INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INDONESIAN STUDIES ISSUE 4, 2017 122 | Page Protecting Environment and Securing Power: Female Leaders’ Political Initiative in the Age of Climate Change in Indonesia and Japan 1 Kurniawati Hastuti Dewi 2 Bio-data: Research Center for Politics, the Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Email: [email protected]Abstract This paper compares two female leaders’ initiative on environmental protection in the age of climate change in Indonesia, namely rejuvenating abandoned parks in Surabaya City under leadership of Tri Rismaharini, Mayor of Surabaya City (2000-2015), and the preservation of Lake Biwa under the leadership of Yukiko Kada, Governor of Shiga Prefecture (2006-2010) (2010-2014). By using ecofeminism as the primary conceptual framework, as well as gender and climate change perspectives, this paper reveals that Risma’s and Kada’s strong initiatives on environmental protection policy have been primarily driven by their individual capitals, especially their educational backgrounds. This paper shows that there is a different degree in the gender influence behind Risma’s and Kada’s commitments to environmental protection policy, though both strategically developed gender narratives to bring environmental protection issues into their political campaigns, such as the use of term “mother for the entire City” in the case of Risma in Surabaya, and “mottainai” and “Mother Lake” in the case of Yukiko Kada’s campaign in Shiga Prefecture, to gain victory. This paper further reveals that gender perspectives had been integrated in Risma’s policy to a stronger degree, compared to that of Kada’s case. This paper highlights that the two leaders introduced a community-based environmental protection movement model, which is needed for ensuring ecological justice, regardless of the political instability and changes. Key words: female leader, environment protection, gender, climate change, ecological justice. 1 Paper presented in international seminar, workshop, and publication “Gender Equality and Ecological Justice (Ge2J) in Higher Education From Sustainable Development Perspectives (From Local Knowledge to International Experience), Salatiga, October 30-31, 2015. This paper is developed from a research project sponsored by the Sumitomo Foundation Research Grant Fiscal Year 2013-2014. The original title of the research project is “A Comparative Study of Female Political Leaders’ Initiative on Environmental Protection Policy in Indonesia and Japan: Case Study of Tri Rismaharini Mayor of Surabaya and Yukiko Kada Governor of Shiga Prefecture”. I thank Associate Professor Okamoto Masaaki in the Center for Southeast Asian Studies (CSEAS), Kyoto University for providing space for me to work in his laboratory during my field trip to Japan in July 2014, as well as, helping me to get in touch with important contact persons and bureaucrats in my effort to interview Yukiko Kada, the Governor of Shiga Prefecture though it was not successful due to Kada’s tight schedule closer to the 2014 Shiga Governor election. In Surabaya, I thank my colleague Dr. Wahidah Zein Siregar for helping me in many ways to make my research enjoyable, and especially to get in touch with important contact persons and bureaucrats in my effort to interview Tri Rismaharini, the Mayor of Surabaya City during my fieldtrip in Surabaya in May 2015 though it was not successful due to Risma’s very tight schedule. 2 Researcher at Research Centre for Politics, Indonesian Institute of Sciences. Email: [email protected]
Transcript
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INDONESIAN STUDIES
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Protecting Environment and Securing Power: Female Leaders’ Political Initiative in the Age of Climate Change
in Indonesia and Japan1
Kurniawati Hastuti Dewi2
Bio-data: Research Center for Politics, the Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Email: [email protected]
Abstract This paper compares two female leaders’ initiative on environmental protection in the age of climate change in Indonesia, namely rejuvenating abandoned parks in Surabaya City under leadership of Tri Rismaharini, Mayor of Surabaya City (2000-2015), and the preservation of Lake Biwa under the leadership of Yukiko Kada, Governor of Shiga Prefecture (2006-2010) (2010-2014). By using ecofeminism as the primary conceptual framework, as well as gender and climate change perspectives, this paper reveals that Risma’s and Kada’s strong initiatives on environmental protection policy have been primarily driven by their individual capitals, especially their educational backgrounds. This paper shows that there is a different degree in the gender influence behind Risma’s and Kada’s commitments to environmental protection policy, though both strategically developed gender narratives to bring environmental protection issues into their political campaigns, such as the use of term “mother for the entire City” in the case of Risma in Surabaya, and “mottainai” and “Mother Lake” in the case of Yukiko Kada’s campaign in Shiga Prefecture, to gain victory. This paper further reveals that gender perspectives had been integrated in Risma’s policy to a stronger degree, compared to that of Kada’s case. This paper highlights that the two leaders introduced a community-based environmental protection movement model, which is needed for ensuring ecological justice, regardless of the political instability and changes. Key words: female leader, environment protection, gender, climate change, ecological
justice.
1 Paper presented in international seminar, workshop, and publication “Gender Equality and Ecological Justice
(Ge2J) in Higher Education From Sustainable Development Perspectives (From Local Knowledge to International Experience), Salatiga, October 30-31, 2015. This paper is developed from a research project sponsored by the Sumitomo Foundation Research Grant Fiscal Year 2013-2014. The original title of the research project is “A Comparative Study of Female Political Leaders’ Initiative on Environmental Protection Policy in Indonesia and Japan: Case Study of Tri Rismaharini Mayor of Surabaya and Yukiko Kada Governor of Shiga Prefecture”. I thank Associate Professor Okamoto Masaaki in the Center for Southeast Asian Studies (CSEAS), Kyoto University for providing space for me to work in his laboratory during my field trip to Japan in July 2014, as well as, helping me to get in touch with important contact persons and bureaucrats in my effort to interview Yukiko Kada, the Governor of Shiga Prefecture though it was not successful due to Kada’s tight schedule closer to the 2014 Shiga Governor election. In Surabaya, I thank my colleague Dr. Wahidah Zein Siregar for helping me in many ways to make my research enjoyable, and especially to get in touch with important contact persons and bureaucrats in my effort to interview Tri Rismaharini, the Mayor of Surabaya City during my fieldtrip in Surabaya in May 2015 though it was not successful due to Risma’s very tight schedule. 2 Researcher at Research Centre for Politics, Indonesian Institute of Sciences.
power between and among diverse groups of women and men.7 More importantly, the
common tendency is to present women as victims in the discussions of climate change
rather than as agents capable of contributing solutions as noted by Geraldine Terry
(2009:3).8 In contrast to this common understanding, this paper positions the two female
leaders as agents or subjects capable of initiating some environment protection policy to
deal with climate change in their territory.
This paper aims to uncover the rationales of Tri Rismaharini, the Mayor of Surabaya
City and Yukiko Kada, the Governor of Shiga Prefecture, in leading programs on
environment protection policy. The research questions are: first, to what extent gender has
influenced their political initiatives on environment protection policy? Second, how did both
female political leaders ‘play’ the environment protection policy in political campaigns to
achieve their political victory? Third, do both female political leaders integrate gender
perspectives into their environment protection policy? Fourth, what are the implications of
the policies for the community?
The data for this paper are drawn primarily from in-depth interviews with important
respondents across Surabaya City during the fieldtrip on May 2015, as well as, across Shiga,
Kyoto, and Osaka during the fieldwork in Japan on July 2014. However, the initial plan to
interview Tri Rismaharini and Yukiko Kada failed due to their very tight schedules.
Nevertheless, this paper sought to gain Risma’s and Kada’s original points of view through
various means such as books they wrote or interview transcripts with them enclosed and
then discovered in a number of books or magazines. As the two female leaders’ voices,
opinions, and actions are the primary components of analysis, this paper is basically
research into women’s perspective because women’s voices — particularly the two leaders
— were given special attention in writing the narrative of this paper. This paper also makes
use of secondary resources from related documents, research reports, biography, books,
and articles available in print and online for developing the arguments.
This paper consists of four sections. The first section explains the rise of ecofeminist
thinking since the 1970s, which later contributes to promoting and spreading gender and
climate change perspectives in international forums, which becomes the important
foundation of this paper. The second section explores the first case study of Tri Rismaharini’s
policy in rejuvenating an abandoned park in Surabaya City. The third explores Yukiko Kada’s
policy for preserving Lake Biwa. The second and third section are written in a similar
sequence by initially examining the influence of gender on these women’s rationales in
promoting environment protection programs, followed by the possibility of using
environmental protection programs to ensure their political victory, the integration of
7 Justina Demetriades and Emily Esplen, “The Gender Dimensions of Poverty and Climate Change Adaptation”
IDS Bulletin, vol. 39, no. 4 (September 2008): 24-25. 8 Geraldine Terry, “Introduction,” in Climate Change and Gender Justice, ed. Geraldine Terry (UK: Oxfam GB,
2009), 3.
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gender perspectives into the policy, and the implications of the policy for their communities.
The fourth section sums up the findings of this research.
Ecofeminism, gender and climate change perspectives
Prior to explaining the legal framework on gender and climate change, it is imperative to
understand the rise of ecofeminism as an important theoretical and historical condition that
leads to gender and climate change discourse. Before the 1960s, the women’s liberation
movement and ecological movement had been seen as separate problems until the
emergence of ecofeminism, in which ecological issues and women’s issues were integrated
as a new field of theory and research.9 Ecological crisis due to industrialization and
modernization that occurred mainly in developed countries raised concern as to the need
for new approaches to reconcile the relationship between humanity and nature; this
important historical condition became the trigger in the rise of ecofeminism.10 The term
ecofeminism was initially introduced in 1974 by a French feminist, Francoise d’Eaubonne, to
promote the view of women’s potential contribution to an ecological revolution in order to
develop new relationships between humanity and nature, as well as between women and
men.11 Jim Cheney (1987) stated that ecological feminism or ecofeminism is a sensibility or
“concern for a natural world which has been subjected to much the same abuse and
ambivalent behavior as have women.”12 According to Elizabeth Mayer (1994), the starting
point of ecofeminism is the social historical association between women and nature
throughout the history of western society. Since nature and femininity are considered
inferior in the nature-culture and feminine-masculine dichotomies respectively, this set of
relationships ultimately has caused the abuse of nature and the oppression of women.13
Thus, the main goal of ecofeminism is to end repression toward women and nature by
promoting a new approach toward nature emphasizing the harmonious relationship
between humans and nature due to the interconnectedness of human and nature.14
Official endorsement of sustainable development, women’s empowerment and
gender equality occurred initially in the Third United Nations Women’s Conference in
Nairobi in 1985. On this occasion, UNEP (the UN Environment Program) hosted a special
Session on Women and the Environment which created the UNEP’s Senior Women Advisors
9 Chen Ling, “The Background and Theoretical Origin of Ecofeminism,” Cross-Cultural Communication, vol. 10,
no. 4 (2014): 104, http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/ccc/article/view/4916 (accessed September 1, 2015). 10
Ibid., 105. 11
Karren J. Warren, “The Power and The Promise of Ecological Feminism,” Environmental Ethics VOL 12, ISSUE 2, (SUMMER 1990): 125-126; AND CHEN LING, “THE BACKGROUND AND THEORETICAL ORIGIN OF ECOFEMINISM,”104. 12
Jim Cheney, “Eco-Feminism and Deep Ecology,” Environmental Ethics,vol. 9, Issue 2 (Summer 1987): 115. 13
Elizabeth Mayer, “The Power and the Promise of Ecofeminism, Reconsidered.” Honors Projects. Paper 4: 5, 7-8. http://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=phil_honproj (accessed September 1, 2015). 14
Group (SWAG) to bring in a gender perspective to its environmental programs.15 Since then,
worldwide attention to environmental issues spread in the 1990s. It was during the Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro Brazil 1992, which was organized by University of Rio de Janeiro,
that many countries agreed to adopt the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) which came into force on March 21, 2004.16 The Earth Summit also served
as an important satellite seminar on “Ecofeminism: Gender, Development, and
Environment,” mainly focusing on ecological feminism.17
Since then, there has been widespread understanding of the connection between
women and the environment, which mainly focused on the experiences of women from the
global South as the major victims of environment degradation; thus, they should be
positioned as the primary caretakers of the environment. This perspective was identified as
a variant of ecofeminism from the South.18 However, this perspective was criticized by some
feminist scholars since it neglected the complex reality of disproportionate workloads,
gender hierarchies, and power.19 Seema Arora-Jonsson (2011) criticized gender and climate
change perspectives that are rooted in a generalized perception that women in the South
will be more affected by climate change because this generalization further strengthened
South-North biases and overlooked an important aspect of local context to be considered;
she urged people to remember that gender is about power relations, and that women can
become capable agents similar to men in climate change mitigation.20
Women, Environment and Development (WED) ‘thinking’ is almost similar to a
variant of ecofeminism from the Southern perspective. WED believes that women mainly in
developing countries were severely affected by environment degradation due to a universal
gender division of labor such as in forestry and agriculture in developing regions.21 Other
literature mentioned that the women, environment and development debate (WED)
strongly shaped development circles since the 1980s.22 In general, a variant of ecofeminism
15
UNEP, “Gender and the Environment,” http://www.unep.org/gender/AboutUs/HistoricalBackground/tabid/54774/Default.aspx (accessed September 5, 2015). 16
Climate Change Secretariat, “A Guide to the Climate Change Convention Process,” Climate Change Secretariat, Bonn, 2002, http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/guideprocess-p.pdf (accessed June 10, 2014), no page. 17
Karen J. Warren, “Ecological Feminist Philosophies: An Overview of the Issues,” xix, http://www.vedegylet.hu/okopolitika/Warren%20-%20Ecofeminism%20Overview.pdf (accessed September 2, 2015) 18
Bernadette P. Resurreccion, “Persistent Women and Environment Linkages in Climate Change and Sustainable Development Agendas,” Women’s Studies International Forum 40 (2013):34, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2013.03.011 (accessed September 24, 2013), 34. 19
Ibid. 20
Seema Arora-Jonsson, “Virtue and Vulnerability: Discourses on Women, Gender, and Climate Change,” Global Environment Change 21, (2011): 748-750, www.elsevier.com/locate/gloenvcha (accessed September 24, 2013). 21
Bernadette P. Resurreccion, “Persistent Women and Environment Linkages in Climate Change and Sustainable Development Agendas,” 35. 22
Seema Arora-Jonsson, “Virtue and Vulnerability: Discourses on Women, Gender, and Climate Change,” 745.
from the South and WED collectively evolved as a discourse that portrayed the strong
correlation between women and environment.23
Although discourses on gender and climate change begun in the 1980s, it has taken
time for the international body of climate change to adopt the gender and climate change
perspectives. It took nearly 15 years from 1992 when the Earth Summit was held to mark
the raise of ecofeminism, to the COP (Conference of the Party 13) held in Bali, Indonesia, in
2007. It was in COP13 Bali that global networks of organization under GenderCC (Women
for Climate Justice and the Global Gender and Climate Alliance) was set up, followed by an
official body of Women and Gender Constituency under UNFCCC. At the same event, a
Women’s Caucus was held in cooperation with a Climate Justice Caucus.24 It then continued
in COP15 Copenhagen in 2009,25 COP18 Doha in 2012, COP19 Warsaw in 2013. Gender was
mentioned as an important aspect that shall be considered in policy making to deal with
climate change adaptation as described in the working group II on the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (of 2007).26
Even though it took several decades to develop, finally gender and climate change
perspectives have become inevitable concepts adopted by various international institutions.
This paper is aware that vulnerability to climate change and climate change adaptation has
been possibly shaped by gender, class, ethnicity, and political factors which differ in each
region and country. Nevertheless, it is worth incorporating a gender dimension in climate
change discussion and analysis, in which women as the most affected element of
environmental changes shall be recognized and taken into account as capable agents in
climate change mitigation, adaptation, and policy. The next section presents two case
studies of female local leaders who have displayed initiatives on environment protection
policy to deal with climate change.
Tri Rismaharini, the Mayor of Surabaya City: rejuvenating abandoned parks
Surabaya City, one the 98 cities in Indonesia, is located in East Java.27 The emergence of Tri
Rismaharini in Indonesia’s local politics is part of a wider phenomenon of the rise of female
leaders in Indonesian local politics (as regent, mayor, governor) following the introduction
23
Bernadette P. Resurreccion, “Persistent Women and Environment Linkages in Climate Change and Sustainable Development Agendas,” 35. 24
Ibid., 37-38. 25
WEDO (Women’s Environment and Development Organization), “Gender and Climate Change at Copenhagen COP-15: WEDO’s Perspective on a History-Making Year,” http://www.gendercc.net/fileadmin/inhalte/Dokumente/Press/WEDO_COP15_Gender_Perspective_Feb2010.pdf (accessed June 12, 2014) 26
Working group II on IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (2007), “Box 17.5. Gender aspects of vulnerability and adaptive capacity,” http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch17s17-3-2-3.html, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (accessed June 11, 2014) 27
Indonesia comprises of 34 Provinces, 416 regencies, and 98 cities in 2015, based on “Peraturan Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor 56 Tahun 2015 Tentang Kode dan Data Wilayah Administrasi Pemerintahan”, http://www.kemendagri.go.id/pages/data-wilayah (accessed August 19, 2015).
of the direct election to select the heads of local government under the Law No. 32/2004,28
that continues under the Law No.8/2015.
Tri Rismaharini comes from a non-political family. Risma, who was born on 20
November 1961 in Kediri, is the third of five children; the daughter of M. Chuzaini (father)
and Siti Mudjiatun (mother).29 Her father was a hard working businessman and bureaucrat,
while her mother was a housewife.30 Although Risma was born in Kediri, her inner circle
family especially her grandfather Yasin Syamsuddin was local to Surabaya. He served as the
leader of Laskar Hizbullah Surabaya who fought the enemy in the November 10th 1945
battle.31 As the daughter of a businessman and bureaucrat, Risma enjoyed luxurious
facilities from his father, though her father also taught her to care for the less fortunate and
children in need around their home.32 Risma, who was smart and liked dancing and sport,
spent her childhood until Junior High School in Kediri.33In 1976, Risma moved to Surabaya
and finished her undergraduate study at the Institut Teknologi Sepuluh November in the
Department of Architecture in 1987. She finished postgraduate study on city planning and
development at the same university in 2002.34 Risma married Djoko Saptoadji, who works in
a private company, and they are blessed with two children.
Risma was accepted as a civil servant of Surabaya City Government and started her
professional career in 1997; her first post was in Bojonegoro. She was gradually promoted
to be the Chief of the Park and Sanitation Bureau Surabaya City (2005-2008), and then rose
to the office of Chief of the Development and Planning Agency Surabaya City (2005-2010).
Subsequently, she was elected Mayor of Surabaya City (2010-2015). When Risma served as
the chief of Park and Sanitation Bureau Surabaya City, as a member of staff of Mayor
Bambang DH, she began to encourage her staff to redesign and manage abandoned parks
and lands, so as to become comfortable public spaces for people, that were integrated to
create good pedestrian pathways. 35 While Risma acknowledged her pivotal initial
experience as a junior bureaucrat in redesigning City Park in Bojonegoro had led her
personal attention to parks,36 some respondents said that Risma’s father’s family business
28
For deeper elaboration of the interplays between Islam, gender and networks behind the rise and the victory of female political leaders in the direct elections since 2005, see KurniawatiHastutiDewi, Indonesian Women and Local Politics: Islam, Gender and Networks in Post-Suharto Indonesia (Singapore: National University of Singapore Press and Kyoto University Press, 2015) 29
Abdul Hakim, Tri Rismaharini (Jakarta Selatan: Penerbit Change, 2014), 1-2 30
Ibid. 31
Ibid. 32
Ibid., 4. 33
Ibid., 5-8. 34
RatnaSusanti, Risma Sang PengetukNurani (Klaten: PT Hamafira, 2014), 1-2. 35
Interview with KDS prominent NGO activist affiliated with NahdlatulUlama (Indonesia’s traditionalist Islamic organization founded by Hasyim Asy’ari and WahabChasbullah in 1926, the biggest Islamic organization in Indonesia), in Surabaya, Monday, May 4, 2015. 36
Ibid., 112. Transcript interview with Tri Rismaharini as cited from Rata Susanti’s book.
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interest and experience in plant and park design also contributed to her familiarity and
attention to this matter in her future career.37
Rationale for environment protection policy into green, smart, and comfortable city:
influence of gender?
Risma’s educational background in architecture and city planning combined with her
individual experiences and gender (especially motherhood) and significantly influenced her
professional choice to focus on managing Surabaya City into a green and smart city. In one
interview session, Tri Rismaharini acknowledged that being a female leader is an advantage
because as she has a ‘motherhood feeling’ and thus becomes the mother for the entire City
As Risma highlighted the point of motherhood, which signifies the presence of a
gender influence in her leadership, it is understandable that Risma’s policy serves as the
extension of her individual position as a mother. Her policy focused more attention on the
area of women and children issues. For example, she promoted development of lactation
rooms in public areas and parks, created a special entrepreneur program for housewives of
low income families since 2010,39 enacted Government Regulation No.6 /2011 on Protection
of Children, and founded shelters for abandoned and special children.40
Risma emphasized that the development of parks shall benefit the community
especially children as they need fresh air and wider spaces to stimulate quality growth.41 An
example of this initiative can be seen from Taman Prestasi, which was founded in 2006
during Bambang DH’s leadership as the Mayor of Surabaya City (2005-2010). Risma then
rejuvenated, redesigned it and equipped the park with a playground for children, a small
theatre for youth to exercise or dance, and provided a tourist boat facility integrated with
the nearby river. Taman Prestasi has now changed into clean, comfortable and enjoyable
park for people and children as displayed in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Taman Prestasi with Children Enjoying the Playground
37
Interview with OR senior redactor of JawaPos (prominent newspaper based in Surabaya) who has close connection with Tri Rismaharini, in Surabaya, Monday, May 4, 2015. 38
Quotation of Tri Rismaharini as cited from Ira PuspitoRini, True Spirit IbuRisma (Yogyakarta: PenerbitIndoliterasi, 2014), 95 39
Ahmad AsrofFitri, SerpihanKisah Bu Risma (Yogyakarta: Penerbit Real Books, 2014), 132-134. 40
RatnaSusanti, Risma Sang PengetukNurani, 124, 141. 41
Risma’s statement as cited from RinandiDinanta, IbuRismaMemimpindenganHati (Yogyakarta: Giga Pustaka, 2014), 24.
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Source: collection of KurniawatiHastutiDewi, May 5, 2015.
Risma’s special attention to managing and rejuvenating parks is the manifestation of
her deep awareness to seriously tackle global warming and climate change issues. She urged
the communities to plant more trees, to keep the environment clean, and recycle waste.
These actions during the Green and Clean occasions in Pakal District Surabaya on 7 July 2010
were done in order to prevent the temperature of Surabaya City increasing and to prevent
further deterioration of the environmental quality due to global warming and climate
change.42
At this point, it is not an exaggeration to say that in the case of Risma, while her
individual capital in terms of her education and the family business of her father provided
considerable influence on Risma’s commitment to her environment protection policy, her
gender identity (motherhood) also has shaped her political position in advocating programs
of environment protection policy in response to climate change problems in Surabaya City.
The uses of environment protection policy in political campaigning
As we understand the degree of influence of gender identity in Risma’s policy position, this
section explores the use of environment protection policy in the political campaign in the
2010 direct election that led to Risma’s victory. Risma’s good track record on City Park
rejuvenation as the chief of the Park and Sanitation Bureau Surabaya City (2005-2008) and
the chief of the Development and Planning Agency Surabaya City (2005-2010) brought her
strategic political promotion. Her achievement on environment protection policy did not
only facilitate her further political career, but also served as her strongest selling point in the
political campaign.
In the 2010 direct Mayoral Election in Surabaya, many prominent community leaders
urged Risma to be the candidate for Mayor and join a national political party PDIP
(PartaiDemokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan, the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle under
the leadership of Megawati Sukarnoputri the daughter of Indonesia’s first President,
42
“Awas, Suhu Surabaya Bisa 38 Derajat,” JawaPos, July 8, 2010, 46.
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Sukarno) for her political vehicle.43 Eventually, Risma was granted support from the PDIP
and ran as a candidate for Mayor with Bambang DH as vice mayor (former Mayor of
Surabaya City (2000-2005 and 2005-2010). The pair successfully won the 2010 election with
38.35 percent, defeating four other contenders.44 Many people, including Risma, were
surprised with her victory, because according to a political survey conducted by the Center
for Human Rights and Democracy (Pusde HAM) Risma had only gained one percent vote
points in January 2010.45
Although Risma and her team began their political campaign late in February 2010,
the key for her political success was her campaign programs on environment protection
policy. It is understandable that Risma chose this issue because she had proven her
capability with a good track record in developing Surabaya City for several years by
rejuvenating abandoned parks; thus, people would need no further explanation as to her
credibility. For example, in the campaign across villages, Risma encouraged communities to
creatively develop unoccupied land around their homes for planting vegetables and plants
or breeding fish not only for consumption but also to be sold for household income.46
During the socialization campaign in Taman Flora (Flora Park), Risma urged many
housewives who attended the campaign to undertake urban farming and create recycling
products to empower and improve their economic capacity.47 In the bigger picture, Risma
planned to develop Surabaya into a comfortable, beautiful city with various parks to be
integrated with infrastructure development and to increase economic access for “Better
Surabaya.”48 By means of the “appreciative” campaign model to remain close to the
community,49 Risma kept selling the idea and program of environmental protection for
bettering Surabaya.
It is worth noting that Risma’s gender identity as the only female leader candidate
has benefited her. She can more easily gather gender sympathy from networks of
housewives,50 youth, and environmental cadres (kaderlingkungan, special cadre consists of
housewives who work voluntarily for leading and monitoring community-based
environment protection program in Surabaya City) in 400 locations for socialization across
43
Ahmad AsrofFitri, SerpihanKisah Bu Risma, 25; Abdul Hakim, Tri Rismaharini, 35; 44
Abdul Hakim, Tri Rismaharini, 32. 45
“HasilSurveiPusde HAM MayoritasPemilihPerempuanPilihRisma-Bambang,” JawaPos, April 8, 2010, http://www.jawapos.co.id/arsip/index.php?keyword=Risma%20%20&todo=detail&aid=127147 (accessed May 8, 2015) 46
Ahmad AsrofFitri, SerpihanKisah Bu Risma, 29. 47
“Upaya Tri RismahariniBerdayakanIbu-IbuKampung,” JawaPos, April 11, 2010, http://www.jawapos.co.id/arsip/index.php?keyword=Risma%20%20&todo=detail&aid=127737 (accessed May 8, 2015) 48
Ahmad AsrofFitri, SerpihanKisah Bu Risma, 29-30. 49
“KampanyePutaranPertama, Risma-BambangPilihDatangiWarga,” JawaPos, May 24, 2015, http://www.jawapos.co.id/arsip/index.php?keyword=Risma%20%20&todo=detail&aid=135615( accessed May 8, 2015). 50
“Ibu-IbuKaliasinSambutRisma,” JawaPos, May 3, 2010, http://www.jawapos.co.id/arsip/index.php?keyword=Risma%20%20&todo=detail&aid=131712 (accessed May 8, 2015).
villages.51 Risma had familiarized the cadre through various activities on environmental
protection long before her candidacy in the 2010 election.
In conclusion, the combination between good and reliable programs on
environmental protection with community-based approaches and the availability of strong
community networks (housewives, youth, and environment cadres) was able to increase
Risma’s electability according to the PusdeHAM (Pusat Studi Demokrasi dan Hak Asasi
Manusia, Study Center for Democracy and Human Rights) survey from one percent in
January 2010, to 36.27 percent in April 2010.52 Eventually, Risma won the 2010 direct
election and became the Mayor of Surabaya City (2010-2015). Once Risma assumed the
power as Mayor of Surabaya City (2010-2015), it is interesting to understand how Risma
integrated gender perspectives into her environment protection policy, a feature which will
be described in the next section.
Integration of gender perspectives into the policy
In designing the concept of managing Surabaya City during her leadership as the chief of
Park and Sanitation Bureau, Risma’s recruited many new staff who graduated from Institut
Teknologi Sepuluh November (ITS) to help with the design of park and city planning.53 She
continued her strategy when she became the Mayor.54 At this stage, it is interesting to know
whether Risma’s environment protection policy has implemented gender and climate
change perspectives that also seriously address the needs of women in climate change as
the most vulnerable group, as well as encourages them to be active agents in climate
change mitigation in Surabaya City.
Examining the basic concept of Risma’s environment protection policy, it basically
promoted a community-based environment protection policy. Not only is the policy
institutional, financial and leadership support provided by the apparatus of Surabaya City;
more importantly, the policy also urges communities to be agents of the environment
protection movement in various programs. The community becomes a strategic component
to develop feelings of ownership of the programs that have resulted in common solidarity
and responsibility to always take care of the developed programs.55Risma said that the
51
“PerjuanganNunukMaghfirohMenyosialisasikanRisma-Bambang: RajinBlusukankeKampung, SelaluPulang Dini Hari,” JawaPos, June 21, 2010, http://www.jawapos.co.id/arsip/index.php?keyword=Risma%20%20&todo=detail&aid=140696 (accessed May 8, 2015) 52
“HasilSurveiPusde HAM MayoritasPemilihPerempuanPilihRisma-Bambang,” JawaPos, April 8, 2010, http://www.jawapos.co.id/arsip/index.php?keyword=Risma%20%20&todo=detail&aid=127147 (accessed May 8, 2015) 53
Interview with RSD, senior redactor of JawaPos (prominent newspaper based in Surabaya), in Surabaya Monday, May 4, 2015. 54
Interview with YRS, prominent journalist in Surabaya, Tuesday, May 5, 2015. 55
Interview with KDS prominent NGO activist affiliated with NahdlatulUlama (Indonesia’s traditionalist Islamic organization founded by Hasyim Asy’ari and WahabChasbullah in 1926, the biggest Islamic organization in Indonesia), in Surabaya, Monday, May 4, 2015.
community-based environment protection is part of basic concept of her development plan
to make these initiatives closer to and owned by the community.56
There are a number of examples of community-based environment protection
activities such as rejuvenating unoccupied land and abandoned parks across Surabaya,
green and clean program to create eco-friendly villages since 2005, community-based
program to reduce and recycle waste, 57 eco school competition focusing in youth
generation since 2011,58 urban women peasant group since 2013,59 among others. The
environment protection policies are led, promoted, and monitored voluntarily by 512
facilitators — the majority of which are women across 31 districts and supported by 28,600
environment cadre across 154 administrative villages, 1405 community associations
(RukunWarga), and 9,271 neighborhoods (RukunTetangga) in 2013.60
Regarding the program on rejuvenating unoccupied land and abandoned parks,
Risma implemented a special strategy that involved women and housewives in the activities
to plant trees or clean parks. Consequently, the strategy would prevent people — mainly
men — from harming parks because they know that the parks are nurtured, maintained and
tended by their daughters, wives, and mothers.61Risma’s strategy to involve women,
especially housewives as the primary subjects in environment protection programs, reflects
Risma’s gender and perspective on climate change mitigation. In this case, rather than
becoming passive victims, women play significant roles in climate change mitigation by
becoming involved in environment protection programs.
Risma also considers and addresses the needs of women, children and elderly
through the parks. For example, Risma has revived many deserted parks in collaboration
with private companies to become “all in one entertainment park” provided with free Wifi
and public services such as Taman Bungkul (now, at least 71 active parks are available, and
295 passive parks to rejuvenate).62 Under Risma’s stewardship, Surabaya City has developed
new thematic parks,63 increased the green belt along main city road, and expanded green
56
“Tri RismahariniSeminggusetelahDitetapkan KPU sebagaiPemenang,” JawaPos, June 15, 2010, http://www.jawapos.co.id/arsip/index.php?keyword=Risma%20%20&todo=detail&aid=139694 (accessed May 8, 2015) 57
Ahmad AsrofFitri, SerpihanKisah Bu Risma, 43-44. 58
Interview with ZMR, NGO Tunas Hijau in Surabaya, Tuesday, May 5, 2015. 59
Interview with WWK, prominent women activist in Surabaya, Wednesday, May 6, 2015. 60
DinasKebersihandanPertamanan Kota Surabaya, PPT slide “PolaRekruitmen Kader Lingkungan di Kota Surabaya,” in PPT PresentationPengelolaanKebersihandanRuang Terbuka Hijau di Kota Surabaya, no year. 61
Risma’s statement as cited from Kurniawan Muhammad, “MenungguSentuhan Bu Risma,” JawaPos, August 23, 2010, http://www.jawapos.co.id/arsip/index.php?keyword=Risma%20%20&todo=detail&aid=151814 (accessed May 8, 2015). 62
DinasKebersihandanPertamanan Kota Surabaya, PPT slide “Taman Kota,” in PPT Presentation PengelolaanKebersihandanRuang Terbuka Hijau di Kota Surabaya, no year. 63
Other example of thematic parks as the friendship park (tamanpersahabatan), the expression park (tamanekspresi), (tamanolahraga) provided with climbing and fitness facilities.
open space from 20 to 21 percent in 2010, expanding it further to 32 percent in 2013.64
Thematic parks such as the Skate and BMX park for youth, Taman Lansia (the elderly park),
Taman Prestasi (the achievement park) have also been developed. These parks are well
equipped, for example with a public theater for students’ performing arts. The planting of
many flowers and the provision of various toy equipment for children in Taman Flora (the
flora park) has also been an important initiative undertaken during Risma’s mayoral tenure.
In order to encourage youth awareness, Risma collaborated with local NGOs to create the
Eco School program.65
Observing her environment protection program, we can clearly see that Risma’s
motherhood feeling as the manifestation of her gender identity provides considerable
influence to the development of thematic parks, some of which are dedicated to benefit all
communities including the elderly, women, and children. This section shows that Risma’s
environment protection policy that includes rejuvenating parks has been shaped by her
gender perspectives, in which women (in collaboration with men) not only are positioned as
strategic subjects in community-based park nurturing, but more importantly the initiatives
address the specific needs of women, children, and the elderly. Seen through the lens of
gender and climate perspectives, Risma’s case shows a female leader as an agent or subject
in initiating policy on climate change adaption with gender perspectives.
Implications of the policy
Risma’s program on rejuvenating park across Surabaya City is occurring simultaneously with
Surabaya’s Heritage program of preserving many historical buildings in Surabaya.66 Surabaya
City is designed to be a clean, comfortable, eco-friendly historical city. This section will
discuss the implication of various programs of rejuvenating parks in Surabaya City in terms
of the community.
The previous section has shown not only the involvement of women especially
housewives in environment protection policy, but also the policy focus on addressing
women’s needs. These initiatives have resulted in positive quantifiable outcomes such as in
the gender empowerment index that measures the active participation of women in the
economy and politics, including political participation, economic participation and decision
making, and economic resource.67 In Surabaya City, the results of the gender empowerment
64
DinasKebersihandanPertamanan Kota Surabaya, PPT slide “Pembangunan Ruang Terbuka Hijau di Kota Surabaya,” in PPT PresentationPengelolaanKebersihandanRuang Terbuka Hijau di Kota Surabaya, no year. 65
Risma’s statement as cited from HadiSantoso, Inspirasi Bu Risma (Surabaya: NidaDwiKarya Publishing, 2015), 16. 66
Interview with HST, female academia from prominent university in Surabaya who are Risma’s consultant in city planning and development of Surabaya City, in Surabaya, Wednesday, May 6, 2015. 67
Lihat di http://www.menegpp.go.id/aplikasidata/index.php (accessed July 9, 2012).
index increased from 58.28 points (2008) to 58.55 (2009) and increased significantly to
77.53 (2010)68 after Risma became the Mayor of Surabaya City in 2010.
There are many related programs supporting the revival of parks and abandoned
lands, such as the construction of community-based recycling waste and many home-based
organic fertilizer production community associations across 31 districts.69 In this cycle,
women groups in the communities collected household waste to be filtered between the
organic and inorganic waste, which is then sold to the local Waste Bank to be further
recycled. Not only do these activities produce organic fertilizer to be used for the nurturing
of parks across Surabaya, but also increase the housewives’ economic capacity, which
consequently increases the welfare of each household. Many housewives in Kaliasin
administrative village acknowledged Risma’s effective program and they believed that Risma
has played a tremendous role in empowering them socially and economically as they
become primary agents in many environment protection and economic development under
her leadership.70
Surabaya City achieved the Parahita Ekapraya prize for local government with strong
commitment on gender equality in 2011 and 2013. Surabaya was also awarded recognition
as the most comfortable city for children for three consecutive years (2011, 2012, and 2013),
and the ASEAN Environmentally Sustainable City Award (2011, 2012), the Future
Government Award in the Asia Pacific (2013). In February 2014, Risma was awarded the
“Mayor of the Month” by the City Mayor International group.
Yukiko Kada Governor of Shiga Prefecture: protecting Lake Biwa
Profile
Japan comprises of 47 prefectures and more than ten thousand municipalities, in which
Japanese local government adopted the presidential system where the chief executive of
local government and legislators have been selected separately since 1974.71The rising
number of Japanese female political leaders in local politics is a recent phenomenon.
Japanese society is highly colored with strong gender inequality that hinders women’s role
in politics. The situation has changed gradually since the 1990s. In response to the 1995
United Nations Conference on Beijing Platform for Action, since 1999, Japan’s national
government has launched the Basic Law for a Gender-equal Society that required the state
68
“TabelIndeksPemberdayaan Gender MenurutKabupaten/Kota ProvinsiJawaTimurTahun 2004-2010,” menegpp.go.id/V2/index.php/.../indikator-gender/idg/.../jawa-timur? (Accessed July 13,2012). 69
DinasKebersihandanPertamanan Kota Surabaya, PPT slide “BentukPenghargaanTerhadapPartisipasiMasyarakat,” in PPT PresentationPengelolaanKebersihandanRuang Terbuka Hijau di Kota Surabaya, no year. 70
“Ibu-IbuKaliasinSambutRisma,” JawaPos, May 3, 2015, http://www.jawapos.co.id/arsip/index.php?keyword=Risma%20%20&todo=detail&aid=131712 (accessed May 8, 2015). 71
Satoshi Machidori and Kengo Soga, “Between Presidentialism and Parliamentarism: How Chief Executive and Legislators Interact in Japanese Local Governments,” in Governmental Changes and Party Political Dynamics in Korea and Japan (Japan: Bokutakusha Publisher, 2012), 110-112.
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to create institutional mechanisms promoting the greater participation of women in politics.
It was followed by strong grassroots campaigns for more women to be elected to the
assemblies that resulted in the rise of women’s representation in local parliament in the
1999 election.72 As a result, since the 2000s, female politicians gradually were able to
assume political positions previously dominated by males, including in local politics. Fusae
Ohta, who won the gubernatorial election in Osaka Prefecture in February 2000 (later she
was re-elected in 2004) became the first female governor in Japan, followed by Yoshiko
Shiotani in Kumamoto Prefecture (April 2000), Akiko Domoto in Chiba Prefecture (March
2001, was re-elected 2005), Harumi Takahashi in Hokkaido Prefecture (2003),73 and finally
Yukiko Kada in Shiga Prefecture (2006).
Yukiko Kada is the first female governor of Shiga Prefecture, and the fifth female
governor ever elected in Japanese history. Kada comes from a political family. Her father
was a member of the City Council in Honjo City and Saitama Prefecture. However, Kada’s
husband, who was a businessman, did not support her political career and they divorced in
2010.74 Interestingly, although she comes from a family of politicians, Kada did not use her
family connection to build political career in Shiga Prefecture. For example, YS noted that
Kada’s older sister who is a member of the local assembly in Saitama Prefecture in Honjo
City tried to stop Kada from running in the 2006 Shiga governor election by opposing Kada’s
program to stop a Shinkansen station. Kada’s older sister had tried to establish a Shinkansen
station in Saitama Prefecture.75
Kada studied at the University of Wisconsin then continued her education at the
Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University until she graduated in 1981. Her deep
concern and involvement in preserving Lake Biwa brought her to the position of the chief
research adviser of the Lake Biwa Museum before she decided to be a professor at Kyoto
Seika University in 2000.76 Eventually, Kada became the Director of the Lake Biwa Museum.
Kada’s professional capacity as professor, senior researcher, and activist in preserving Lake
Biwa enabled her to have strong networks with bureaucrats, NGO activists, women activists
and various civil society groups in Biwa. This social capital paved the way for Kada’s higher
political career when she finally elected as the Governor of Shiga Prefecture in 2006. She
was then reelected in 2010.
Rationale for the environmental preservation of Lake Biwa and the surrounding area:
influence of gender?
72
For paper elaborate this phenomenon in detail see Yasuo Takao, “Japanese Women in Grassroots Politics: Building a Gender-Equal Society from the Bottom Up,” The Pacific Review Vol. 20, No. 2 (June 2007), downloaded via Kyoto University, September 23, 2013. 73
By 2010, out of a total of 47 governors in Japan, 5 are women. 74
Interview with YS, Associate Professor in Graduate School of Law and Politics Osaka University, Wednesday July 9, 2014. 75
Ibid. 76
Information from interview with SM, Professor in Graduate School of Law Kyoto University, Wednesday July 16, 2014.
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Lake Biwa is the largest lake in Japan, one of the oldest lakes in the world with an
abundance of thriving life forms, flora, fauna, and valuable water resource that serves Shiga
Prefecture and the Kansai region (Osaka, Kyoto, Kobe).77 The lake also plays a significant role
in preserving the traditional satoyama landscape of rural Japan that emphasizes caring for
the land and preserving a resource for future generations, maintaining the values of living
closely with nature.78 Since ancient times, Lake Biwa, which is called Biwa-ko in Japanese,79
has provided a valuable environment for people who lived close to the lake, and in return,
they tended to the lake seriously.80 Many people live near to Lake Biwa and the beauty of
the Lake attracted investors to develop many residential areas, as can be seen from Figure 2
below.
Figure 2: Lake Biwa and the Nearby Area
Source: picture collection of KurniawatiHastutiDewi, July 13, 2014.
Although there is a general perception of the strong correlation between women
and natural resources in the discussion of gender and climate change, it is difficult to find
any ‘clue’ that Kada’s gender has influenced her special attention to the environmental
preservation of Lake Biwa and its surrounding area. Nevertheless, it is clear that Kada has a
personal passion for agriculture and conservation as reflected in her educational choices
that later influenced her decision to advocate on environmental issues. After finishing her
graduate study on Agriculture from Kyoto University, Kada moved to Shiga Prefecture when
she commenced a closer interaction with many of the issues related to Lake Biwa. As she
77
Yukiko Kada, the Governor of Shiga Prefecture, “Foreword” in Lake Biwa Guided Book (Otsu, Shiga: Environmental Policy Division of Shiga Prefectural Government, 2014), 3. 78
Fumio Nagai, Motoko Kawano, MotokoShimagami, Wataru Fujita, “Biwako: Revitalizing Rural Landscapes,” in Living Landscapes Connected Communities: Culture, Environment, and Change across Asia, ed. Justine Vaz and NarumolAphinives (Malaysia: Areca Books, 2014), 51. 79
Yoshihiro Kimura, “Topic 1 The Naming of Lake Biwa”, in Lake Biwa: Interactions between Nature and People, ed. HiroyaKawanabe, Machiko Nishino, Masayoshi Maehata (New York, London: Springer, 2012), xi. 80
Shiga Prefectural Government, Lake Biwa Guided Book (Otsu, Shiga: Environmental Policy Division of Shiga Prefectural Government, 2014).
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became a member of the Prefectural research institute,81she was obliged to provide
suggestions to the prefectural government on approaches to preserving Lake Biwa.82
Another important factor behind Kada’s rationale for the environmental preservation
of Lake Biwa is the local context of Shiga Prefecture which already had a strong legacy on
environmental protection programs.83 Since the 1960s, rapid socio-economic development
occurred around Shiga Prefecture due to industrialization supported by the conservative
party (Liberal Democratic Party, LDP). The Southern part of Shiga Prefecture experienced an
intensification of land use, and pollution from factories and household waste caused
deterioration in the water quality of Lake Biwa. The intensive use of fertilizers and synthetic
detergents from households resulted in both an increasing number of cases of health
problems and the increasing number of reddish brown plankton in Lake Biwa since the
1970s.84
As the condition worsened, prefectural residents of Southern part of Shiga—mainly
led by the housewives — formed a community-based movement called the “Soap
Movement” that promoted the use of soap powder containing natural oils in an effort to
stop the use of detergents containing phosphorous.85As the movement gradually grew into
a huge environmental action involving the residences near Lake Biwa, it encouraged the
prefectural government to take necessary measures in preserving Lake Biwa. This action
resulted in the enforcement of “the Ordinance for the Prevention of Eutrophication of Lake
Biwa” on July 1, 1980 that prohibited the sale or use of synthetic detergents containing
phosphorous and regulated the factories’ waste was free of nitrogen and phosphorous.86
This was possible because at that time Shiga Prefecture was under the leadership of
Masayoshi Takemura (1974-1986) from the progressive party (the socialist and the
communist). Takemura’s party enforced a policy line of anti-Lake Shore development and
advocated for the environmental protection of Lake Biwa.87 Governor Takemura kept
promoting policies on environmental protection especially in preserving Lake Biwa because
81
The Asahi Shimbun, “ELECTION WATCH: Lake Biwa inspires anti-nuclear party chief, but will veterans dampen the mood?”, http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/politics/AJ201211280067 (accessed October 1, 2013) 82
Interview with FK, Associate Professor in Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University, Monday, July 14, 2014. Yukiko Kada was the senior of FK in high school, both are alumni of Kyoto University and worked in the same group of specialist who obliged to provide advice to Shiga Prefectural Government on major policy including on protecting and preserving Lake Biwa. 83
Interview with IN, Director of People’s Institute of Environment in Kyoto, Monday, July 14, 2014. 84
Shiga Prefectural Government, Lake Biwa Guided Book (Otsu, Shiga: Environmental Policy Division of Shiga Prefectural Government, 2014), 92; and interview with IN, Director of People’s Institute of Environment in Kyoto, Monday, July 14, 2014. 85
Atsushi Makino, “The Soap Movement,” in Lake Biwa: Interactions between Nature and People, ed. HiroyaKawanabe, Machiko Nishino, Masayoshi Maehata (New York, London: Springer, 2012), 429. 86
Ibid. 87
Interview with SM, Professor in Graduate School of Law Kyoto University, Wednesday, July 16, 2014; interview with IN, Director of People’s Institute of Environment in Kyoto, Monday, July 14, 2014; Interview with FK, Associate Professor in Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University and Kada’s close friend and member of Kada’s winning team in the 2006 election, Monday, July 14, 2014.
it was easily accepted and supported by many voters in Shiga Prefecture, particularly in the
urban area.88
Therefore, the combination of a strong community-based movement and the Shiga
prefectural government under Takemura’s leadership became the starting point of long
tradition of environmental protection policy in Shiga Prefecture. It is fair to say that the
strong legacy of the Shiga community and its government’s commitment to the preservation
of Lake Biwa further encouraged Kada’s individual passion on environmental preservation
policy for Lake Biwa and its surrounding area. Kada’s expertise in water and agriculture
preservation seems more influential behind her commitment to environment protection,
and corresponds with fact that she rarely emphasized her gender in political discourse or in
campaigns. Such an approach can be attributed to the dominant masculine political culture
in Japan that tends to impose negative stereotypes on female politicians. In addition, Kada
was a newcomer to Shiga politics. Thus, it would not benefit her to emphasize her femininity
and gender status. Instead, it would be much better for her to display her expertise in the
environment protection programs that matches the strong legacy of Shiga Prefecture in
terms of environment protection.
Environment protection policy in Kada’s political campaign: “Mottainai” (2006) and
“Mottainai Plus” (2010)
Although Japan has a multiparty political system, the conservative Liberal Democratic Party
(LDP) was the dominant party in government, ruling Japan from 1955-2012. 89 The
Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) has almost been a ‘permanent’ opposition party. The
conservative party LDP is known as the typical male-dominated party, pro-development and
strongly rural based. On the other hand, the progressive party is known as supportive of
female politicians, pro-environment, independent, anti-development, and the more urban-
based of the two larger parties.90 This set of ideological and policy lines between the
conservative and progressive parties allowed politicians to choose their party affiliation to
not only meet their personal interests but also to create an image to win voters’ hearts. This
is also the case in Kada’s political story.
In the 2006 governor election in Shiga Prefecture, Kada was supported by the
Socialist Democrat Party (SDP) even though it did not have a political base since it did not
have seats in Shiga Prefecture; thus, in reality Kada was an independent candidate in the
election.91 It is understandable that Kada as a female politician with a strong interest in the
environmental protection of Lake Biwa was supported by the SDP as the progressive party,
while the conservative LDP and the New Komeito party endorsed the incumbent governor
88
Interview with SM, Professor in Graduate School of Law Kyoto University, Wednesday, July 16, 2014. 89
Koji Ono, “Introduction: Transformation of Contemporary Japanese Politics,” in Governmental Changes and Party Political Dynamics in Korea and Japan (Japan: Bokutakusha Publisher, 2012), 16. 90
Interview with SM, Professor in Graduate School of Law Kyoto University, Wednesday, July 16, 2014. 91
Interview with SM, Professor in Graduate School of Law Kyoto University, Wednesday, July 16; and YS, Associate Professor in Graduate School of Law and Politics Osaka University, Wednesday, July 9, 2014.
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Yoshitsugu Kunimatsu. Surprisingly, Kada gained victory as the first female governor of Shiga
Prefecture in 2006 with 217.842 votes, defeating the strong incumbent governor Yoshitsugu
Kunimatsu, who collected 185.344 votes.92 The victory of Kada was a surprise for everybody
because she was a new player in Shiga Prefecture without political experience, while the
incumbent had strong endorsement from the conservative LDP with strong supporter bases
in the Northern part of Shiga. Hence, what was the key of Kada’s political success then?
The key behind Kada’s political victory was her political platform called “mottainai”,
which literally means ‘do not waste.’ It was one of seven of Kada’s political manifestoes
launched in the 2006 election.93 Although “mottainai” was not originally from Kada,94 it
became Kada’s popular political slogan proposed to cutting wasteful spending such as to
freeze the construction of a new Shinkansen station and the planned construction of dams
and an industrial waste plant in the prefecture.95 According to SM (2014) “mottainai” had
dual meaning; they were stop wasteful expenditure such as the Shinkansen project, and
secondly “mottainai” seemed to suggest the environmental protection related to her
expertise especially in preserving Lake Biwa.96 Through “mottainai” Kada urged serious
effort and policy to restore the water quality of Lake Biwa for the sake of the future
generation.97
From gender perspectives, even though “mottainai” is neutral phrase that can be
used by females and males in Japanese, according to SM (2014) it is a typical concept of the
mother in a family to tell children not to waste things.98 Interestingly, Kada did not
emphasize her femaleness and gender (motherly role) in her political campaign; instead, she
92
“2006 Kyodo News International, Inc, July 3, 20006, “Rookie Kada Wins Shiga Gubernatorial Election”, http://www.thefreelibrary.com/CORRECTED%3A+Rookie+Kada+wins+Shiga+gubernatorial+election.-a0147754536 (accessed October 1, 2013). 93
The seven political manifestos are: (i) stop the Shinkansen project, (ii) stop big infrastructure project, (iii) improve agriculture, fisheries and industrial policy, (iv) promote education and social welfare, (v) protect Biwa-ko, (vi) “Mottainai”, (vii) redefine the attraction of Biwa-ko to make Biwa Lake as the center of Shiga Prefecture. Information from interview with YS, Associate Professor in Associate Professor in Graduate School of Law and Politics Osaka University, Wednesday, July 9, 2014. 94
According to two important resource persons, the term “mottainai” was used by foreign delegations (outside Japan) to refer to the efforts in dealing with global warming and climate change by reducing any wasteful activities and expenditure; this occurred during the summit meeting in Kyoto that resulted in Kyoto Protocol. Later on, the term “mottainai” which comes from Japanese language becomes a popular term in environment protection discourse in Japan. Interview with SM, Professor in Graduate School of Law Kyoto University, Wednesday, July 16, 2015, and interview with OK, bureaucrat in Deputy Director General Department of Lake Biwa and Environment of Shiga Prefecture, Friday, July 18, 2014. 95
Interview with SM, Professor in Graduate School of Law Kyoto University, Wednesday July 16, 2014. 97
SuvendriniKakuchi - Asia Water Wire, “ENVIRONMENT-JAPAN: Green Lawmakers Stop Dam Building Spree”, http://www.ipsnews.net/2006/11/environment-japan-green-lawmakers-stop-dam-building-spree/ (accessed October 1, 2013) 98
Interview with SM, Professor in Graduate School of Law Kyoto University, Wednesday, July 16, 2014.
chose to promote her expertise on environmental protection with the “mottaini” slogan.99
Nevertheless, Kada’s “mottainai” slogan that urged people to stop spending unnecessary
budget and focused on the preservation of environment for the sake of better living
conditions and future generations reflected Kada’s femininity and nurturance.
Kada’s “mottainai” campaign was very attractive because it provided realistic
solutions for various problems caused by the incumbency of Kunimatsu’s leadership such as
increasing debts and pollution around Lake Biwa due to intensive lakeshore development.
As a known environmentalist, as she used to conduct research for the preservation of Lake
Biwa, Kada’s “mottainai” campaign became an iconic term symbolizing Kada as a
progressive female politician concerned with the preservation of Lake Biwa and its
surrounding area. “Mottainai” became Kada’s distinctive political symbol and it was strongly
connected to Kada’s political image and political career, whereby many voters came to
admire.100 In the eye of ordinary voters, Kada and her “mottainai” campaign signified the
rise of a new type of local leader in Shiga Prefecture as the first female local leader who has
a humble, approachable and friendly attitude, and who also possessed strong commitment
and expertise to preserving Lake Biwa.101
The Northern part of Shiga prefecture, which is mainly a rural agricultural residential
area, is closely connected to Lake Biwa, previously known as the strong base of the LDP
supporters. And, yet, in the 2006 election, Kada’s “mottainai” campaign focused on the
Preservation of Lake Biwa for local people especially in the Southern part of Shiga, as well as
anti-Lakeshore development, and so she also won the support of Northern-based people,
which resulted in the defeat of Kunimatsu. Kada had familiarized herself with Northern-
based voters in the prefecture since she began her research at Lake Biwa in the 1980s.102Her
past activities further facilitated her purpose. Kada joined the Shiga Prefecture Research
Institute and later she became the director of the Biwa-ko Museum, where her activities
were closely interacted with the Northern people of Shiga Prefecture who depend their lives
in fishery and agriculture103 as well as, meeting bureaucrats, politicians, environmentalist
activists, and women’s groups. Kada did not only gain support from the Southern base of
pro-environment urbanized people but also from the Northern base of voters who live in
the rural area. This widespread support was attained by Kada’s precise political platform of
“mottainai” that resulted in her overwhelming and unexpected victory in the 2006 election.
Kada consistently carried out programs focusing on the environmental preservation
of Lake Biwa and its surrounding area, which contributed to her victory in the July 2010
99
SM, Professor in Graduate School of Law Kyoto University, Wednesday, July 16, 2014; and YS, Associate Professor in Associate Professor in Graduate School of Law and Politics Osaka University, Wednesday, July 9, 2014. 100
Interview with SM, Professor in Graduate School of Law Kyoto University, Wednesday, July 16, 2015. 101
Interview with YK, a housewife in Fujimidai Otsu City Shiga Prefecture, Sunday, July 13, 2014. 102
Interview with IN, Director of People’s Institute of Environment in Kyoto, Monday, July 14, 2014. 103
YS, Associate Professor in Associate Professor in Graduate School of Law and Politics Osaka University, Wednesday, July 9, 2014.
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election and her success in running as the Governor of Shiga Prefecture for a second term
using “Mottainai Plus” as her slogan.104 “Mottaimai Plus” is basically similar to her earlier
slogan “mottainai” used in the 2006 election. Furthermore, she added more plans focusing
on making child-rearing and elderly care in Shiga easier, improving employment
opportunities for young people, and supporting small-medium-sized businesses.105 The
“mottainai plus” campaign promoted more environmental policies to tackle environmental
problems including the anticipated central government’s plan to build a nuclear power plant
in Fukui Prefecture located closely to Southern area of Shiga Prefecture.106Kada paid
attention to the serious effect of a nuclear power plant on the Lake Biwa ecosystem and
livelihood as she feared the potential risk of nuclear waste after the meltdown of Fukushima
nuclear power plant in March 2011. “Mottainaiplus” worked well and Kada gained 419.921
votes, the highest number ever for a Shiga Governor.107 Kada was reelected as Governor of
Shiga for the 2010-2014 period.
This section has shown that Kada strategically used environment protection issues
especially the preservation of Lake Biwa and its surrounding area in her political campaign in
the 2006 election called “mottainai” as well as in the 2010 election called “mottainai plus”.
Semantically, the term “mottaini” comes from motherly role of a mother telling children not
to waste things, and thus can be closely connected to Kada’s gender as mother. However,
Kada did not emphasize her gender per se in the campaign. Rather, she emphasized her
expertise as a researcher on environmental protection especially on the water preservation
of Lake Biwa and its surrounding area. This strategy attracted the local people, not only
because it provided realistic solutions toward problems caused by the incumbent mayor
such as high debts and pollution around Shiga area, but also considering the fact that Shiga
Prefecture has long held a strong legacy on environment protection. This section underlines
an important finding that in the case of Kada’s victory, the environment protection issue
under the “mottainai” slogan had worked well for her victory because it suited Shiga
Prefecture’s legacy on environment protection, provided solutions to actual problems, and
combined with Kada’s distinct individual resources as the new type of female local leader in
the Shiga Prefecture with a strong commitment to environmental issues.
The use of gender perspective in preserving Lake Biwa: “Mother Lake”
104
“Interview with Shiga Governor Yukiko Kada”, http://www.kansai.gr.jp/en/presstour/2012/08/tour-for-system-test.html (accessed October 1, 2013) 105
PHILBERT ONO, “GOVERNOR KADA YUKIKO REELECTED IN LANDSLIDE V ICTORY,” SHIGA NEWS,
JULY 13, 2010, HTTP://SHIGA-KEN.COM/BLOG/2010/07/GOVERNOR-KADA-YUKIKO-REELECTED-
IN-LANDSLIDE/ (ACCESSED JANUARY 30, 2015). 106
YS, Associate Professor in Associate Professor in Graduate School of Law and Politics Osaka University, Wednesday, July 9, 2014 and interview with FK, Associate Professor in Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University, Monday, July 14, 2014. 107
Philbert Ono, “Governor Kada Yukiko reelected in landslide victory,”Shiga News, July 13, 2010, http://shiga-ken.com/blog/2010/07/governor-kada-yukiko-reelected-in-landslide/ (accessed January 30, 2015).
The term “Mother Lake” was chosen because it reflects the tight relationship between the
Lake in providing abundant water resources and landscapes for humans and organisms, as if
the Lake is a mother caring for children.108According to many sources, the phrase Mother
Lake was not originally coined by Kada; it had been coined 20 years earlier when Governor
Takemura ruled Shiga Prefecture.109“Mother Lake” is an iconic term that represents a
comprehensive effort in the preservation of Lake Biwa and its surrounding area involving
the national government’s role with The Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Plan
launched in 1972, followed by the Shiga Prefecture local government’s participation since
1997.110
Under the leadership of Governor Yoshitsugu Kunimatsu in 2000, Shiga Prefecture
launched a model for Lake Biwa’s comprehensive preservation project in the 21st century,
emphasizing strong collaboration between government, citizens and business sectors to
maintain water quality, protect the watershed and preserve the natural environment and
scenic landscapes in three stages: 1st stage from 1999-2010, 2nd stage from 2010- 2020 and
the 3rd stage from 2020-2050.111Prior to the Mother Lake 21 Plan, the Shiga Prefectural
Government launched the Lake Biwa integrated development plan (1972-1997) focusing on
the usage of the Lake Biwa water resource for industrial purposes mainly in Osaka.
Therefore, the Mother Lake 21 Plan was launched to create a more balanced relationship
between the people surrounding Lake Biwa and Lake Biwa; to create a harmonious living
coexistence between Lake Biwa and people/nature in the surrounding area and not merely
focusing on the human side which exploited the Lake.112
One of bureaucrats in Deputy Director General Department of Lake Biwa and
Environment of Shiga Prefecture said that “Mother Lake” has been known in Shiga
prefecture and it was not introduced by Kada; instead, Kada used the term “Mother Lake”
during the 2006 campaign and then kept using it in her policy for the preservation of Lake
Biwa and its surrounding area.113Understanding the fact that the term Mother Lake has
existed long before Kada’s political in the 2006 election, it would be misleading if we
simplify that Mother Lake is Kada’s original policy platform. And, yet, this paper can
108
Interview with OK, bureaucrat in Deputy Director General Department of Lake Biwa and Environment of Shiga Prefecture, Friday, July 18, 2014. 109
Interview with FK, Associate Professor in Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University and Kada’s close friend and member of Kada’s winning team in the 2006 election, Monday, July 14, 2014; Interview with IN, Director of People’s Institute of Environment in Kyoto, Monday, July 14, 2014; Interview with TK, ordinary citizen lives in Fujimidai Otsu City, Shiga Prefecture, Sunday, July 13, 2014. 110
Shiga Prefecture, Mother Lake 21 Plan: Lake Biwa Comprehensive Preservation and Improvement Project (Shiga: Shiga Prefecture Government, 2000), 1, http://www.pref.shiga.lg.jp/biwako/koai/mother21-e/0.pdf (accessed August 24, 2015) 111
Ibid., 1-2. 112
Interview with OK, bureaucrat in Deputy Director General Department of Lake Biwa and Environment of Shiga Prefecture, Friday, July 18, 2014. 113
Interview with OK, bureaucrat in Deputy Director General Department of Lake Biwa and Environment of Shiga Prefecture, Friday, July 18, 2014.
evaluate the presence of the trope ‘Mother Lake’ during Kada’s term and see whether
gender perspectives are integrated.
The author’s observation conducted on local residences around Lake Biwa signifies
that the effort in maintaining the water quality of Lake Biwa and the preservation of the
surrounding area has been largely a community-based movement such as cleaning waste
around the Lakeshore of Lake Biwa by a community of elderly, organized by Otsu City.
Moreover, a recycling program teaches housewives to keep eco-friendly products, and a
youth cleaning program involving elementary and junior high school students to clean Lake
Biwa and its surrounding area was developed, Organizing an annual event by the
community to clean Lake Biwa and the Lakeshore also supplemented the efforts of a group
of housewives who regularly met and acted together to clean the Lakeshores.114Hence, even
though the communities in Shiga Prefecture knew the Mother Lake campaign well, it is
difficult in day-to-day practice to clearly notice Kada’s special contribution to the actions.
Further interview with OK, a bureaucrat in Deputy Director General Department of
Lake Biwa and Environment of Shiga Prefecture, pointed that that so far, they did not
evaluate policy on the preservation of Lake Biwa with special consideration to different
needs of women and men; there was no sort of program.115 However, further observation
on the Fundamental Plan for Shiga Prefecture, in which the Lake Biwa revitalization project
is one of the programs, mentioned the support for women during each stage of the
employment process to ensure an increasing number of women find work with support
from the Gender Equality Center from 2009-2014.116 Consequently, while it is difficult to
clearly see the presence of gender perspectives in the preservation of Lake Biwa, the above
point provides evidence that the efforts to preserve Lake Biwa to some extent also contains
elements of a gender perspective.
Such a reading is possible and even more so during Kada’s leadership because Kada
took a tremendous role in encouraging interaction between local people and culture in
environment protection programs, especially in the preservation of Lake Biwa, in which she
encouraged communities, students in school, and youth to protect the
environment.117Although historically the coexistence between Lake Biwa and people,
animals, and plants in the surrounding area has existed for approximately 2.100 years,118
people often neglected this coexistence in the preservation of Lake Biwa and its surrounding
114
Interview with TK, and his wife YK, ordinary citizen lives in Fujimidai Otsu City, Shiga Prefecture, Sunday, July 13, 2014. 115
Interview with OK, bureaucrat in Deputy Director General Department of Lake Biwa and Environment of Shiga Prefecture, Friday, July 18, 2014. 116
See Leaflet of Shiga Prefectural Government, Fundamental Plan for Shiga Prefecture: Eight Doors to the Future (Shiga Prefectural Government: Planning Coordination Division Department of Policy Planning and Coordination Shiga Prefectural Government, 2011), no page. 117
Interview with FK, Associate Professor in Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University and Kada’s close friend and member of Kada’s winning team in the 2006 election, Monday, July 14, 2014. 118
Masaharu Yoda, “Period of Coexistence,” in in Lake Biwa: Interactions between Nature and People, ed. HiroyaKawanabe, Machiko Nishino, Masayoshi Maehata (New York, London: Springer, 2012), 241.
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area. Through her programs and policy, Kada sought to encourage people to live in harmony
with the Lake and to protect the ecosystem of the Lake and its surrounding areas for the
benefits of the existing community and future generations because Lake Biwa plays a vital
role in providing clean water for people living along the lake shores and beyond.119
Kada created close interactions between humans and nature in protecting the
environment based on her extensive research since 1980s into the livelihoods of people
around Biwa Lake. She pointed out the coexistence between Lake Biwa and the surrounding
inhabitants for example in the Harie district of Takashima in the west of Lake Biwa, in which
the underground water from Ado River system flows in abundance and is attached to each
household called “Kabata.” The spring water is accumulated into the place, usually in the
garden or corner of kitchen, for the manifold purposes of the residents.120 Since the spring
water becomes the main source for the residents’ lives in “Kabata”, the community from
youth to elderly work collectively and voluntarily to protect the water quality by using
natural detergents; however, “Kabata” is rarely found now. Therefore, the Governor of
Shiga Prefecture Yukiko Kada emphasized that the importance of coexistence between Lake
Biwa and people as well as its surrounding nature (animals and plants) should be taken into
account in any effort around the preservation of Lake Biwa and its surrounding area, and
not merely an act of environmental protection per se.121
At the level of policy making, Kada has had a tremendous role in terminating the
plan to build a nuclear power plant in Fukui Perfecture, near Shiga Prefecture in 2012. As
the Governor of Shiga Prefecture, Kada lobbied the central government not to allow the
development of nuclear power plant because it would endanger Lake Biwa and its
surrounding area in the event of accident.122 In one of her statements opposing the
development of the proposed nuclear power plant, she emphasized the importance to
preserve the clean water of Lake Biwa for the future generation as she said “…for our
children and grandchildren as a governor in charge of overseeing Lake Biwako”.123Finally,
the nuclear power plan was terminated and Lake Biwa’s ecosystem remains protected.
To sum up, it is difficult to draw Kada’s clear contribution to Shiga Prefecture’s
environment program in preserving Lake Biwa and its surrounding area because the Mother
Lake policy campaign existed long before Kada’s political rise. However, this paper reveals
that Kada had a tremendous role in fostering new approaches to coexistence between Lake
119
Kada’s statement as cited from Julian Ryall, “Green governor taps into Japanese fears,” at http://www.dw.de/green-governor-taps-into-japanese-fears/a-16446720 (accessed October 1, 2013) . 120
Shiga Prefectural Government, Lake Biwa Guided Book (Otsu, Shiga: Environmental Policy Division of Shiga Prefectural Government, 2014), 76. 121
Interview with OK, bureaucrat in Deputy Director General Department of Lake Biwa and Environment of Shiga Prefecture, Friday, July 18, 2014. 122
Interview with YK, Associate Professor in Associate Professor in Graduate School of Law and Politics Osaka University, Wednesday, July 9, 2014. 123
Kada’s statement as cited from “Election Watch: Lake Biwa Inspires Anti-Nuclear Party Chief, but Will Veterans Dampen the Mood?”, The Asahi Shimbun, November 28, 2012, http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/politics/AJ201211280067 (accessed October 1, 2013)
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Biwa and people. As well the surrounding nature (animals and plants) should be taken into
account in the effort to preserve Lake Biwa and its surrounding area, as not merely an act of
protection environment. Within this approach, indirectly Kada took care of the needs of
people and future generations to have quality water resources and a more functional
ecosystem. While so far, this paper could not find any data or program related to the
preservation of Lake Biwa addressing the different needs of women and men, this paper still
discovers elements of a gender perspective that provide support for women during each
stage of Kada’s implementation process, as part of her plan to create a more comfortable
and sustainable living environment in Shiga Prefecture.
Implications of the policy
Analyzing the implications of the policy preservation of Lake Biwa and its surrounding area,
especially under Kada’s leadership, is not an easy task. As explained earlier, the preservation
of Lake Biwa and its surrounding area through some programs such as Mother Lake 21 plan
begun since 2000 under Governor Kunimatsu, long before Kada’s governorship (2006-2010
and 2010-2014). It is also difficult to find basic data on the implications of Kada’s policy
under her leadership. Nevertheless, Kada’s legacy impact on the preservation of Lake Biwa
and its surrounding area still can be noticed clearly from her intensive endorsement of the
coexistence approach by building harmony between the Lake and people living around the
area in the preservation of Lake Biwa. This movement resulted in some positive effects.
First, the wider community’s involvement and participation in the preservation of
Lake Biwa. Shiga’s Prefectural Governor begun to encourage youths’ awareness on the
importance of preserving Lake Biwa by means of “Unimako.” “Unimako” is a boat floating
school that has served since 1983 where all fifth grade students at elementary school in
Shiga Prefecture had to take part in a two-day one-night educational program on the boat
called “Biwako Floating School”.124 There have been nearly 470.000 elementary school
students who have participated in the Biwako Floating School from 1983 to 2014.125 Under
Kada’s leadership, she encouraged further community participation for preserving Lake
Biwa and the program was responded to variously across Shiga.126
Second, active partnership with business sector and industry to develop green and
eco-friendly industry and products in which the Government of Shiga prefecture awards a
company with the best eco-friendly policy and products.127 Third, an increase in the quality
of living conditions in Shiga Prefecture can be seen from the increasing number of people
residing along Lake Biwa shore in Shiga Prefecture due to the comprehensive plan and
124
Shiga Prefectural Government, Lake Biwa Guided Book (Otsu, Shiga: Environmental Policy Division of Shiga Prefectural Government, 2014), 68. 125
Interview with OK, bureaucrat in Deputy Director General Department of Lake Biwa and Environment of Shiga Prefecture, Friday, July 18, 2014. 126
Interview with YK, housewives ordinary citizen lives in Fujimidai Otsu City, Shiga Prefecture, Sunday, July 13, 2014. 127
Interview with OK, bureaucrat in Deputy Director General Department of Lake Biwa and Environment of Shiga Prefecture, Friday, July 18, 2014.
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initiative of Shiga government toward a comfortable, enjoyable Shiga to contribute to
striving to achieve Japan’s highest quality of life.128Through these programs, we can see
Kada’s leadership has had positive effects towards policy for the preservation of Lake Biwa
in a way that not only was she practically able to stop industrial plans that potentially
endangered Lake Biwa and its surrounding ecosystem as mentioned in the earlier section,
but also strategically was capable of encouraging communities’ (ordinary citizens and
business sectors) awareness of the nature of coexistence between the Lake and people in
the preservation of Lake Biwa to ensure the quality of water and ecosystem for the future
generations.
Comparative analysis and conclusion
Previous sections have explained the two case studies of Tri Rismaharini, the Mayor of
Surabaya City, and Yukiko Kada, the Governor of Shiga Prefecture. This section presents a
comparative analysis of the two case studies, formulates a conclusion and reflections. Table
1 below summarizes the points to be elaborated further in this section.
Table 1: Comparative analysis of political initiative on environment protection policy of the two female leaders in Indonesia and Japan
Level of Analyses Tri Rismaharini, the Mayor of Surabaya City (2010-2015) INDONESIA
Yukiko Kada, the Governor of Shiga Prefecture (2006-2010) (2010-2014) JAPAN
Important context to be considered
Legacy of environment Protection
Relatively new attention on environment protection since 1980s, 1990s, and today
Long and dynamic history of advocating environment protection since 1800s (Meiji Restoration1868), 1970s, 1980s, 1900s, and today
Nature of Environment Protection
Initially is NPO-based movement in 1980s, which is followed by government control to environment protection in 1990s
Initially is a community environmental movement in 1970s, then changed into government control in 1990s, and now is a more voluntary movement in the 2000s
Political Party System Multi-party system with at least five big political parties (PDIP, Golkar, Democratic Party, PKB, PKS, PAN). No political party has clear commitment on environment protection programs.
A typical single stable domination party of the conservative LDP. No political party is seen as the champion on the environment protection issue.
Affiliation of each leader to Political Party
PDIP (Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle).
Socialist Democratic Party (SDP).
Aspect to be analyzed
128
See Leaflet of Shiga Prefectural Government, Fundamental Plan for Shiga Prefecture: Eight Doors to the Future (Shiga Prefectural Government: Planning Coordination Division Department of Policy Planning and Coordination Shiga Prefectural Government, 2011), no page.
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Influence of gender in their initiatives on environment protection
Risma’s individual capital on education and her father’s family business provides considerable influences behind Risma’s commitment on environment protection, and Risma’s gender (motherhood) shapes it as well. Risma perceives herself as mother for the entire City.
Kada’s individual capital of expertise on water and agriculture provides considerable influences of Kada’s commitment on the preservation of Lake Biwa; however, influence of her gender is weaker.
The usage of environment protection policy issues in political campaign for their victory
It was strategically used and contributed to her victory in the 2005 direct Mayoral election in Surabaya City.
It was strategically used and contributed to her victory in the 2006 and 2010 direct Governor election in Shiga Prefecture.
Integration of gender perspectives in environment protection policy
Gender perspective has been integrated in Risma’s policy to rejuvenate abandoned parks for the sake of women, children, elderly, and the future generation such as by building various thematic parks. Risma gave women (in collaboration with men) considerable role in community-based environment protection programs as environment cadres and volunteers that gradually increased their social and economic capacity.
Kada has a tremendous role in fostering new approaches of coexistence between Lake Biwa and people as well as its surrounding nature (animals and plants) that should also be put into account in the effort of preserving Lake Biwa and its surrounding area, and not merely an act of protection environment per se. Within this approach, Kada indirectly cared for the needs of all people and the future generation to have quality water resources and ecosystem. However, so far, this paper could not find any data or programs related to the preservation of Lake Biwa addressing different needs of women and men, but this paper discovers some elements of gender perspective that provided support for women during each stage of employment process, as part of planning to create comfortable living area in Shiga Prefecture.
Implication of the policy Stronger community awareness to develop sustainable environment education focusing on the youth
Increasing economic capacity of housewives because they were primary agents in many environment protection and economic development programs.
Surabaya was awarded the
In 2012, terminating the plan to build nuclear power plant in Fukui Prefecture near to Shiga Prefecture, which would endanger Lake Biwa and its surrounding area.
Stronger awareness in the preservation of Lake Biwa by promoting harmonious relationship between Lake Biwa and humans due to their interconnectedness.
Strong partnership with business
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most comfortable city for children in three consecutive years (2011, 2012, 2013).
sectors and industry to develop green and eco-friendly industry and product.
The increase of quality of living condition in Shiga Prefecture can be seen from the increasing number of people who reside along Lake Biwa shore.
Source: created by author based on the narrative developed in earlier sections.
As it is reflected in the Table above, there are several important contexts that shall be taken
into account in analyzing the two female leaders’ initiative on environment protection policy,
namely the legacy of environment protection in their country, political party system, and
their affiliation to a political party.
In Indonesia’s case, the attention of the government on environment protection
began since mid-1980s and was mainly initiated by NPOs such as Walhi (Wahana
Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia). In the 1990s, the government began to focus attention on the
environment in relation to climate change such as the ratification of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1994, then the ratification of the
Kyoto Protocol with Law No. 17/2004, followed by enactment of Law No. 61/2011 on
National Action to Reduce greenhouse gas emission, and Presidential regulation No.
62/2013 on National Bureau to reduce greenhouse gas emission. The official endorsement
of the environment protection was enacted in Law No. 17/2007 on National Long-Term
Development Plan (2005-2025), in which one of the visions is to create a beautiful and
everlasting Indonesia, to deal with the challenge of climate change and global warming.129
To foster the implementation of this plan, the Indonesian Government under Susilo
Bambang Yudhoyono’s presidency (2004-2009, 2009-2014) enacted President Regulation No.
46/2008 and established the National Council on Climate Change which resulted in the
drafting of the National Action Plan for Adaptation in 2011. Even though the document
looks good, in practice it does not work well due to lack of coordination and cooperation
among state institutions.130 Normatively, the newly-elected President Jokowi (2014-2019)
has stronger commitment on environment improvement and protection as reflected in
Jokowi’s18 commitments to environment and natural resources preservation.131 However,
129
Kementerian PPN/Bappenas (Ministry of National Development Planning), “KebijakanPerencanaanNasionalDalamBidangPerubahanIklimsertaLangkahMitigasidanAdaptasi,” PPT Presentation Deputy of Natural Resources and Environment Ministry of National Development Planning, April 24, 2013, 6. 130
See remark of Yudhoyono’s president as cited from YudhoWinarto, “SBY: AgenPerubahanIklimTergangguPersoalanKoordinasiantaraKementerian,” Kontan, September 30, 2011. 131
Walhi, “WALHI SambutBaik 18 KomitmenPresiden RI terpilihJokoWidododalamPemulihanLingkunganHidupdanPengelolaanSumberdayaAlam,” October 17, 2014, http://www.walhi.or.id/walhi-sambut-baik-18-komitmen-presiden-ri-terpilih-joko-widodo-dalam-pemulihan-lingkungan-hidup-dan-pengelolaan-sumberdaya-alam.html (accessed August 27, 2015).
in practice it does not work well either because Jokowi continues the program of massive
land clearing to be used for the food and energy production in Merauke West Papua,132 and
supports the expansion of the oil palm industry throughout Sumatera and Borneo that has
completely changed and endangered the ecosystem.
Risma’s political candidacy as the Mayor of Surabaya City in the 2010 direct election
occurred during the second term of Yudhoyono’s Presidency (2009-2014). As explained
earlier, though Yudhoyono’s started to embark on an environment protection policy, lack of
coordination and commitment from the state institutions shows a generally bleak picture on
environment protection. Nevertheless, society’s attention to the importance of
environment protection in relation to climate change rises, including in Surabaya.
Interestingly, among the many political parties allowed to participate within a multi-party
system after the fall of Suharto in 1998, there had been no political parties with a clear
commitment to environmental protection. The political party’s weak commitment to
environmental protection occurred from the central to the lower branches.133 At this stage,
it is important to note that political parties including PDIP where Tri Rismaharini then
affiliated in 2010 also has weak commitment on environment protection. Thus, rather than
the political party (PDIP), Risma plays as the main actor behind the distinct environment
protection policy in rejuvenating parks in Surabaya City. Risma’s individual capital of having
wider civil society networks, getting used to park and plants due to her father’s business,
was educated in Architecture and city planning management, has shaped her personal
commitment to environment protection issues particularly in rejuvenating abandoned parks
in Surabaya City.
Compared to Indonesia, Japan government’s attention to environment protection
issues had begun earlier since the Meiji Restoration in 1868 when Japan started
modernization. In doing so, Japan launched its industrial revolution by the end of the
Nineteenth century, unfortunately ignoring pollution control. Thus, many pollution
problems have arisen since 1877-1887.134 As the situation worsened, the government Diet
enacted the first Factory Law requiring large factories to obtain approval before
construction and conducted pollution control in 1911.135 Then, from the 1960s to the 1970s
132
FOR FURTHER INFORMAT ION SEE FOREST PEOPL E PROGRAM, “MERAUKE INTEGRATED
FOOD AND ENERGY ESTA TE (MIFEE) PROJECT,”
HTTP://WWW.FORESTPEO PLES.ORG/TAGS/MERAUK E - INTEGRATED -FOOD -AND-ENERGY-
ESTATE -MIFEE-PROJECT (ACCESSED AUGUST 27, 2015). 133
For example, Supratiwi’s research on political parties’ awareness on green politics and commitment on environment problems in Semarang City encompassed five big political parties (2009-2014), shows that the political parties do not have awareness on green politics and commitment on environment problems in Semarang City. See Supratiwi, “Partai Politik & Politik Hijau: Studi tentang Kepedulian Parpol terhadap Politik yang Prolingkungan di Kota Semarang”, POLITIKA: JurnalIlmuPolitik, vol 2, no 1 (2011): 109-117, http://ejournal.undip.ac.id/index.php/politika/issue/view/666 (accessed August 27, 2015). 134
HidefumiImura, “Japan’s Environmental Policy: Past and Future,” in Environmental Policy in Japan, ed. HidefumiImura and Miranda A. Schreurs (Great Britain: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2005), 17-18. 135
Japan experienced tragic environmental problems caused by pollution in Japanese cities,
including the famous case of Minamata mercury poisoning because they heavily focused on
industrialization, concentrating on economic growth, and again, neglected the ecological
effects.136 In the 1960s and early 1970s, environment citizens’ movements played significant
roles in advocating environment issues into the government’s agenda while this matter has
been largely ignored by the bureaucracy.137 At this stage, the existence of the soap
movement in Shiga Prefecture in the 1960s as mentioned earlier sought to increase the
community’s awareness on water pollution and encouraged the local government to enact
necessary regulations to curb water pollution; one of vivid examples of the environmental
citizens’ movement.
Although in the 1960s anti-pollution activities were being viewed as anti-industry
and anti-government movements, it gradually changed. The media ran environmental
protection campaigns criticizing the conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) and
increasing public awareness regarding this matter, which resulted in the enactment of the
Basic Law for Environment Pollution Control in 1967 which sought to harmonize economic
development with environment protection measures. 138 Surrounded by international
influences on environment policy, regulatory changes occurred in Japan since the early
1970s which obliged central and local government as well as business sectors to take
necessary measures to reduce pollution particularly in local areas.139 While, borrowing
Hidefumi Imura’s terms, “command and control” system of the 1970s was widely used to
curb pollution, in the 1980s Japan’s environmental policies shifted into “voluntary actions,”
which encouraged participatory and partnership by focusing on global problems such
climate change, urban pollution, and increasing energy consumption.140
In the 1990s, new environmental policy provided local governments with a new
coordinating role in integrating environment consideration into environmental policies, and
facilitating voluntary actions, participation and collaboration between citizens and business
in response to the global environmental issues to ‘think globally, act locally’.141 Since the
1990s and 2000s, Japan took a leading role in global environmental protections in Asia and
beyond, though skepticism persisted, as stated by Miranda A. Schrerurs (2004: 253) toward
Japan’s substantial role due to their domestic problems with difficult institutional changes
and Japan’s NGO’s community immaturity.142
136
Ibid., 23-25. 137
Miranda A. Schreurs, Environmental Politics in Japan, Germany and the United States (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 5. 138
HidefumiImura, “Japan’s Environmental Policy: Past and Future,” in Environmental Policy in Japan, ed. HidefumiImura and Miranda A. Schreurs (Great Britain: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2005), 27-28. 139
Ibid., 29-30. 140
Ibid., 71-72. 141
Ibid., 66-67. 142
Miranda A. Schreurs, Environmental Politics in Japan, Germany and the United States, 253.
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In relation to political parties, as explained earlier, even though Japan has a
multiparty system, it was known to be the stable domination of the conservative Liberal
Democratic Party, which was known to be typically a male-dominated party, pro-
development, rural-based party; while the progressive party was known as more supportive
toward female politicians, pro-environment, independent, anti-development, and urban-
based. There are many “green” politicians in the Diet, but no political party is seen as the
champion of environmental protection issues, even though the new Komeito party platform
has a close orientation toward environmental care, without forgetting the typical very small
and weak environmental community groups.143 This situation is different compared to
Germany, which has a green party to advocate environmental issues in the parliament
directly and influence the interests of other politicians; or in the United States of America
that has a large and very diverse community of environmental NGOs.144 In the case of
Yukiko Kada, she leaned on and was supported by the Socialist Democrat Party. Rather than
the party’s, it was Kada’s personal commitment to environment protection, which played a
significant role in promoting and initiating environment protection policy in the Shiga
Prefecture.
There is a different degree of gender influence behind Risma’s and Kada’s
commitment to environmental protection in which Risma’s gender (motherhood) clearly
shaped her attention to environment protection policy when she perceives herself as the
mother for the entire City. On the other hand, in Kada’s case, the gender influence is weaker
because her expertise on water and agriculture preservation is more influential, and she
rarely emphasized her gender in political discourse or campaigning. This is due to masculine
political culture in Japan that tends to result in negative stereotypes of female politicians. In
addition to the fact that Kada is a newcomer in Shiga politics, it would not benefit her if she
was to emphasize her femaleness and gender. It would be much better to emphasize her
expertise on environment protection that fitted with the strong legacy of Shiga Prefecture
on environmental protection.
Further, both women strategically used environment protection issues in their
political campaign to gain victory. This was a rational strategy to attract voters in the Age of
Climate Change when programs or actions to prevent environment degradation from
happening are favorable and relatively acceptable for all. Interestingly, Risma was able to
integrate gender perspectives in rejuvenating abandoned parks in Surabaya City by giving
wider spaces and a portion to women to take strategic roles in rejuvenating parks and
recycling waste that gradually increased their individual, social and economic capacity,
which will indirectly increase the welfare of a household. Risma also pays special attention
to children’s and youth’s needs by providing many comfortable playgrounds in various parks
to support their qualified growth. Similarly, Yukiko Kada took a significant role in fostering
143
Ibid.,6. 144
Ibid., 5.
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new approach of coexistence between Lake Biwa and people as well as its surrounding
nature (animals and plants). However, so far this paper could not find any data or programs
related to the preservation of Lake Biwa addressing different needs for women and men.
Nevertheless, this paper discovers elements of gender perspective that provided support for
women during each stage of employment process, as part of the plan to create comfortable
living in Shiga Prefecture. It is to be noted that under Kada’s leadership, the preservation of
Lake Biwa and its surrounding area delivers positive effects such as the increasing quality of
life especially—but not limited to—women and children, creating more community-based
environment protection movement, and therefore ensuring the sustainable quality of
natural resource and ecosystem for the sake of the future generation.
Through the Risma and Kada cases, this paper reveals that contexts, such as the
legacy on environment protection in each country, type of political party system and their
affiliation to political party are important factors to be considered—but not necessarily—
determinant in shaping a female leader’s initiative on environment protection policy. In fact,
the Risma and Kada cases show that their initiatives on environment protection policy have
been primarily driven by their individual capital especially educational background and
influence of family member to a lesser extent. The two case studies vividly show that gender
narratives have intentionally being used in discourse and practice on environmental
protection policy such as the use of term “mother for the entire City” in case of Risma in
Surabaya, or “mottainai” and “Mother Lake” campaign in case of Yukiko Kada in Shiga
Prefecture. The findings are not surprising, considering the wider perception of strong
correlations between women and natural resources in ecofeminism discourse, as mentioned
earlier. Risma and Kada may have never have read literature on ecofeminism. And, yet, their
initiatives and actions in environment protection by creating more harmonious relationships
between humans and nature especially plants and trees (as of green parks) in the case of
Risma and water (of Lake Biwa) in case of Kada, shows the spirit of ecofeminism in their
leadership, that encourages the adoption of harmonious relationship between humans and
nature due to the interconnectedness between both.
The act of treating and caring for nature will eventually end women’s oppression
because women usually are more affected severely by ecological degradation. As noted by
Karren J. Warren (1990), exploitation and environmental degradation are feminist issues
and understanding them will contribute to understanding women’s oppression.145In Risma’s
case, ordinary women are gradually freed from structural and economic oppression because
they are given strategic roles as environmental cadres and play significant roles in the
environment protection chain in Surabaya City by means of community-based recycle waste
management, which produces more income not only in their household but also across
community and neighborhood associations. Due to strong role of women (in collaboration
with men) in Risma’s various environment protection programs especially in rejuvenating
145
Karren J. Warren, “The Power and The Promise of Ecological Feminism, 127.
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parks and recycling waste, it would create the feeling of ownership among communities as
mothers, wives, and daughters are involved in creating the environment protection
narrative in Surabaya City. In Kada’s case, her new approach of building a harmonious
relationship between the Lake and its people, especially young men and women, was a
strategic action. At this stage, the usage of term “Mother Lake” effectively under Kada’s
leadership, as a universal term to depict the motherly role of Lake Biwa in nurturing and
providing the needs of all of Shiga Prefecture’s people is very precise to generate collective
ownership and belonging of Lake Biwa and its surrounding area across generations.
Regardless of their limitations, Risma’s and Kada’s stories clearly show that female
leaders with strong individual commitment to environmental protection, have the potential
not only to successfully play this issue to gain political victory in the Age of Climate Change,
but also more importantly to propagate a new narrative in environment protection. When
commitment to environmental protection has been embraced voluntarily and collectively
across generations, it becomes what I call a “community culture of care” in making
harmonious relationships between humans and nature imbued with strong local values.
Another important point to be highlighted is that even though Risma as an
Indonesian woman and Kada as a Japanese woman had never met before, interestingly,
their policy lines of encouraging a more harmonious relationship with nature concerning for
the future generation and their policy language on environment protection policy are similar.
This is probably the reflection of what Iris Marion Young (1994) called gender as “seriality”
referring to “a way of thinking about women as a social collective without requiring that all
women have common attributes or a common situation” or common identity, thus not
referring women as a group.146 Young’s gender “seriality” arises from her critique of the
tendency in feminist writing and discourse to generalize the concept of gender and women
as a homogenous group, universally powerless and oppressed, which is not empirically
accurate. This homogenous category of women contributed to create a homogenous
category of the Third world (southern and eastern hemisphere) as powerless and victims of
patriarchy, stands as “the Other” to the western feminists (European and American).147 By
doing so, what has been done by Risma in Indonesia and Yukiko Kada in Japan presents an
interesting narrative of women as a social collective in different countries with different
levels of industrialization and history of an environmental protection legacy, and yet these
women are able to embrace the same policy initiative on environmental protection in
dealing with the global challenge of climate change, driven by their inner character of
nurturance, which is believed to be found in female leaders.148
146
Iris Marion Young, “Gender as Seriality: Thinking about Women as a Social Collective,” Signs, vol. 19, no. 3 (Spring 1994): 715. http://www.jstor.org (accessed September 1, 2015). 147
Ibid., 723. 148
For further reading elaborates point of female leader and their leadership style see Cheryl Simrell King,
Finally, as Risma and Kada introduced a community-based environment protection
movement, which needed personal and community awareness as its basic materials, it
implied the loosening role of the state from controlling to facilitating. As the community is
getting involved and takes on more of a role in making and controlling various programs, it
will greatly ensure the sustainability of environmental policy as the two female leaders are
no longer in positions as Mayor and Governor. This type of community initiative, approach,
and model where the state has the role in supporting and facilitating is needed to ensure
ecological justice, because the future generations should be able to enjoy quality natural
resources and ecosystem, as we enjoy today, even in the increasing challenge of climate
change, regardless of the political instability and changes.
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Interview
In Japan
FK, Associate Professor in Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University and Kada’s close friend and member of Kada’s winning team in the 2006 election, in Kyoto, Monday, July 14, 2014.
IN, Director of People’s Institute of Environment in Kyoto, Monday,July 14, 2014.
OK, bureaucrat in Deputy Director General Department of Lake Biwa and Environment of Shiga Prefecture, in Shiga Prefecture, Friday,July 18, 2014.
SM, Professor in Graduate School of Law Kyoto University, in Kyoto, Wednesday, July 16, 2014.
TK, ordinary citizen lives in Fujimidai Otsu City, Shiga Prefecture,Sunday, July 13, 2014.
YK, housewives in Fujimidai Otsu City Shiga Prefecture, Sunday,July 13, 2014.
YS, Associate Professor in Graduate School of Law and Politics Osaka University, Wednesday, July 9, 2014.
In Surabaya
HST, female academia from prominent university in Surabaya who are Risma’s consultant in city planning and development of Surabaya City, in Surabaya, Wednesday,May 6, 2015.
KDS prominent NGO activist affiliated with NahdlatulUlama (Indonesia’s traditionalist Islamic organization founded by Hasyim Asy’ari and WahabChasbullah in 1926, the biggest Islamic organization in Indonesia), in Surabaya,Monday, May 4, 2015.
OR senior redactor of JawaPos (prominent newspaper based in Surabaya) who has close connection with Tri Rismaharini, in Surabaya, Monday, May 4, 2015.
RSD, senior redactor of JawaPos (prominent newspaper based in Surabaya), in Surabaya Monday, May 4, 2015.
WWK, prominent women activist in Surabaya, Wednesday, May 6, 2015.
ZMR, NGO Tunas Hijau in Surabaya, Tuesday,May 5, 2015.
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