International Talent Development in China

Series editors

Huiyao Wang, Center for China and Globalization, Beijing, ChinaLu Miao, Center for China and Globalization, Beijing, China

International talent is a leading force in China’s economic globalization. This seriesfeatures the latest research on international talent development in China, a countrythat, in recent years, has become the largest source of international education aswell as immigration in the world. Topics covered by the series include but are notlimited to: international education in China, China’s overseas student returnees,China’s international population migration, and regional international talentcompetitiveness in China.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16119

Huiyao Wang • Lu Miao

China’s Domesticand International MigrationDevelopment

123

Huiyao WangCenter for China and GlobalizationBeijing, China

Lu MiaoCenter for China and GlobalizationBeijing, China

ISSN 2524-5171 ISSN 2524-518X (electronic)International Talent Development in ChinaISBN 978-981-13-6255-2 ISBN 978-981-13-6256-9 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6256-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019930571

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Contents

Part I Domestic Migration and Urbanization

1 Effects of Shifting Migration Patterns and Urbanizationon China’s Economy and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 Overview of Shifting Migration Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.1 Rural Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.2.2 Migration of Domestically Well Educated Skilled

Talent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.2.3 Well Educated and Skilled Chinese Returnee Talent . . . . . 81.2.4 International Migration to China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.3 Recent Migration Trends and Looming Labor Shortages WillIntensify the Competition for Workers Among Chinese Cities . . . . 10

1.4 Government Policies and Migration to Chinese Cities . . . . . . . . . . 131.4.1 Hukou Rule Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.4.2 Talent Attraction Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171.4.3 Social Welfare Provision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.4.4 Proposed Mega-cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1.5 Enduring Connections of Migrants Between Place of Originand Place of Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

1.6 Gender in Chinese Internal Migration to and Between Cities . . . . . 381.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2 Survey on Internal Migration Among Highly Educated ChineseTalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512.2 Shifting Preferences of Educated Chinese Talent in Living and

Working Location: Chengdu Versus Beijing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

v

2.2.1 Changing Living and Work Location Preferences . . . . . . . 532.2.2 Chengdu Versus Beijing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2.3 Research Design and Survey Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562.3.1 Assessing Factors Influencing Internal Migration . . . . . . . . 562.3.2 Survey Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622.4.1 Beijing to Chengdu Talent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622.4.2 Sichuan Talent Staying in Beijing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

2.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Part II International Migration and Talent Attraction Policies

3 Comparative Study of Global Admission Policies and Mechanismsfor Attracting International Talent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853.2 Theoretical Perspective of Skilled Labor Migration Policies . . . . . 87

3.2.1 Driving Factors for Attracting International Talent andSkilled Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.2.2 Formal Immigration Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923.3 Chinese Policies, Mechanisms, and Administration to Attract

and Retain Skilled Overseas Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933.3.1 Background: China’s Shortage of Educated

and Skilled Human Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933.3.2 Chinese Programs for Attracting International Talent . . . . . 94

3.4 Comparative Study of Admission Policies and Mechanismsfor Attracting Foreign Talent in Germany/EU, Japan,and Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013.4.1 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013.4.2 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1163.4.3 Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243.4.4 Qualitative Comparison of the Case Study Countries . . . . . 133

3.5 Surveys with Highly Skilled Migrants in Case StudyCountries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373.5.1 Survey Background and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373.5.2 Makeup of Survey Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393.5.3 Survey Respondents’ Evaluation of High-Skilled

Immigration Policies in Case Study Countries . . . . . . . . . . 1423.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

4 China’s Talent Attraction Policies in the Present Age . . . . . . . . . . . . 1694.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1694.2 Setting the Foundation for China’s International Talent

Attraction Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

vi Contents

4.2.1 Early Formation Stage (2001–2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1724.2.2 Reforming Stage (2008–2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1744.2.3 Consolidating Stage: Establishing a Competitive Talent

Attraction System (2015–Present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1774.3 Evolutionary Trends in Talent Attraction Policies in China . . . . . . 1804.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Part III EU-China Cooperation on Migration and Mobility

5 Talent Migration In and Out of China at a Glance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1875.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1875.2 Migration from China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

5.2.1 International Geographic Distribution of ChineseMigrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

5.2.2 The Emerging Characteristics of Chinese Migrantsin the EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

5.2.3 The Integration Progress and Overseas ChineseCommunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

5.3 Migration to China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2115.3.1 Returned Overseas Chinese/Chinese Returnees from

the EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2125.3.2 International Migrants Residing in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

5.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

6 EU-China Migration Policies and Legal Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . 2296.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2296.2 Policies Changes in the Chinese Immigration System

2010–2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2306.2.1 National Migration Policies for Foreign Workers . . . . . . . . 2316.2.2 Regional Policies for Attracting International Talents . . . . . 233

6.3 EU Program Targeting Inward Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2356.4 Irregular Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

6.4.1 Irregular Immigration into Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2396.4.2 Chinese Policies Regarding Irregular Immigrants . . . . . . . . 240

6.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Appendix C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Appendix D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Appendix E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Contents vii

About the Authors

Dr. Huiyao Wang is Founder and President of Center for China and Globalization(CCG) and Dean of Institute of Development of Southwestern University ofFinance and Economics. The Chinese Premier appointed him as Counselor of ChinaState Council. He is Vice Chairman of the China Association for InternationalEconomic Cooperation Association in the Ministry of Commerce. He is Member ofMigration Advisory Board of the International Organization of Migration (IOM),United Nation. He is also Advisor of Yale University Asia Development Council,Member of the advisory board of Richard Ivey School of Business in Asia, SteeringCommittee Member of Metropolis International, and Advising Member to the boardof the Association of Executive Search Consultants in New York. He was SeniorFellow at Harvard Kennedy School and was Visiting Fellow at BrookingsInstitution. He has published over 50 books and 100 articles and papers on Chineseglobal talent and migration, returned scholars, students’ study abroad and theoverseas diaspora. His latest English books include International Migration ofChina: Status, Policy and Social Responses to the Globalization of Migration(Springer), Reverse Migration in Contemporary China (Palgrave Macmillan), aswell as Entrepreneurship and Talent Management from a Global Perspective:Global Returnees (Edward Elgar), and Globalizing China: The Influence, Strategiesand Successes of Chinese Returnee Entrepreneurs (Emerald).

Dr. Lu Miao is Deputy Director General of the International Writing Center ofBeijing Normal University. She is also Co-founder and Secretary General of theCenter for China and Globalization (CCG), the largest Chinese independent thinktank with nearly 100 full-time researchers and staff. CCG has been ranked among topten think tanks and No.1 independent think tank in China by University ofPennsylvania Think Tank and Civil Society Program. She is also Secretary Generalof China Global Talent Society as well as China Western Returned ScholarsAssociation Policy Advisory Committee. She got her Ph.D. degree on ContemporaryChinese Studies from Beijing Normal University and was Visiting Scholar at NewYork University and Harvard University. She is Co-author of many Chinese SocialScience Academy Blue Books and Chinese Social Science Foundation’s research

ix

project reports. Moreover, she has written books which have described Chineseoutbound business and global talent. Indeed, her latest books include InternationalMigration of China: Status, Policy and Social Responses to the Globalization ofMigration (Springer), Global Think Tanks which is the best seller on the subject inChina, as well as China Goes Global: How China’s Overseas Investment isTransforming its Business Enterprises (Palgrave Macmillan).

x About the Authors

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Sichuan returnee responses to the question—“What attractedyou back to Chengdu?”. Notes (1) Options: A. Better careerdevelopment and job opportunities; B. Take greater advantageof your university/college major; C. Higher income and/orhigher standard of living; D. Attractiveness of Chengdu’stalent acquisition policy; E. Better entrepreneurial environmentwith respect to doing business costs, product markets andgovernment policy; F. Better personal social/business network;G. Be closer to my family and Sichuan friends; H. Better childcare and educational opportunities for my children; I. Takingcare of my elderly parents; J. Lower living cost; K. Betterliving environment; L. Less work demand/pressure/stress;M. Chengdu’s improved provision of public services andinfrastructure; N. Chengdu’s improved connectivity withother cities; O. Sichuan/Chengdu lifestyle. (2) Numberof respondents: 27. (3) Select up to 8 options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Fig. 2.2 Sichuan returnee responses to the question—“What pushedyou to leave Beijing?”. Notes (1) Options: A. Unemployed;B. Limited career development opportunities and fiercelycompetitive local job market; C. Fast work and life pace andrelated stress; D. Unable to acquire a Beijing Hukou (A recordin the system of household registration); E. High housingcosts; F. Severe air pollution; G. Traffic congestion; H. Highday-to-day living costs; I. Difficulty of raising children (findingadequate child care, high pressure and competition in schoolstudies, and problems in ensuring they have good primary andsecondary education opportunities); J. Being separated fromyour family and Sichuan friends; K. Difficulty of taking careof parents; L. Difficulty of adapting to the Beijing lifestyle.(2) Number of respondents: 26. (3) Select up to 6 options . . . . . 64

xi

Fig. 2.3 Female Sichuan returnee responses to the question—“Whatpersonal goals have you been able to realize as a woman byrelocating to Chengdu?”. Notes (1) Options: A. Advance mycareer; B. Obtain more opportunities to start a business;C. Have more opportunities to realize my own goals versusbeing a caregiver to others; D. Obtain greater personalfreedom; E. Secure a higher degree of independence;F. Be a better caregiver for my husband and children;G. Be a better caregiver for elderly parents; H. Live in a lessrestrictive/conservative social environment; I. Other.(2) Number of respondents: 11. (3) Select up to 4 options . . . . . 67

Fig. 2.4 Sichuan returnee responses to the question—“What attractedyou to Chengdu?”. Notes (1) Options: A. Better careerdevelopment and job opportunities; B. Take greater advantageof your university/college major; C. Higher income and/orhigher living standard, due to lower living costs;D. Attractiveness of Chengdu’s Talent Acquisition Policy;E. Better entrepreneurial environment with respect to doingbusiness costs, product markets, and government policy;F. Better personal social/business network; G. Lower livingcost and less pressure in life; H. Better living environment;I. Appeal of Chengdu/Sichuan lifestyle; J. Spouse is workingor living in Chengdu; K. Chengdu’s improved provision ofpublic services; L. Chengdu’s improved connectivity withother cities. (2) Number of respondents: 11 (all femaleSichuan returnee talent going to Chengdu). (3) Selectup to 7 options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Fig. 2.5 Non-Sichuan talent to Chengdu responses to the question—“What pushed you to leave Beijing?”. Notes (1) Options:A. Unemployed; B. Limited chances for further careerdevelopment and a fiercely competitive job market; C. Fastwork and life pace and related stress; D. Unable to acquire aBeijing Hukou (a record in the system of householdregistration); E. High housing costs; F. Severe air pollution;G. Traffic congestion; H. High day-to-day living costs; I.Difficulty of raising children (finding adequate child care, highpressure and competition in school studies, and problems inensuring they have good primary and secondary educationopportunities; J. Difficulty of adapting to the Beijing lifestyle.(2) Number of respondents: 10. (3) Select up to 5 options . . . . . 70

xii List of Figures

Fig. 2.6 Female non-Sichuan talent to Chengdu responses to thequestion—“What personal goals have you been able to realizeas a woman by relocating to Chengdu?”. Notes (1) Options:A. Advance my career; B. Obtain more opportunities to start abusiness; C. Have more opportunities to realize my own goalsversus being a caregiver to others; D. Obtain greater personalfreedom; E. Secure a higher degree of independence;F. Be a better caregiver for my husband and children;G. Be a better caregiver for elderly parents; H. Live ina less restrictive/conservative social environment; I. Other.(2) Number of respondents: 6 (all female non-Sichuantalent moving from Beijing to Chengdu). (3) Select upto 4 options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Fig. 2.7 Sichuan talent staying in Beijing responses to the question—“What has made you stay in Beijing?”. Notes (1) Options:A. Better environment for personal growth, includingeducation and building international perspectives; B. Takegreater advantage of university/college major; C. More jobopportunities; D. More attractive salary and compensation;E. Better entrepreneurial environment with respect to doingbusiness costs, product markets, and government policy;F. More cosmopolitan cultural and entertainment environment;G. Superior personal social/business network in Beijing;H. Better child care and educational opportunities for mychildren; I. Superior infrastructure, especially with respectto public transportation; J. Participation in Beijing talentand entrepreneurial development programs; K. Familymembers want to stay in Beijing; L. Other. (2) Numberof respondents: 49. (3) Select up to 6 options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Fig. 2.8 Sichuan talent staying in Beijing responses to the question—“If you decided to leave, why would you do so?”. Notes(1) Options: A. Career development difficulties and fiercelycompetitive local job market; B. Fast work and life pace andrelated stress; C. No Beijing Hukou (a record in the system ofhousehold registration); D. High day-to-day living costs;E. High housing costs; F. Severe air pollution; G. Trafficcongestion; H. Difficulty of raising children (finding adequatechild care, high pressure and competition in school studies,and problems in ensuring good primary and secondaryeducational opportunities); I. Being separated from Sichuanfamily and friends; J. Difficulty in adapting to the Beijinglifestyle; K. Others. (2) Number of Respondents: 49.(3) Select up to 6 options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

List of Figures xiii

Fig. 2.9 Sichuan talent staying in Beijing responses to the question—“If you did wish to return to Sichuan, what would be themain factors leading you to relocate to Chengdu?”. Notes(1) Options: A. Better career development opportunities;B. Take better advantage of your university/college major;C. Higher income; D. Attractiveness of Chengdu’s TalentAcquisition Policy; E. Better entrepreneurial environmentwith respect to doing business costs, product markets, andgovernment policy; F. Better personal social/business network;G. Be closer to my family and Sichuan friends; H. Better childcare and educational opportunities for my children; I. Takingcare of my elderly parents; J. Lower living cost, leading to ahigher standard of living; K. Better living environment;L. Less work demand/pressure/stress; M. Chengdu’s improvedprovision of public services and infrastructure; N. Chengdu’simproved connectivity with other cities; O. Sichuan/Chengdulifestyle; P. Other. (2) Number of respondents: 46. (3) Selectup to 8 options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Fig. 2.10 Female Sichuan talent staying in Beijing responses to thequestion—“What personal goals have you been able to realizeas a woman by relocating to Chengdu?”. Notes (1) Options:A. Advance my career; B. Obtain more opportunities to start abusiness; C. Have more opportunities to realize my own goalsversus being a caregiver to others; D. Obtain greater personalfreedom; E. Secure a higher degree of independence; F. Be abetter caregiver for my husband and children; G. Be a bettercaregiver for elderly parents; H. Live in a lessrestrictive/conservative social environment; I. Other.(2) Number of respondents: 24 (all female Sichuan talentstaying in Beijing). (3) Select up to 4 options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Fig. 3.1 Overview of China’s talent attraction system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95Fig. 3.2 Countries of origin of German Green Card holders.

Source Jurgens (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104Fig. 5.1 Top 20 destination countries for Chinese migrants

(excluding Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan) as of Mid-2015.Source UNDESA (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Fig. 5.2 Top destinations for Chinese students (tertiary-level)in 2014. Source UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2016). . . . . . . 190

Fig. 5.3 Chinese migration stock in the EU member states between2010 and 2015. Source Eurostat (2017b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Fig. 5.4 Chinese migrants in Italy between 2010 and 2015.Source Eurostat (2016a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Fig. 5.5 Age division of Chinese migrants in Italy between 2010and 2014. Source Eurostat (2016a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

xiv List of Figures

Fig. 5.6 Annual inflows of Chinese students in Italy between 2010and 2013. Source Istituto Nazionale di Statistica(I.Stat 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Fig. 5.7 The number of Chinese workers arriving in Italy between 2010and 2013. Source Istituto Nazionale di Statistica(I.Stat 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Fig. 5.8 The trend for the population of Chinese migrants in the U.K.between 2010 and 2015 by Gender. Source Office for NationalStatistics (2016a). Note This number also includes thosewith indefinite leave to remain in the U.K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Fig. 5.9 The total number of study visas granted and the top fivesource countries in 2015. Source Home Office (2016b) . . . . . . . 197

Fig. 5.10 The number of the work visa issued to Chinese applicantsbetween 2010 and 2015. Source Office for NationalStatistics (2016b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Fig. 5.11 The number of work visas issued to Chinese applicants(admissions) between 2010 and 2015. Source Officefor National Statistics (2016b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Fig. 5.12 The number of Chinese migrants in Spain between 2010and 2014. Source OECD.Stat (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Fig. 5.13 The annual migrant inflows of Chinese workers in Spainbetween 2010 and 2014. Source OECD.Stat (2016) . . . . . . . . . . 201

Fig. 5.14 The number of Chinese migrants in Germany between 2010and 2014. Source OECD.Stat (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Fig. 5.15 Germany-the rush to get 350,000 foreign students by 2020.Source Eurostat (2016b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

Fig. 5.16 Top 10 home countries for international students in Germanyin the 2014–2015 Academic Year. Source DAAD (2015) . . . . . 203

Fig. 5.17 The total number of Chinese students in France between2010 and 2015. Source IIE (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Fig. 5.18 The total number of blue cards granted to all foreignersand Chinese workers in France between 2012 and 2015.Source Eurostat (2016c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Fig. 5.19 The trend of Chinese investor migrants to the U.S.and the U.K. between 2010 and 2015. Source Officefor National Statistics (2016b), Wang et al. (2016). . . . . . . . . . . 206

Fig. 5.20 Top 17 countries/regions remittance sent from in 2010and 2015. Source The World Bank (2013, 2016c).Note Unit (Millions of USD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Fig. 5.21 The role of the Chinese overseas community.Source Karreman et al. (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Fig. 5.22 Top departing countries for returned Chinese students in 2015.Source Ministry of Education of the P.R. China (2016a) . . . . . . 213

List of Figures xv

Fig. 5.23 Top 6 departing countries for returned Chinese studentsin 2015. Source Ministry of Education of the P.R. China(2016a). Note Bachelor percentages for France and Germanynor available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Fig. 5.24 The travelling purposes of foreigners entering the Chineseborder in 2010. Source The Ministry of Public Securityof the P.R. China (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Fig. 5.25 The travelling purposes of foreigners entering the Chineseborder in 2015. Source The Ministry of Public Securityof the P.R. China (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Fig. 5.26 The number of foreigners entering the Chinese border between2010 and 2015. Source The Ministry of Public Securityof the P.R. China (2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016) . . . . . . 215

Fig. 5.27 Top 15 home countries for international students in Chinain 2015. Source Ministry of Education of the P.R. China(2016b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

Fig. 5.28 Levels of degree for international students in China between2011 and 2015. Source Ministry of Education of theP.R. China (2012, 2013, 2015, 2016b); China Associationfor International Education (2013). Note The numberof international students pursuing bachelor, masterand doctoral degrees in 2013 unavailable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

Fig. 5.29 Nationalities of foreign experts in China in 2013. SourceSAFEA (2015). Note *The number includes foreign expertsfrom Beijing, the U.K., Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands,Austria, Poland and Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Fig. 5.30 The regional distribution of foreign experts in China in 2013.Source SAFEA (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Fig. 5.31 Sectors of employers for foreign experts in China between2010 and 2013. Source SAFEA (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Fig. 5.32 Types of private sector business hiring foreign experts between2010 and 2013. Source SAFEA (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Fig. 6.1 The number of blue cards granted to Chinese migrants inrespective countries between 2012 and 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Fig. 6.2 Estimated of Chinese irregular immigrant population between2010 and 2015 Source Eurostat (2016). Note Chinese irregularimmigrant population include irregular migrants fromHong Kong. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Fig. 6.3 Estimated development of irregular Chinese migrantsin the EU between 2010 and 2015. Source Eurostat (2016) . . . . 240

xvi List of Figures

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Who gets an urban Hukou? requirements vary accordingto city size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Table 1.2 The total amount of remittances and their shareof the income of migrant workers from 1997 to 2004(Unit: Billion RMB, %) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Table 3.1 Benefits offered under Japan’s HSFP visa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121Table 3.2 Singapore passes for semi- and high-skilled migrants:

eligibility and benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130Table 3.3 Summary of approaches and administrative structures

for recruiting skilled immigrants in Germany, Japan,and Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Table 3.4 General characteristics of survey respondents by countryof residence (n = 39) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Table 3.5 Survey respondents by occupation and country of residence(n = 39) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Table 3.6 Survey respondents’ average rating of immigrationprocedures and post-admission living conditions by countryof residence (n = 39) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Table 3.7 Survey respondents’ average rating of immigrationprocedures and post-admission living conditions by countryof residence, researchers only (n = 10). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Table 3.8 Existing problems with the high-skilled talent attractionpolicies as identified by survey respondents (n = 39) . . . . . . . . 148

Table 3.9 Existing problems with the high-skilled talent attractionpolicies as identified by survey respondents, researchersonly (n = 10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Table 3.10 Policies that need further improvement according to surveyrespondents (n = 39) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Table 3.11 Policies that need further improvement according to surveyrespondents, researchers only (n = 10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

xvii

Table 5.1 Chinese students in the EU: hats off-enrolled versusgraduates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Table 5.2 The comparison between student admissions and entryclearance in the U.K. from 2010 to 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Table 5.3 Migration for investment: requirements across the investorattraction schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Table 5.4 Distribution of major disciplines among returned Chinesestudents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Table 6.1 Categories of Chinese Visa in 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231Table 6.2 Bilateral cooperation between EU Member States

and China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

xviii List of Tables

List of Boxes

Box 5.1 Destination Spain: From Qingtian to Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210Box 5.2 Foreign Residents in China-Counting the Numbers

is not Straight Forward. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216Box 5.3 Peking University International Students: Where do they

come from? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218Box 6.1 They Call it Home-Transnational Immigrant Communities

in Chinese Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234Box 6.2 EU Blue Cards: Who gets them? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235Box 6.3 Regional Solution to Growing Concern: Foreign Brides

and Blue Cards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

xix