r w'++ c))&e () e50r)0r'a(e e-en ()u3 d)'n3&) '& a -')+a(')n )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. I*# )n (e )(er and# (e 3a'n *r)m e50r)0r'a(')nwa& U$% M'++')n and (e )(er num4er& a3a'n rema'ned (e &ame# (e c)un(r w)u+dc))&e n)( () e50r)0r'a(e# re3ard+e&& )* we(er )r n)( a BIT wa& 'n 0+ace.

D. D'na1ic Iss+es

A c)un(r


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Te dnam'c a&0ec( )* c)m0+'ance w'( 'n(erna(')na+ +aw can 4e '++u&(ra(ed w'((e 4'+a(era+ 'n-e&(men( (rea( e5am0+e *r)m (e 0re-')u& &ec(')n. Su00)&e (a( ac)un(r an('c'0a(e& (a( (e e50r)0r'a(')n )* *)re'3n 'n-e&(men( w'++ +ead () a c)m0+e(ea+( 'n (e *+)w )* 'n-e&(men( 'n() (e c)un(r." A&&ume (a( (e e50r)0r'a(ed

'n-e&(men( '& w)r( U!%% M'++')n () (e c)un(r '* '( '& +e*( 'n (e and& )* 'n-e&()r and(a( '( '& w)r( U$%% M'++')n '* '( '& e50r)0r'a(ed. Te 4ene*'( *r)m e50r)0r'a(')n#(ere*)re# '& U!%% M'++')n.

T) e-a+ua(e (e c)&( )* (e e50r)0r'a(')n (e dec'&')n ma/er& mu&( a+&) c)n&'der(e -a+ue )* *u(ure 'n-e&(men( '* '( e50r)0r'a(e& :w'c 4 a&&um0(')n '& zer); a&c)m0ared () (e -a+ue )* *u(ure 'n-e&(men( '* '( d)e& n)( e50r)0r'a(e. I* (e e50ec(ed-a+ue )* *u(ure *)re'3n 'n-e&(men( can3e& )-er ('me# a c)un(r ma c))&e () a4'de 4'(& BIT& *)r a 0er')d )* ('me 4u(# wen c)nd'(')n& can3e# '( ma dec'de () -')+a(e ()&ec)mm'(men(&.

Ima3'ne (a( ('me& are 3))d and (e c)un(r '& en@)'n3 '3 +e-e+& )* *)re'3n'n-e&(men( (a( are e50ec(ed () 'ncrea&e *ur(er 'n (e ear& () c)me. Fu(ure'n-e&(men(& are e50ec(ed () 'e+d 4ene*'(& -a+ued a( U$%% M'++')n. ,nder (e&ec)nd'(')n e50r)0r'a(')n '& una((rac('-e. Te c)un(r can d) 4e((er 4 enc)ura3'n3m)re *)re'3n 'n-e&(men( and 4 (rea('n3 (a( 'n-e&(men( we++. Bene*'(& 'n (e *)rm )*(a5 re-enue em0+)men(# (ecn)+)3 (ran&*er and &) )n# are +ar3er (an (e 4ene*'(&*r)m e50r)0r'a(')n.

N)w &u00)&e (a( (e 0)+'('ca+ m))d 'n (e c)un(r can3e& a& (e +eader )* a0)0u+'&( 0ar( emer3e& () na(')na+ 0r)m'nence 4 4+am'n3 (e c)un(r


35/73


M'++')n *r)m *u(ure 'n-e&(men( *)r a ()(a+ )* U!% M'++')n. " Te reduc(')n 'n *u(ure'n-e&(men( a& made e50r)0r'a(')n (e c)un(r !fter ; @ears" the C6ar8s Mar.ers !re


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E. T!e Le)el o( Co11it1ent

Te a4)-e d'&cu&&')n dem)n&(ra(e& (a( a m)de+ )* ra(')na+ &(a(e& '& c)n&'&(en(w'( (e e5'&(ence )* 'n(erna(')na+ +aw. T'& re&u+( '& 'm0)r(an( 4ecau&e# @u&( a& (e

a4'+'( () 4'nd )ne&e+* (r)u3 c)n(rac( '& -a+ua4+e () 0r'-a(e 0ar('e (e a4'+'( ()c)mm'( () a 0ar('cu+ar ac(')n '& -a+ua4+e () &(a(e&. A &(a(e


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(e &(a(e )* (e w)r+d a( an 3'-en m)men( '& c)n(r)-er&'a+ and &u4@ec( () d'&0u(e.C)un(r'e& ma d'&a3ree# *)r e5am0+e# a4)u( we(er cer(a'n 0rac('ce& c)n&('(u(e0r)(ec(')n'&( 4arr'er& )r rea&)na4+e ea+( mea&ure&. T'& +ac/ )* c)n&en&u& 'n(r)duce&=ue&(')n& )* 'n(er0re(a(')n (a( can +ead () a d'&0u(e e-en 'n (e ca&e )* a we++8&0ec'*'ed

(rea(. F'na++# a +)n3 +'&( )* c)n('n3enc'e& and c)nd'(')n& can ma/e ra('*'ca(')n )*'n(erna(')na+ a3reemen(& muc m)re d'**'cu+(. D)me&('c )00)&'(')n () an a3reemen(can c))&e *r)m (e man c)nd'(')n& () ad-ance (e ar3umen( (a( (e a3reemen( '&c)n(rar () (e na(')na+ 'n(ere&(. E-en were an a3reemen(# (a/en 'n '(& en('re(# '& a3))d )ne# 3r)u0& )00)&ed () '( w)u+d a-e m)re ammun'(')n w'( w'c () ra++ 0u4+'c)0'n')n 'n )00)&'(')n.$

A& a re&u+( )* (e&e# and )(er# (ran&ac(')n c)&( 'n(erna(')na+ a3reemen(& d)

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