INTEGRATED USE OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR LIVESTOCK
WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND FODDER PRODUCTION
By
NGO THUY DIEM TRANG
Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Univeristi Putra Malaysia,
in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science
February 2004
ii
DEDICATION
I wish to dedicate this work to my beloved parents, Ngo Ngoc Huy and Pham Thi
Leo, and respected teachers, supervisors who gave me knowledge and experience and
I also wish to dedicate this research to all the tropical farmers
iii
Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science
INTEGRATED USE OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR LIVESTOCK
WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND FODDER PRODUCTION
By
NGO THUY DIEM TRANG
February 2004
Chairman: Associate Professor Liang Juan Boo, Ph.D.
Faculty: Agriculture
Constructed wetlands (CW) are widely used to treat wastewater (WW) because of its
high efficiency for removal of pollutants, and low operational and maintenance costs.
Plants play an important role in enhancing the WW treatment process in CW.
Therefore, selection of the appropriate plant species to be grown in CW is an
important criterion to ensure the success of the CW system. The performances of 5
plant species, namely, Typha (Typha spp), Dwarf Napier (Pennisetum purpureum),
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) and 2 varieties of Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L)
i.e. K 465/118 (K465) and Thai Kenaf grown in cattle WW were evaluated over 4
weeks. The different plant species were ranked using Typha (a widely use plant for
phytoremediation) as a control based on their percentage of mortality, rate of growth
of the root system, crude protein (CP) content, dry matter yield (DMY), and
palatability score. The results showed that Typha had the highest score followed by
Napier, K465 Kenaf, Thai Kenaf and Guinea. Based on the results of this study three
iv
plant species (Typha, Napier and K465 Kenaf) were selected for further evaluations
in experiment 2.
In the second experiment, the 3 plant species were grown in 3 different concentrations
of cattle WW; low (COD 2,000 mg/L), medium (COD 7,000 mg/L) and high (COD
14, 000 mg/L) in a 3 x 3 factorial experiment arranged in a RCBD design. Almost all
of the Napier plants died by the end of the 2 weeks adaptation period. Typha and
Kenaf had the highest above-surface fraction (stems and leaves) fresh yield (FY) and
DMY in the medium WW concentration. The nutrient content of the 2 plants
increased with increased WW concentration. The under-surface fraction (roots) FY
and DMY of Typha was positively associated with the WW concentration, while
negative relationships were obtained for Kenaf. Pollutants removal by Typha from
WW was more efficient than Kenaf.
The third experiment was conducted to examine the efficiency of pollutants removal
from cattle WW. It consisted of a 3 hydraulic retention times (HRT) (5, 10 and 15
days) x 3 plant types [Typha, Kenaf and no plant (as control)] factorial experiment,
arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 3 replications. On
average, the removal efficiency ranged from 58 to 65 % for Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) for the various treatments, 77 to 94 % for Total Suspended Solids
(TSS), 60 to 79 % for Ammonium Nitrogen (NH+4-N), 51 to 65% for Total Kjeldahl
Nitrogen (TKN), 50 to 60% for Dissolved phosphate (DP) and 50 to 61% for Total
Orthophosphate (OP). Nitrogen and P removal efficiencies of the cells with plants
v
were 11-19 and 7-11%, respectively, higher than unplanted cells; however, plants
were not effective in COD and TSS removals. HRT contributed on removal
efficiency for TSS and COD but not in nutrients removal. Effluent TSS for the 15
days HRT (46.7 mg/L) is within the permissible limit for effluent discharge from
livestock WW in Malaysia. However, the average COD of the effluent discharge (684
mg/L) from different treatments was marginally higher than the permissible limit
(500 COD mg/L) for effluent discharge from livestock WW in Malaysia.
Typha and Kenaf plants grew well in the CW and exhibited their potential as
phytoremediation agents and possibly as a source of animal feed.
vi
Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia dalam memenuhi keperluan untuk Ijazah Master Sains
INTERGRASI PENGGUNAAN TANAH LEMBAB DIBINA UNTUK
RAWATAN AIR KUMBAHAN TERNAKAN DAN PENGELUARAN FODER
Oleh
NGO THUY DIEM TRANG
Februari 2004
Pengerusi: Professor Madya Liang Juan Boo, Ph.D.
Fakulti: Pertanian
Tanah Lembab Dibina (CW) telah digunakan secara meluas untuk merawat air sisa
dab kumbahan (WW) disebabkan keberkesanan yang tinggi untuk menyingkir bahan
pencemar dan kos operasi dan penyelenggaraan yang rendah. Tumbuhan memainkan
peranan yang penting dalam mempercekapkan proses rawatan WW di dalam CW.
Oleh sebab itu, pemilihan spesis tumbuhan yang tepat untuk ditanam di dalam CW
adalah kriteria yang penting untuk mempastikan kejayaan sistem CW. Prestasi 5
spesis tumbuhan iaitu Typha (Typha spp), Napier Kerdil (Pennisetum purperium),
Rumput Kuda (Panicum maximum) dan 2 varieti Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L) iaitu
K 465/118 (K465) dan Thai Kenaf yang ditanam di dalam WW ternakan lembu telah
diteliti selama 4 minggu. Kedudukan mengikut skor tertinggi sepsis berkenaan telah
disusun menggunakan Typha (tumbuhan yang digunakan secara meluas untuk
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fitoremediasi) sebagai asas kawalan bersandarkan kadar kematian, kadar
pertumbuhan sistem akar, kandungan protein kasar (CP) hasil bahan kering (DMY),
dan skor kesedapan. Berdasarkan keputusan kajian ini tiga spesis tumbuhan (Typha,
Napier dan Kenaf K465) telah dipilih untuk penelitian di dalam eksperimen 2.
Didalam eksperimen kedua, ketiga-tiga spesis telah ditanam dalam konsentrasi WW
yang berbeza iaitu konsentrasi rendah (COD 2,000 mg/L), sederhana (COD 7,000
mg/L) dan tinggi (COD 14,000 mg/L) didalam eksperimen faktorial 3 X 3 yang
disusun dalam rekabentuk RCBD. Hampir semua tumbuhan Napier mati pada
penghujung minggu kedua tempoh penyesuaian. Typha dan Kenaf mempunyai
bahagian atas permukaan (batang dan daun), hasil segar (FY) dan DMY tertinggi
didalam konsentrasi WW sederhana. Kandungan nutrien didalam 2 tumbuhan ini
meningkat dengan pertambahan konsentrasi WW. Hasil segar (FY) bahagian bawah
permukaan (akar) dan DMY Typha berkait secara positif dengan konsentrasi WW,
manakala hubungan negatif telah diperolehi untuk Kenaf. Penyingkiran bahan
pencemar dari WW oleh Typha adalah lebih efisien berbanding Kenaf.
Eksperimen ketiga telah dijalankan untuk memeriksa kecekapan penyingkiran bahan
cemar daripada WW ternakan lembu. Eksperimen faktorial, yang terdiri daripada 3
masa retensi hidrolik (HRT) (5, 10 dan 15 hari) X 3 jenis tumbuhan [Typha, Kenaf
dan tiada tumbuhan (sebagai kawalan)] disusun dalam rekabentuk RCBD dengan 3
replikasi. Secara keseluruhan, kecekapan penyingkiran bahan berjulat daripada 58
hingga 65% untuk COD, 77 hingga 94% untuk jumlah Pepejal Terampai (TSS), 60
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hingga 79% untuk Ammonia nitrogen (NH+4-N), 51 hingga 65% jumlah untuk
Nitrogen Kjeldahl (TKN), 50 hingga 60% untuk Fosforus terlarut (DP) dan 50 hingga
61% untuk fosfat (OP). Efisiensi penyingkiran nitrogen dan fosforus oleh tumbuhan
adalah masing-masing 11 – 19 dan 7 –11% lebih tinggi daripada sel tak bertanaman
(kawalan); walau bagaimanapun, keberkesanan tumbuhan adalah rendah untuk
menyingkir COD dan TSS. HRT menyumbang keatas kecekapan pengurangan TSS
dan COD tetapi tidak untuk pengurangan nutrien. Effluen TSS untuk 15 hari HRT
(46.7 mg/L) adalah di dalam had yang dibenarkan untuk effluen daripada WW
ternakan di Malaysia. Walau bagaimanapun, purata COD effluen (684 mg/L)
daripada rawatan yang berbeza adalah lebih tinggi daripada had yang dibenarkan (500
COD mg/L) untuk effluen daripada WW ternakan.
Typha dan Kenaf tumbuh dengan baik dalam CW dalam kajian ini dan ia
mempamerkan potensi sebagai agen fitoremediasi dan berkemungkinan sebagai
sumber makanan haiwan.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I respectfully express my appreciation and gratitude to my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Liang Juan Boo for his dedicated supervision, advice and encouragement throughout
the period of my study. My appreciation and gratitude are also extended to Assoc.
Prof. Dr. Mohammad Ismail Yaziz and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Liao Xin Di, members of my
Supervisory Committee, for their advice and suggestion during my study and in the
preparation of this thesis.
This project was partially supported by the National Kenaf Project sponsored by
MTEN. I would like to thank Dr. Jothi Malar Panandam for her help in statistical
analysis. I would like to thank to Mr. Shokri Jusoh for translating the abstract into
Bahasa Malaysia. Appreciation is also extended to the staff of the laboratory and
experimental farm of the Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
Universiti Putra Malaysia.
I would like to thank my best friends Mr. Che Minh Tung, fellow students in the
Department and all of my Vietnamese friends, both in UPM and in Vietnam, for their
friendships, guidance and encouragement.
Finally, I would like to express sincere gratitude to my parents, Ngo Ngoc Huy and
Pham Thi Leo, who made countless sacrifice for my future. Encouragements from my
fiancé’s family, sisters and brothers, and relatives are also acknowledged. Special
x
thanks to my beloved fiancé Mr. Le Hong Phuc for his love, patience, support, and
moral encouragement throughout the duration of my study in Malaysia.
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I certify that an Examination Committee met on 6th February 2004 to conduct the final examination of Ngo Thuy Diem Trang on her Master of Science thesis entitled “Integrated Use of Constructed Wetlands for Livestock Wastewater Treatment and Fodder Production” in accordance with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980 and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulations 1981. The Committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee are as follows:
LOH TECK CHWEN, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman)
ZAINAL AZNAM MOHD JELAN, Ph.D.
Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
CHE FAUZIAH ISHAK, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
HIROYUKI HIROOKA, Ph.D.
Laboratory of Animal Husbandry Resources Division of Applied Bioscience Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University Katashirakawa, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto Japan (Independent Examiner)
GULAM RUSUL RAHMAT ALI, Ph.D.
Professor/Deputy Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date: 21 APR 2004
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This thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science. The members of the Supervisory Committee are as follows:
LIANG JUAN BOO, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman)
MOHAMMAD ISMAIL BIN YAZIZ, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Faculty of Science and Environment Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
LIAO XIN DI, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
AINI IDERIS, Ph.D.
Professor/Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date:
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that is has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.
NGO THUY DIEM TRANG
Date: 22 April 2004
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DEDICATION ii
ABSTRACT iii
ABSTRAK vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ix
APPROVAL xi
DECLARATION xiii
TABLE OF CONTENTS xiv
LIST OF TABLES xvii
LIST OF FIGURES xx
LIST OF PLATE xxi
ABBREVIATIONS xxii
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... 1
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 5 2.1 Livestock Production and Environment 5
2.1.1 Livestock Production 5 2.1.2 Impact of Livestock Wastewater on the Environment 7
2.1.2.1 Impact of Organic Matter on Environment 7 2.1.2.2 Environmental Pollution by Nutrients and Other Forms 9
2.2 Environmental Regulations 11 2.3 Livestock Wastewater Treatments 14
2.3.1 Anaerobic Lagoons 15 2.3.2 Aerobic lagoons 16
2.4 Constructed Wetlands 16 2.4.1 Definition and Function 16 2.4.2 Structure of Constructed Wetlands 18 2.4.3 Type and Design 21 2.4.4 Mechanisms of Wastewater Treatment in Constructed Wetlands 25 2.4.5 Limitations of Constructed Wetlands 28
2.5 Criteria of Plants for Constructed Wetlands 29 2.6 Criteria of Plants Suitable as Fodder 30 2.7 Potential Plant Species for Constructed Wetlands and Fodder 31
2.7.1 Typha (Typha spp) 31 2.7.2 Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L) 32 2.7.3 Dwarf Napier (Pennisetum purpureum) 33 2.7.4 Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) 34
xv
3. SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE PLANT SPECIES FOR CONSTRUCTED
WETLANDS.............................................................................................................. 36 3.1 Introduction 36 3.2 Materials and Methods 38
3.2.1 Study Location 38 3.2.2 Collection and Germination of Plants 38 3.2.3 Preparation of Plant Materials 41 3.2.4 Preparation of Cattle Wastewater 41 3.2.5 Experimental Design and Treatments 42 3.2.6 Management and Measurement 43 3.2.7 Percentage of Mortality 44 3.2.8 Palatability Trial 44 3.2.9 Chemical Analysis 45 3.2.10 Ranking Procedures 46 3.2.11 Statistical Analysis 47
3.3 Results 47 3.3.1 Biomass Production and Growth of Plants 47 3.3.2 Chemical Compositions and Crude Protein Yield 49 3.3.3 Percentage of Mortality and Palatability Values 50 3.3.4 Ranking of Plant Species 52
3.4. Discussion 53 3.4.1 Biomass Production and Growth of Plants 53 3.4.2 Nutritive Values of Plants 54 3.4.3 Mortality Rate and Palatability Values 55
3.5 Conclusions 56
4. EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT CONCENTRATIONS OF CATTLE
WASTEWATER ON GROWTH OF SELECTED PLANT SPECIES............... 57 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 Materials and Methods 59
4.2.1 Experimental Design and Treatments 59 4.2.2 Preparation of Plant Materials 61 4.2.3 Preparation of Wastewater 61 4.2.4 Wastewater Sampling and pH Measurement 62 4.2.5 Plant Management and Measurement 62 4.2.6 Chemical Analysis 63 4.2.7 Statistical Analysis 63
4.3 Results 64 4.3.1 Pollution Reduction 64 4.3.2 Dry Matter and Productivity of Plant Fractions 73 4.3.3 Chemical Composition of Plant Fractions 75 4.3.4 Nutrient Yield and Nutrient Uptake by Plants 79
4.4 Discussions 81 4.4.1 Wastewater Pollutant Reduction 81 4.4.2 Productivity and Nutrient Contents of Plants 81
4.5 Conclusions 84
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5. CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR CATTLE WASTEWATER
TREATMENT........................................................................................................... 85 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Materials and Methods 87
5.2.1 Design of Constructed Wetlands Cells 87 5.2.2 Preparation of Plant Materials 89 5.2.3 Preparation of Wastewater 89 5.2.4 Experimental Design 91 5.2.5 Plant Sampling and Analysis 92 5.2.6 Wastewater Sampling and Analysis 93 5.2.7 Statistical Analysis 94
5.3 Results 95 5.3.1 Wastewater Pollutants Removal Efficiency 95
5.3.1.1 Chemical Oxygen Demand 95 5.3.1.2 Total Suspended Solids 96 5.3.1.3 Ammonium Nitrogen 97 5.3.1.4 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen 98 5.3.1.5 Dissolved phosphate 99 5.3.1.6 Orthophosphate 100 5.3.1.7 pH Values 101
5.3.2 Fresh and Dry Matter Yield of Plants 102 5.3.3 Nutritive Values and Nutrient Yields of Plants 105
5.4 Discussions 108 5.4.1 Pollutants Removal Efficiency 108 5.4.2 Performance of Plants 114
5.5 Conclusions 115
6. GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................... 118 6.1 General Discussion 118 6.2 Conclusions and Recommendations 122
REFERENCES........................................................................................................ 124 APPENDIX A.......................................................................................................... 132 APPENDIX B .......................................................................................................... 139 BIODATA OF THE AUTHOR ............................................................................. 140
xvii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 Cattle waste characteristics in two different farms in Malaysia 6 2.2 Proposed effluent standards for existing farms (mg/L) 13 2.3 Proposed effluent standards for new farms in Malaysia (mg/L) 13 2.4 Effluent standards for animal husbandry in Taiwan 13 2.5 Performance of vegetated and unvegetated wetlands beds 20 2.6 Typical Design Features for Constructed Wetlands 24 2.7 Performance of removal efficiency (%) of FWS and SSF systems 24 2.8 Nutritive values of Guinea grass cut at different ages 35 3.1 Score for percent (%) difference from Typha 46 3.2 Dry matter content (%), fresh and dry matter yields (g/m2), stem
height and root length (cm) of the plant species
48 3.3 Chemical compositions (% DM) and CP yield (g/m2) of the plant
species
50 3.4 Percentage of mortality (%) of the different plant species 51 3.5 Palatability scores given based on amount consumed and eating
sequence by the goats
51 3.6 Ranking of the various plant species based on percentage of mortality,
root length increase, CP content, DMY and palatability values
52 4.1 Initial concentration of COD, TSS, NH+
4-N, DP (mg/L), and pH in the 3 WW treatments
65
4.2 The weekly effluent concentration for COD (mg/L) of different
treatments
66 4.3 The weekly effluent concentration for TSS (mg/L) of different
treatments
67
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4.4 The weekly effluent concentration for NH+
4-N (mg/L) of different treatments
68
4.5 The weekly effluent concentration for DP (mg/L) of different
treatments
69 4.6 The weekly pH values (unit) of different treatment 70 4.7 The amount of tap water added to the experimental units over time
(litres)
71 4.8 The weekly concentration of COD, TSS, NH+
4-N and DP (mg/L), pH (unit) and the amount of water adding (L) in 3 WW concentrations without plant
72 4.9 Dry matter (DM) content (%), fresh yield (FY), DM yield (DMY), and
crude protein yield (CPY) (g/m2) of above-surface fraction of Typha and Kenaf grown in different wastewater concentrations
74 4.10 Dry matter (DM) content (%), fresh yield (FY), DM yield (DMY) and
CP yield (CPY) (g/m2) of under-surface fraction of Typha and Kenaf grown in different wastewater concentrations
76 4.11 Chemical composition (% DM) of above-surface fraction of Typha
and Kenaf grown in different wastewater concentrations
77 4.12 Chemical composition (% DM) of under-surface fraction of Typha
and Kenaf grown in different wastewater concentrations
78 4.13 N and P at initial and final experiment (g/m2), N and P uptake
(g/m2/day) by Typha and Kenaf in under- and above-surface fractions in different WW concentration
80 5.1 Percent removal efficiency (%) of COD for various treatments 96 5.2 Percent removal efficiency (%) of TSS for various treatments 97 5.3 Percent removal efficiency (%) of NH+
4-N for various treatments 98 5.4 Percent removal efficiency (%) of TKN for various treatments 99 5.5 Percent removal efficiency (%) of DP for various treatments 100 5.6 Percent removal efficiency (%) of OP for various treatments 101
xix
5.7 pH values of various plant type and HRT in the influent and effluent (unit)
102
5.8 Fresh yield (kg/m2) (FY) and dry matter yield (kg/m2) (DMY) of
under- and above-surface fractions, and root length (RL) and stem height (SH) (cm) of Typha and Kenaf at the initial and final of stages of the study
104 5.9 Nutrient contents (% DM) and nutrient yields (g/m2) of under- and
above-surface fractions of Typha and Kenaf at the initial and final stages of the experiment
106 5.10 Nutrient contents (% DM) and nutrient yields (g/m2) of above-surface
fractions of Typha (new and old shoot) and Kenaf (leaves and stem) at the end of the study
107
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Cross section of the reed bed system at Großbeeren, Germany
(horizontal flow)
22
2.2 Cross section of the reed bed system at Marienhöhe, Germany
(vertical flow)
23 2.3 Generalized nitrogen cycle in the aquatic environment 27 3.1 Diagram of the overall of experimental arrangement in experiment 1 43 3.2 The increase in stem height and root length (cm) in 4 weeks for K465
Kenaf (K1), Thai Kenaf (K2), Typha (T), Guinea (G) and Napier (N)
49 4.1 The overall arrangement of the experiment 2 60 4.2 Effect of different WW concentrations [C1 (low), C2 (medium), and
C3 (high)] on biomass yield in both fractions (above- and under-surface) of Typha (T) and Kenaf (K)
73 5.1 The diagram of each CW cell (side view) 88 5.2 The overall experimental design of the third experiment 91 5.3 Nitrogen and Phosphorus yields (g/m2) ((a) and (b), respectively) and
the amount of N and P taken up ((c) and (d), respectively) by Typha and Kenaf for under-surface (Un-gr) and above-surface (Ab-gr) fractions
108
xxi
LIST OF PLATES
Plate Page
3.1 The overall view of the experimental materials at the beginning of
experiment
38 3.2 The five selected plant species for experiment 1 40 5.1 The overall view of the nine-cell subsurface-flow CW system at the
beginning of the experiment
88 5.2 Preparation of cattle WW, filtering through the screen 90 5.3 The overall view of a nine subsurface-flow CW system (at the end of
the experiment)
94
xxii
ABBREVIATIONS
CW Constructed Wetlands
WW Wastewater
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
OM Organic Matter
TKN Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
NH+4-N Ammonium Nitrogen
OP Orthophosphate
DP Dissolved phosphate
TSS Total Suspended Solids
CP Crude Protein
DM Dry Matter
DMY Dry Matter Yield
FY Fresh Yield
CPY Crude Protein Yield
ADF Acid Detergent Fibre
NDF Neutral Detergent Fibre
RL Root Length
SH Stem Height
N Nitrogen
P Phosphorus
xxiii
AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemists
APHA American Public Health Association
HRT Hydraulic Retention Time
mg/L milligram per litter
pH Hydrogen Ion Concentration
cm Centimetre
g/m2 gram per meter square
kg/m2 kilogram per meter square
SSF Subsurface Flow
FWS Free-Water Surface
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The trend toward large livestock operations has caused an increase in the volume and
concentration of animal wastes on production farms, which can potentially desolate
the environment. This is because many large livestock farms do not have the land on
which to spread the manure, which is generally considered to be the most common
way used to dispose livestock manure. Confined animal operations continually
generate huge amounts of animal wastes, and therefore, these establishments must
have a proper waste management system to adequately handle the wastes.
The environmental problem from cattle production in Malaysia is associated mainly
with the intensive feedlot system where large quantities of cattle waste are produced.
Unfortunately, feedlot operators have not invested enough in the treatment of their
cattle wastes due to weak and intermittent enforcement of regulations to control the
discharge of cattle wastes. Most of feedlot operators conveniently discharge their
cattle wastes directly into nearby waterways (Jalaludin and Halim, 1998). Although
cattle wastewater (WW) contains nutrients, particular nitrogen (N) and phosphorus
(P), which are potential nutrients for crops, the amount of WW produced in intensive
livestock farms is often far in excess of agronomic requirements. This has led to
repeated WW applications at rates that are greater than crop requirements, leading to
