Food hygiene

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Nutrition & Food ScienceVol. 35 No. 3, 2005

pp. 169-183# Emerald Group Publishing Limited

0034-6659DOI 10.1108/00346650510594921

Integrating food hygiene intoquantity food production

systemsKeyvan Amjadi

School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Eastern MediterraneanUniversity, Gazimagusa, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

Kashif HussainSchool of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Eastern Mediterranean

University, Gazimagusa, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

Abstract

Purpose – The aim of the study is to integrate food hygiene into quantity food production systems.Design/methodology/approach – The present study illustrates the concepts of food hygiene andstandard operation of food production systems in detail, and it integrates both of these conceptsevidencing that an integrated system can be used as a primary function of every establishment withregard to serving food safely.Findings – A successful food hygiene system must consist of four components: maintaining safeconditions for the food from the time of purchasing to the time it is served to the customer,development of hygienic behavior in the employees that come in contact, in any way, with thecustomers’ meal, maintaining clean and sanitary facilities, and application of an adequate PestControl Management system.Originality/value – By integrating food hygiene into the operational systems, a powerful messagewill be sent to the personnel; that food hygiene is a primary function of the establishment and must atall times be enforced.

Keywords Food manufacturing processes, Hygiene, Food safety

Paper type Viewpoint

IntroductionFood hygiene in a food service operation is the responsibility of everyone working inthat establishment. The proper allocation of hygienic duties ensures safe food. Hygienicregulations established by local, state, and national bodies must be consistentlyenforced by management. Hygienic regulations are usually outlined in public healthcodes. Proper food hygiene; however, do not just happen because a government agencyhas established appropriate standards. They are made to happen by concerned andcommitted personnel of a foodservice establishment. Proper food hygiene results inhealthful, clean, wholesome food, an orderly environment, and pleasant workingconditions. Personnel, as part of the environment, must also be clean and healthy ifhygienic conditions are to be maintained. In creating an effective hygienic system, thereare four issues of concern; food, people, facilities, and vermin. Unfortunately, since foodhygiene is treated as a system on its own, it usually takes a back seat to the operationalsystems during the peak hours. Therefore, this paper is about the integration of foodhygiene systems into already existing operational standards.

Food hygiene systemsFood borne illness definition and causes‘‘Food borne illness is a disease that is carried or transmitted to human beings by food’’(Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association). Most victims of food

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borne illnesses do not readily identify the source of their symptoms, but the public isbecoming more aware that certain types of illnesses may be food-related. Allfoodservice operations have the potential to cause food borne illness through errors inpurchasing, receiving, storing, preparing, and serving food (Educational Foundation ofthe National Restaurant Association, 1992). Generally the causes to food borneillnesses can be classified into three distinct categories (hazards); Biological, chemical,and physical. Knight and Lendal (1989) attribute the following critical offences in foodhandling as leading operation and/or behavioral errors that can lead to outbreaks offood borne illnesses in food and beverage operations:

. Failure to properly cook or heat food.

. Failure to properly cool food.

. Infected employees who practice poor personal hygiene.

. Foods prepared a day or more before serving.

. Raw contaminated ingredients incorporated into foods that receive no furthercooking.

. Food allowed to remain at bacteria incubation temperatures.

. Failure to reheat cooked foods to proper temperatures.

. Cross contamination.

Contamination and hazard are words that are commonly used when discussing foodhygiene in food and beverage operations. It is important to understand their meaningas they apply to food hygiene. Educational Foundation of the National RestaurantAssociation defines contamination as ‘‘the unintended presence of harmful substancesor micro-organisms in food or water (p. 4)’’. Furthermore, they define hazard as‘‘unacceptable contamination, unacceptable microbial growth, or unacceptable survivalof micro-organisms of a concern to food safety, or persistence of toxins’’.

Types of hazards in food and beverage operation are:

. Biological hazard – biological hazard is a danger posed by harmful bacteria,viruses, fungi, or parasites.

. Chemical hazard – Chemical hazard is a danger posed by chemical substancescontaining food all along the food supply chain, contamination of food with foodservice chemicals such as detergents and sanitizers, pesticides, use of excessivequantities of additives and preservatives, acidic action of foods with containerssuch as copper, brass, or tin, and contamination of food with toxic metals;uncovered meat can become poisoned through contact with refrigerator shelvescontaining cadmium.

. Physical hazard – physical hazard is the danger posed by the presence ofparticles or items that are not supposed to be a part of a food product such aschips of glass from a broken light bulb or metal fragments such as that producedwhen using a worn can opener.

The micro-worldThe existence of this invisible world was first discovered in 1693 by the Dutch lensmaker, Anton Von Leeuwenhoek. However it took another 200 years before the Frenchscientist Louis Pasteur, and a small number of his associates, became convinced that

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certain types of micro-organisms cause disease. Since that time, the study of micro-organisms has led to the control of the spread of many infectious diseases. Eventuallythis research revealed the connection between disease and the contamination of foodand water. Of all micro-organisms, bacteria are of the greatest concern to thefoodservice manager. Bacteria are more commonly involved in food borne illnessthan any other biological forms. Knowing what bacteria are, and particularly knowingthe environment they flourish in, is a first step in controlling them. A bacterium is aliving organism made up of a single cell (Educational Foundation of the NationalRestaurant Association, 1992). Bacteria in food can cause illness in two ways:

. Some bacteria are infectious, disease causing agents called pathogens.

. Some bacteria even though not infectious in themselves, they discharge toxinsthat poison humans when the food is ingested.

Environmental issues concerning bacterial growth – given the right conditions,bacteria reproduce in a very simple manner. The vegetative cell enlarges and thendivides into two. Each of these two bacteria may then divide into two more cells, and soon. The result of this kind of growth is a tremendous increase in the numbers ofbacteria in a relatively short period of time. Bacteria enlarges and splits into two everytwenty minutes (Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association,1992). Through such rapid reproduction, bacteria form a colony and increase the risk offood borne illness.

The bacteria use the food not only as a source of needed nutrients to grow; but also,they use food as a medium of transportation into the human body. Given the numbersthey overpower the human immune system and cause illness. It should now be clearwhy it is so important to control the process of bacterial reproduction. The conditionsimportant to the bacteria’s reproductive process are:

. Food. Like all living things, bacteria need nutrients to maintain their functions.They take in these nutrients through their cell walls.

. Acidity. PH level is measured from 0 to 14 with a PH of 7 being neutral. FoodPH below 7 is acidic and above 7 is alkaline. Most bacteria will not grow wellat PH levels below 4.6. Bacteria can survive PH levels of 4.6 to 9 but it grows bestat PH levels of 6.6 to 7.5.

. Time. When cooling food you must reach a temperature of 70�F within 2 hoursso chilling food must be done in small batches with maximum surface exposed.For thicker products such as stews use of an ice-bath is recommended.

. Temperature. Health codes specify 45�F to 140�F as the temperature danger zonefor potentially hazardous foods. Temperature control and time are the keyfactors in preventing bacterial growth.

. Oxygen. Some bacteria grow only when supplied with free oxygen, theseare called aerobes. Some bacteria grow only when free oxygen is excluded,these are called anaerobes. Most of the bacteria that cause food borne illnessare facultative meaning they can grow with or without free oxygen.

. Moisture. Activity of the water in food is described as water activity, and isexpressed as Aw. Most fresh foods have water activity values that are close to theoptimum level for growth of micro organisms (.97-.99) the lowest water activityvalue at which bacterial pathogens will occur is 0.85 Aw.

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Under ideal conditions the growth rate of bacteria follows a distinct pattern. If youwere to touch a slice of ham with your thumb, you could plant several thousandbacteria on its surface. Some of these organisms will not survive the change inenvironment, so for a period of time there will be fewer organisms. The period ofadoption to a new environment is called lag phase of bacterial growth. After a longerperiod of time (from an hour to several days, depending on the conditions), the bacteriawould start to multiply very rapidly, this accelerated growth is called log phase. Whenthe bacteria have increased to such large numbers that they would have to compete forspace and nourishment, they no longer multiply so rapidly and some may start dying.The period of competition is the stationary phase. The last phase, or decline phase, iswhen bacteria cells begin to die more quickly due to lack of nutrients or because oftheir own waste products. Bacteria should not be allowed to grow past the lag phase.During the lag phase the foodservice manager has the most control.

What is food hygieneFood hygiene is the creation and maintenance of healthful or hygienic conditions. In afood service situation, the word food hygiene means wholesome food, handled andprepared in a way that, the food is not contaminated with disease causing agents(Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, 1992). Factors to beconsidered in food safety are:

(1) Food. Its safe condition initially, and its protection in preparation and service.Not all food is safe when it arrive in the operation. Any animal products, such asfresh poultry, may already be contaminated by the time it is received. Thefoodservice manager must work with reputable suppliers and implement tightreceiving procedures to help ensure safe food. Once food arrives, it must bestored, prepared, and served using methods that maintain its safety.

(2) People. Those involved in handling food both as employees and customers.People pose a major risk to safe food. The success of a foodservice manager indealing with a food borne illness problem depends on how the human factor ishandled. A manager must carefully train, monitor, and reinforce the principlespresented during training. Good personal hygiene is the key to minimizing risk tofood safety. The following are some of the issues in personal hygiene that must beopenly communicated and addressed with each and every employee who worksin a food and beverage operation; furthermore, procedures and standard must bedeveloped to lead employees to the practice of good personal hygiene:

. Hands must be washed frequently.

. Food should be handled as little as possible.

. Daily baths or showers is essential.

. Hair should be clean and covered.

. Nose, ears, and mouth should not be touched.

. Do not cough or sneeze over food.

. Jewelry, rings, and watches must not be worn.

. Cuts and burns must be covered with a waterproof dressing.

. No smoking in the food production areas.

. Clean pressed uniformmust be worn at all times.

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. All oven and cleaning cloth must be clean.

. Fingers must not be used to taste food.

. Do not sit on food preparation areas.

. Staff should be healthy and keep fit.

(3) Facilities. Hygienic condition of physical plant and the equipment used infood service operation. Eliminating hard-to-clean work areas, faulty oroverloaded refrigerators or other equipment, and dirty surroundings make upthe third focus of food hygiene. The subject of built in food hygiene in terms ofmaterials, installation and layout of equipment, design, adequacy of utilitiesand construction should also be of concern in this area.

. Cleaning of premises and equipment.

. Proper lighting.

. Plumbing and its compliance to health codes.

. Floors, walls, and ceilings.

. Doors and windows – grids or meshes must be fitted to prevent entry andinfestation of birds, insects, and rodents.

. Correct cleaning procedures and proper sanitizing of equipment before eachuse.

. Use of non-toxic materials for cleaning.

. Availability of hand washing sinks for employee usage.

(4) Vermin. The environment free from insects and rodents initially andmaintaining such environment in foodservice operation. Eliminating conditionsattractive to pest infestation is the concern of any food hygiene plan that isdeemed to be effective. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a system thatcombines preventive tactics and control methods to reduce pest infestation. Itrequires the foodservice manager and licensed pest control operator (PCO) tofollow a detailed monitoring program and to make decisions on whatpreventive and control measures to take based on a variety of non-chemical andchemical options. The goals of IPM are long term elimination of pests andreduced pesticide exposure for customers. Three common sense rules indeveloping an IPM program are:

(1) Deprive pests of food, water, and shelter by following good food hygieneand housekeeping practices.

(2) Keep pests out of the foodservice facility by vermin-proofing the building.

(3) Work with a licensed pest control operator to eliminate the pests that doenter.

HACCP systemThe objectives of a food hygiene program are to protect food from contaminatingsubstances and to minimize the effects of any contamination that does occur (Minorand Cichy, 1984). The hazard analysis critical control points (HACCP) system,developed in the 1960s to ensure the safety of food prepared for astronauts, is set up tomaximize food safety. The system combines three elements – principles of food

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microbiology, quality control, and risk assessment – and emphasizes a movement awayfrom the inspection of facilities to one that centers on the process of preparing andserving safe food (National Assessment Institute, 1994; Mill, 2001). Bryan (1981) hasdefined hazard analysis in foodservice establishments as the investigation atdisclosing potentially hazardous nature of a food; the presence, at any stage ofhandling, storage, or processing, of pathogenic food borne organisms; employeepractices that could result in transfer of pathogens to food; time-temperature conditionsthat might allow survival or multiplication of pathogens in or on the food, or would beinadequate to destroy a sufficient proportion of pathogens during reheating;procedures that might contaminate potentially hazardous foods after heat processing;environmental conditions that would allow maintenance and transfer of pathogenicfood borne micro-organisms on food contact surfaces and finally, toxic substances andpathogens by water, air, or vectors (e.g. rodents and insects). The HACCP systemconsists of six steps:

(1) Identify hazards and assess their severity and risk. This involves examiningthe menu and recipes to identify potentially hazardous foods. Reducing thenumber of steps involved in preparing menu items will reduce the risk ofcontamination.

(2) Determine critical control points. Four important control points are goodpersonal hygiene, avoidance of cross- contamination, cooking, and cooling.

(3) Implement control measures and establish criteria to assure control. Proceduresmust be observable and measurable. For example: the directions for fixing abaked chicken breast should include, washing hands; washing, rinsing, andsanitizing the cutting board and knife that are used for slicing the chickenbreast; maintaining the actual product temperature of 160�F.

(4) Monitor crucial control points and record data. After receiving turkey andchecking that the temperature is lower than 45�F, it is important to check thatafter storing it, the temperature in the refrigerator is 40�F or lower and that theraw turkey is not stored above cooked food.

(5) Take appropriate action when control criteria are not met. You might find forexample, that the chef is preparing turkey breast all at one time. The turkey iswithin the temperature danger zone for longer than it should be. Correctiveaction is required that will reduce the amount of time turkey is within thedanger zone. New procedures have to be developed such that turkey breasts areprepared in smaller batches and returned to the cooler immediately uponcompletion.

(6) Confirm that the system is working as planned. For each step in the processof receiving through reheating for service, four areas are determined: thecritical control point, the potential hazard, appropriate standards, and whatevercorrective action is needed if the standards are not met. For example, thefirst control point is in receiving beef and vegetables. Contamination andspoilage are potential hazard in both cases. Receiving standards should be setsuch that the temperature of beef is at 45�F or lower, packaging in bothproducts is in tact, there is no odor, stickiness, or cross-contamination fromother foods on the truck, and there are no signs of insects or rodent activity. Ifany of these conditions are present, the proper corrective action is to refusedelivery. A similar procedure is spelled out for each step in the process.

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Building an effective food hygiene systemThe key to an effective food hygiene system is the emphasis on the food itself and howit flows through the operation from purchasing to serving. The points in an operationwhere contamination or growth of micro-organisms can occur must be identified, andthen control procedures based on that hazard must be established and implemented.The following model offers possible movements of food through a foodserviceoperation (see Figure 1).

While the food hygiene system concentrates on the flow of food we must not loosesight of the other factors that pose risk to food safety. As discussed earlier people posea risk to food safety; however, through proper selection process, training employees inhygienic behavior, and reinforcement of desired habits, the restaurant manager canminimize the level of risk posed by people to the safety of food. Such programs thatdeal with developing desired habits in people are called good manufacturingprocedures (GMP). Desired behaviors are turned into policies and procedures,communicated to employees, and reinforced until adequate level of competency isreached. Next, the issue of hygienic facilities must be addressed. Most restaurantshave some kind of cleaning assignment for employees that is commonly called side-work duty. While one may criticize the wording, ‘‘side-work’’ claiming that the wrongmessage is being implied and it causes food hygiene to take a back seat to taking careof customers, it must never-the-less be admitted that the results are the importantissue here. First through GMP proper behaviors in maintaining clean and hygienicenvironment are developed. Then the issue of cleaning and disinfecting (C&D) must beaddressed. With small changes in the already existing cleaning programs one canalter them into a C&D program. Table I is just an example of what a C&D programmay look like.

ServingPurchasing Receiving Storage Preparation

Chilling

Cooking

Reheating

Figure 1.Food flow

Table I.C&D program for

walk-in

Location

What

Who

Cleaning

Frequency

Chem

ical

Rinsing

Frequency

Chem

ical

San

itizing

Frequency

Chem

ical

Ratio

Floor Emp. Gen. Shift Soap Hotwater

Shift Water Airdry

Shift Bleach andwater

200PPM

Walls Emp. Detail week Soap Hotwater

week Water Airdry

week Bleach andwater

100PPM

Walkin

Ceiling Emp. Detail Qtr. Soap Hotwater

Qtr. Water Airdry

Qtr. Bleach andwater

100PPM

Shelves Emp. Detail week Soap Hotwater

week Water Airdry

week Bleach andwater

200PPM

Driptray

Emp. Detail week Soap Hotwater

week Water Airdry

week Bleach andwater

200PPM

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Operating systemsThe recipeThe first step in designing operational systems in a foodservice environment is theevaluation of recipes. A number of recipes relevant to the foodservice concept aregathered and put under scrutiny. Every recipe is tested for its marketing potential andprofitability, and then the complexity of making the food is compared to the ability ofthe staff and once approved it will undergo the design process for final approval beforeit finds its place on the menu. The following is a recipe for Paprika Chicken that will beused to demonstrate the process of operational design and how to integrate foodhygiene into the system:

Paprkas Csirke (Paprika chicken)2 whole fryer chickensSalt as needed2 Tbsp oil1 C onions – finely chopped1/2 Tsp minced garlic1 Tbsp sweet Hungarian paprika1 C chicken stock2 Tbsp flour1 C sour cream

Cut each of the chickens into eight pieces. Rinse chicken, pat with paper towels, and saltgenerously. Heat oil in skillet before, adding chicken to it skin side down. When golden brownturn to other side, Remove when browned.Pour off fat, add onions and garlic. Cook on medium heat (8-10 minutes) until lightly colored.Remove from heat. Stir in paprika and stir to coat onions. Return to heat and add chickenstock. Bring to a boil stirring in brown bits from pan.Return chicken to skillet. Bring to boil again. Cover tightly. Simmer chicken on low heat for20-30 minutes or until juice from thigh runs yellow. Remove to platter. Skim surface fat frompan. In a bowl stir the flour into the sour cream. Stir sour cream into the simmering juices.Simmer 6-8 minutes or until thick and smooth. Return chicken and drippings from platter toskillet. Baste meat with sauce. Simmer 3-4 minutes to heat through.

Once the recipe is chosen it is important to alter procedures so that it can be customizedto the facilities, ability of the workers, the type and concept of the establishment, thetype of service and how the food is presented, the available equipment, purchasingdecisions, and finally the workflow.

The recipe on hand here is a hygienic nightmare. There are issues from the use ofpaper towels to leaving chicken in danger zone temperature. This is not to say thatfood is at risk of being contaminated here, the important issue is development of righthabits. If it’s acceptable to leave chicken out while the onions are being glazed and thesauce is being prepared, the wrong message will be given to the cook or if it is ok to usepaper towels on the food maybe a regular towel will work to. Once hygienic standardsare set; it must be reinforced at every level to support the right behavior. The necessityto alter this recipe is now evident, but before doing so we must first understand howthe food will travel within the operation.

Flow of foodThe following model (see Figure 2) will help us better understand how the foodinvolved in the given recipe will flow through a restaurant operation. Few changes to

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the original recipe was made to demonstrate the decision making process at this point.First we should look at the issue of the chicken itself. The recipe calls for whole fryerchicken; however, we know pre-cut fryer chicken can be obtained at a reasonable price.Purchasing pre-cut fryer chicken will serve the restaurant operator in three distinctways; 1) elimination of a preparation area and skilled staff to cut the chicken,2) consistency in product size and shape, and possibly the most important reason,3) avoiding contamination and cross contamination during preparation of chicken. Thesecond change has to do with the cooking method. Instead of shallow frying; themethod of baking is used. The objective here is to gain the ability to hold the productfor a longer period of time and still avoid excessive loss of quality. Other benefits ofbaking the chicken will be lower usage of oil; hence, more nutritionally consciousproduct, saving time and labor during cooking time, and finally from a hygienicstandpoint, less handling of the chicken by the employees; in other words, a lower risk

Onion/garlic Flour

Rinsing

Refrigerator

Oil Chicken

Purchasing and receiving raw materials

Preparation

Chilling

Cooking

Cutting

Dry storage

Reheating

Serving

Storing in refrigerator

Storing

Peeling

Consumption

Plating

Simmering Baking Sautéing

Other uses

Holding

Sour cream Seasoning

• Flow of sour cream• Flow of oil• Flow of chicken• Flow of vegetables • Flow of flour• Flow of seasoning• Flow of sauce• Flow of baked chicken

Figure 2.Ingredient flowchart for

Paprkas Csirke

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of contamination. Third and final change to the recipe is cooking the chicken and thesauce separately. This allows for longer holding time for the sauce and the chicken,faster chilling and reheating of leftovers, avoid overcooking and shredding of chicken,a more attractive product in terms of presentation, and alternative use of leftoverchicken for quality purposes, for example leftover chicken can be used in the next dayssoup. This final change has its downside as well; this change will limit the blending offlavors between the chicken and sauce which can partially be overcome by increasingthe richness and flavor of the sauce and final blending during the plating stage. Thebenefits here overpower the downside. Once the changes are made and the flow of foodis determined, the operational system can be designed. The first step in designing anoperational system once methodology has been established is to identify the controlpoints. Control points are controllable steps in production within which; if an errorhappens in production, the quality of the final product can be negatively influenced. Infood hygiene; however, control point and critical control points are generally related tothe HACCP system. Loken (1995) defines control point (CP) any point, step, orprocedure at which biological, physical, or chemical factors can be controlled. Shefurther defines a critical control point (CCP) as a point, step, or procedure in the producthandling process where controls can be applied and food safety hazard can beprevented, eliminated, or reduced to acceptable levels. Figure 2 is a detailed IngredientFlowchart for Paprkas Csirke that is based on the flow chart in figure 1 and is made forpaprika chicken recipe that is being discussed in this paper.

For the purpose of this paper we will only onion as an example of how systemis developed and food hygiene is integrated into it. First we will identify the issuesconcerning food hygiene. The following model (see Figure 3) is how the onion flowsthrough the operation based on the information taken from Figure 2. We must keep inmind that once such models are developed, they must be tested for accuracy and

Onion/garlic

Rinsing

Purchasing and receiving raw materials

Preparation

Cooking

Cutting

Dry storage

Storing

Peeling

Sautéing

Biological hazard

Biological hazard

Figure 3.Flow of onion and garlic

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then hazards must be identified. The identified hazard here is growth or presence ofmold in receiving or during storage. We are also concerned with cooking at the righttemperature to destroy the existing micro organisms.

To identify the critical control points in the preceding model a critical control pointdecision tree maybe used. Adapted from FDA’s 1993 food code, Figure 4 will helpidentify critical control points. As shown in green lines, receiving is the only criticalpoint present in the flow of onions. Since, the subsequent cooking of the sauce willeliminate or reduce biological hazard to acceptable levels, sauteing onions is notconsidered to be a CCP.

Once the critical control points are identified, instructions must be developed toeliminate or reduce the hazard to acceptable levels. Cichy (1994) suggests a checklistmethod for receiving. The instructions can be written in a general way, so that theyapply to all vegetables as listed below:

. All purchasing must only be made from reputable sources.

. The delivery truck must be checked for hygienic conditions by a qualified andtrained member of staff (at this point the representative must also consider

Apply to each step in the food process that has an identified hazard

Q 1. Does preventive measure(s) exist for the identified hazard?

Yes No Modify step, process, or product

Is control measure at this step necessary for safety? Yes

No Not a CCP Stop*

Q 2. Does this step eliminate or reduce the likely occurrence of a hazard to an acceptable level?

No Yes

Q 3. Could identified hazard(s) occur in excess of acceptable Level(s) or could these, increase to unacceptable level(s)?

Yes No Not a CCP Stop*

Q 4. Will a subsequent step eliminate identified hazard(s) or reduce the likely occurrence to an acceptable level?

Yes No

Not a CCP Stop* Critical Control

*Proceed to next step in the described process

Source: Cichy, 1994, p. 18

Figure 4.Critical control point

decision tree

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hygienic conditions of the truck driver as well as whatever transportingequipment being used).

. All vegetables must be sensory tested for appropriate quality and hygienicconditions.

. Deliveries must be verified against operations purchase specifications andpurchase orders.

. The invoice must be checked for accuracy in quality, quantity, and price.

. All vegetables must be stored and clearly dated immediately after receiving,using first-in, first-out method.

. Adequate equipment and facilities are present, used, cleaned, sanitized, andmaintained to reduce risk.

. All products that are not in compliance with the stated standards must berejected and recorded.

Workflow and employee responsibilitiesGoing back to the recipe; in order to design the operational system, we must now breakthe recipe down into different steps and departments in the kitchen. This will helpdetermine the level of expertise needed in the kitchen, development of job descriptions,design of facilities, and determination of necessary resources and technology that isneeded to be available to the staff in order for them to do their job adequately. This stepalso plays a major role in the development of standard operating procedures. Thefollowing are the steps necessary to make the stated recipe:

. Preparation of vegetables.

. Making the sauce.

. Baking the chicken.

. Plating the dish.

Table II identifies responsibilities assigned to each department in the kitchen to makechicken paprika.

In Figure 5, employees responsible for each area and the first level supervisor/coordinator, are identified in an organizational chart format so their relationship to the

Table II.Allocation of task towork area

Hot plate area Hot preparation area Cold preparation area

Plate the meal Cook chicken Chop onionsHolding food for service Cook sauce Mince garlic

Working Chef

Cold PreparationLine Cook Hot PreparationFigure 5.Staff organizational chart

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process of making the product can be established and discussed with them, formally(recipe, job description, training material, etc.) or informally (daily reinforcement of thesystem).

Integrated systemsThe standard recipe and the application of food hygieneOnce the preliminary work on defining steps involved in making the food; as well asclarification of employee responsibilities and assessment of risk in food hygiene issuesare determined; the process of standardizing recipe can begin. The followingdemonstrates how a standardized recipe is written:

Finely chopped onionsDepartment: Cold preparationYield:Product: Raw onionsTools:10’’ French knife 1Cutting Board 1Steel 1Food grade container 2

Wash your hands thoroughly and sanitize your work area.Gather all necessary tools and place them in your work area.Spray sanitize (100 PPM) your work area and tools and allow time to air-dry.Check production sheet to find out howmuch to prepare.Get the onions from the storage, using one of the food grade containers. While doing so ensurethere are no signs of mold or other unsafe conditions.Cut the top of the onion off and peel the outer layer and then cut in half vertically.Make a few incisions horizontally 1/4’’ apart and repeat vertically holding the 1/2 onion flatside of the onion down.Chop the onions and discard the end once you get to it.Place the prepared onions into the second food grade container and label with date ofpreparation, your name, name of the product, and a 48 hour expiration date. Then place thecontainer at the designated area in the walk-in cooler. Ensure that the walk-in coolertemperature is at below 45�F, inform supervisor of any problems.Wash and sanitize your knives and steel and place them in the appropriate location.Place the first food grade container and cutting board in the dish area to be washed.Clean and sanitize your work area including the splash areas.Wash your hands thoroughly before you do anything else.Inform supervisor of completion of task so the work can be inspected.

This is possibly the most important communication tool within food operation.Through this document employee will clearly understand what is expected of themas well as how to properly perform the task. In this example the expected behavior,issues in cleaning and sanitizing and quality control methodology are added to thedocument.

The employee is clearly instructed to wash hands before and after work, clean andsanitize the work area, properly label the prepared product, check storage conditions,and finally the employee is asked to have his/her work inspected by a supervisor.

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From an operational standpoint this document can lower the cost of trainingdramatically since the organizations expectations are clearly stated.

The role of the managementManagement is responsible for serving food that is nutritious, appeals to the senses,and is safe to eat; Minor and Cichy (1984). While this is an overly simplified descriptionof management responsibility towards serving food; yet, it does get the point across.National Assessment Institute (1994) offers the following as the responsibility ofmanagement:

. Identifying health hazards in the daily operation of the restaurant.

. Developing and implementing policies, procedures, and standards to preventfood borne illnesses.

. Coordinating training, supervision and direction of food handling andpreparation while taking corrective action as required to protect the health ofcustomers and employees.

. Inspecting the operation periodically to ensure that policies and procedures arebeing followed correctly.

Aside from stated responsibilities, a manager is also responsible for providingnecessary resources for the employees to get the job done right. One can not ask anemployee to sanitize the work area if no sanitizer is available. Providing or allowingenough time to the employee to do the job right is one of these resources. Figure 6provides a possible time graph on how long it will take to prepare onions based on thedeveloped standardized recipe. The green area represents fixed time. Regardless ofhow much onions are prepared it will not influence how long it takes to wash hands orclean the area. The gray area represents variable time. It is the actual time employeespends on preparing the onions.

In Figure 6 example if the employee prepares 100 onions he/she should be given 125minutes to do the job; however, if 200 onions are to be prepared time allocation willchange to 175 minutes. Through this type of graphing a manager is able to properlystaff the kitchen and forecast labor cost and finally reflect the extra cost into themenu pricing.

Wash hands 5 min

Gather equipment 5 min

Spray sanitize 3 min

Check production sheet 2 min

Get onions 10 min

Peel ( 15 sec / onion) 25 min

Chop ( 15 sec / onion) 25 min

Store 10 min

Put tools away 10 min

Clean up and sanitize 25 min

Wash hands 5 minT 5 10 13 15 25 50 75 85 95 120 125

Figure 6.Time allocation graph

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ConclusionGood food hygiene ensures that customers are served wholesome food; that, will notmake them ill, or do other harm. A successful food hygiene system must consist offour components:

(1) maintaining safe conditions for the food from the time of purchasing to the timeit is served to the customer,

(2) development of hygienic behavior in the employees that come in contact, in anyway, with the customers’ meal,

(3) maintaining clean and sanitary facilities, and

(4) application of an adequate Pest Control Management system.

While food hygiene is concerned with a wide range of activities within a food andbeverage operation and is ultimately the responsibility of management, one can notoverlook the role; that, each and every employee plays in the implementation of thefood hygiene system. By integrating food hygiene into the operational systems (recipes,checklists, etc.), a powerful message will be sent to the personnel; that, food hygieneis a primary function of the establishment and must at all times be enforced.

References

Bryan, F.L. (1981), ‘‘Hazard analysis of food service operations’’, Food Technology, Vol. 32 No. 2,pp. 78-87.

Cichy, R.F. (1994), Quality Management Sanitation, The Educational Institute of the AmericanHotel and Motel Association, Michigan.

Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association (1992), Applied FoodserviceSanitation, 4th ed., JohnWiley and Sons Inc., New York, NY.

Knight, J.B. and Lendal, K.H. (1989), Quantity Food Production, Planning, and Management, 2nded., Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY.

Loken, J.K. (1995),The HACCP Food Safety Manual, JohnWiley and Sons Inc., New York, NY.

Mill, R.C. (2001), Restaurant Management: Customers, Operations, and Employees, 2nd ed.,Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Minor, L.J. and Cichy, R.F. (1984), Foodservice Systems Management, AVI Publishing Company,Westport, CT.

National Assessment Institute (1994), Handbook for Safe Food Service Management, UpperSaddle River, Regents/Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.