internet history and devel.docx

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5-Internet:history and

developmentIntroduction

The Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world likenothing before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer setthe stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is at once aworld-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information dissemination,and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their

computers without regard for geographic location. The Internet represents one ofthe most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment andcommitment to research and development of information infrastructure. Beginningwith the early research in packet switching, the government, industry and academiahave been partners in evolving and deploying this exciting new technology. Today,terms like bleiner!computer.org and http"##www.acm.org trip lightly off thetongue of the random person on the street. $

This is intended to be a brief, necessarily cursory and incomplete history. %uch

material currently exists about the Internet, covering history, technology, andusage. & trip to almost any bookstore will find shelves of material written about theInternet. '

In this paper,(several of us involved in the development and evolution of theInternet share our views of its origins and history. This history revolves aroundfour distinct aspects. There is the technological evolution that began with earlyresearch on packet switching and the &)*&+T and related technologies, andwhere current research continues to expand the horizons of the infrastructure alongseveral dimensions, such as scale, performance, and higher-level functionality.

There is the operations and management aspect of a global and complexoperational infrastructure. There is the social aspect, which resulted in a broadcommunity of Internauts working together to create and evolve the technology.&nd there is the commercialization aspect, resulting in an extremely effectivetransition of research results into a broadly deployed and available informationinfrastructure.
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The Internet today is a widespread information infrastructure, the initial prototypeof what is often called the +ational or /lobal or /alactic InformationInfrastructure. Its history is complex and involves many aspects - technological,organizational, and community. &nd its influence reaches not only to the technicalfields of computer communications but throughout society as we move towardincreasing use of online tools to accomplish electronic commerce, informationac0uisition, and community operations.

Origins of the Internet

The first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabledthrough networking was a series of memoswritten by 1.2.). 3icklider of %IT in&ugust $45' discussing his /alactic +etwork concept. 6e envisioned a globallyinterconnected set of computers through which everyone could 0uickly access data

and programs from any site. In spirit, the concept was very much like the Internetof today. 3icklider was the first head of the computer research program at7&)*&,8starting in 9ctober $45'. :hile at 7&)*& he convinced his successorsat 7&)*&, Ivan ;utherland, Bob Taylor, and %IT researcher 3awrence /.)oberts, of the importance of this networking concept.

3eonard


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$45$-$45, at )&+7 $45'-$45>, and at +*3 $458-$45 had all proceeded inparallel without any of the researchers knowing about the other work. The wordpacket was adopted from the work at +*3 and the proposed line speed to be usedin the &)*&+T design was upgraded from '.8 kbps to >D kbps. >

In &ugust $45E, after )oberts and the 7&)*& funded community had refined theoverall structure and specifications for the &)*&+T, an )F@ was released by7&)*& for the development of one of the key components, the packet switchescalled Interface %essage *rocessors I%*As. The )F@ was won in 7ecember $45E

by a group headed by Frank 6eart at Bolt Beranek and +ewman BB+. &s theBB+ team worked on the I%*As with Bob


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2omputers were added 0uickly to the &)*&+T during the following years, andwork proceeded on completing a functionally complete 6ost-to-6ost protocol andother network software. In 7ecember $4D the +etwork :orking /roup +:/working under ;. 2rocker finished the initial &)*&+T 6ost-to-6ost protocol,called the +etwork 2ontrol *rotocol +2*. &s the &)*&+T sites completedimplementing +2* during the period $4$-$4', the network users finally could

begin to develop applications.

In 9ctober $4',


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In an open-architecture network, the individual networks may be separatelydesigned and developed and each may have its own uni0ue interface which it mayoffer to users and#or other providers. including other Internet providers. achnetwork can be designed in accordance with the specific environment and userre0uirements of that network. There are generally no constraints on the types ofnetwork that can be included or on their geographic scope, although certain

pragmatic considerations will dictate what makes sense to offer.

The idea of open-architecture networking was first introduced by


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Black boxes would be used to connect the networksG these would later be

called gateways and routers. There would be no information retained by thegateways about the individual flows of packets passing through them,thereby keeping them simple and avoiding complicated adaptation and

recovery from various failure modes.

There would be no global control at the operations level.

9ther key issues that needed to be addressed were"

&lgorithms to prevent lost packets from permanently disabling

communications and enabling them to be successfully retransmitted from thesource.

*roviding for host-to-host pipelining so that multiple packets could beenroute from source to destination at the discretion of the participating hosts,if the intermediate networks allowed it.

/ateway functions to allow it to forward packets appropriately. This

included interpreting I* headers for routing, handling interfaces, breakingpackets into smaller pieces if necessary, etc.

The need for end-end checksums, reassembly of packets from fragments and

detection of duplicates, if any.

The need for global addressing

Techni0ues for host-to-host flow control.

Interfacing with the various operating systems

There were also other concerns, such as implementation efficiency,

internetwork performance, but these were secondary considerations at first.


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then at ;tanford to work with him on the detailed design of the protocol. 2erf hadbeen intimately involved in the original +2* design and development and alreadyhad the knowledge about interfacing to existing operating systems. ;o armed with


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totally reliable se0uenced delivery of data virtual circuit model to a datagramservice in which the application made direct use of the underlying network service,which might imply occasional lost, corrupted or reordered packets. 6owever, theinitial effort to implement T2* resulted in a version that only allowed for virtualcircuits. This model worked fine for file transfer and remote login applications, butsome of the early work on advanced network applications, in particular packetvoice in the $4Ds, made clear that in some cases packet losses should not becorrected by T2*, but should be left to the application to deal with. This led to areorganization of the original T2* into two protocols, the simple I* which

provided only for addressing and forwarding of individual packets, and theseparate T2*, which was concerned with service features such as flow control andrecovery from lost packets. For those applications that did not want the services ofT2*, an alternative called the Cser 7atagram *rotocol C7* was added in orderto provide direct access to the basic service of I*.

& ma=or initial motivation for both the &)*&+T and the Internet was resourcesharing - for example allowing users on the packet radio networks to access thetime sharing systems attached to the &)*&+T. 2onnecting the two together wasfar more economical that duplicating these very expensive computers. 6owever,while file transfer and remote login Telnet were very important applications,electronic mail has probably had the most significant impact of the innovationsfrom that era. mail provided a new model of how people could communicate witheach other, and changed the nature of collaboration, first in the building of theInternet itself as is discussed below and later for much of society.

There were other applications proposed in the early days of the Internet, includingpacket based voice communication the precursor of Internet telephony, variousmodels of file and disk sharing, and early worm programs that showed theconcept of agents and, of course, viruses. & key concept of the Internet is that itwas not designed for =ust one application, but as a general infrastructure on whichnew applications could be conceived, as illustrated later by the emergence of the:orld :ide :eb. It is the general purpose nature of the service provided by T2*and I* that makes this possible.

Proving the Ideas

7&)*& let three contracts to ;tanford 2erf, BB+ )ay Tomlinson and C23*eter


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the detailed specification and within about a year there were three independentimplementations of T2* that could interoperate.

This was the beginning of long term experimentation and development to evolveand mature the Internet concepts and technology. Beginning with the first threenetworks &)*&+T, *acket )adio, and *acket ;atellite and their initial researchcommunities, the experimental environment has grown to incorporate essentiallyevery form of network and a very broad-based research and developmentcommunity. )


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addresses. 9riginally, there were a fairly limited number of hosts, so it was feasibleto maintain a single table of all the hosts and their associated names and addresses.The shift to having a large number of independently managed networks e.g.,3&+s meant that having a single table of hosts was no longer feasible, and the7omain +ame ;ystem 7+; was invented by *aul %ockapetris of C;2#I;I. The7+; permitted a scalable distributed mechanism for resolving hierarchical hostnames e.g. www.acm.org into an Internet address.

The increase in the size of the Internet also challenged the capabilities of therouters. 9riginally, there was a single distributed algorithm for routing that wasimplemented uniformly by all the routers in the Internet. &s the number ofnetworks in the Internet exploded, this initial design could not expand as necessary,so it was replaced by a hierarchical model of routing, with an Interior /ateway*rotocol I/* used inside each region of the Internet, and an xterior /ateway

*rotocol /* used to tie the regions together. This design permitted differentregions to use a different I/*, so that different re0uirements for cost, rapidreconfiguration, robustness and scale could be accommodated. +ot only therouting algorithm, but the size of the addressing tables, stressed the capacity of therouters. +ew approaches for address aggregation, in particular classless inter-domain routing 2I7), have recently been introduced to control the size of routertables.

&s the Internet evolved, one of the ma=or challenges was how to propagate thechanges to the software, particularly the host software. 7&)*& supported C2

Berkeley to investigate modifications to the Cnix operating system, includingincorporating T2*#I* developed at BB+. &lthough Berkeley later rewrote the BB+code to more efficiently fit into the Cnix system and kernel, the incorporation ofT2*#I* into the Cnix B;7 system releases proved to be a critical element indispersion of the protocols to the research community. %uch of the 2; researchcommunity began to use Cnix B;7 for their day-to-day computing environment.3ooking back, the strategy of incorporating Internet protocols into a supportedoperating system for the research community was one of the key elements in thesuccessful widespread adoption of the Internet.

9ne of the more interesting challenges was the transition of the &)*&+T hostprotocol from +2* to T2*#I* as of 1anuary $, $4E(. This was a flag-day styletransition, re0uiring all hosts to convert simultaneously or be left having tocommunicate via rather ad-hoc mechanisms. This transition was carefully plannedwithin the community over several years before it actually took place and went
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surprisingly smoothly but resulted in a distribution of buttons saying I survivedthe T2*#I* transition.

T2*#I* was adopted as a defense standard three years earlier in $4ED. This enableddefense to begin sharing in the 7&)*& Internet technology base and led directly tothe eventual partitioning of the military and non- military communities. By $4E(,&)*&+T was being used by a significant number of defense )K7 andoperational organizations. The transition of &)*&+T from +2* to T2*#I*

permitted it to be split into a %I3+T supporting operational re0uirements and an&)*&+T supporting research needs.

Thus, by $4E>, Internet was already well established as a technology supporting abroad community of researchers and developers, and was beginning to be used byother communities for daily computer communications. lectronic mail was being

used broadly across several communities, often with different systems, butinterconnection between different mail systems was demonstrating the utility of

broad based electronic communications between people.

Transition to Widespread Infrastructure

&t the same time that the Internet technology was being experimentally validatedand widely used amongst a subset of computer science researchers, other networksand networking technologies were being pursued. The usefulness of computernetworking - especially electronic mail - demonstrated by 7&)*& and 7epartmentof 7efense contractors on the &)*&+T was not lost on other communities anddisciplines, so that by the mid-$4Ds computer networks had begun to spring upwherever funding could be found for the purpose. The C.;. 7epartment of nergy7o established %F+et for its researchers in %agnetic Fusion nergy,whereupon 7oAs 6igh nergy *hysicists responded by building 6*+et. +&;&;pace *hysicists followed with ;*&+, and )ick &drion, 7avid Farber, and 3arry3andweber established 2;+T for the academic and industrial 2omputer;cience community with an initial grant from the C.;. +ational ;cienceFoundation +;F. &TKTAs free-wheeling dissemination of the C+I? computer

operating system spawned C;+T, based on C+I?A built-in CC2*communication protocols, and in $4E$ Ira Fuchs and /reydon Freeman devisedBIT+T, which linked academic mainframe computers in an email as cardimages paradigm.

:ith the exception of BIT+T and C;+T, these early networks including&)*&+T were purpose-built - i.e., they were intended for, and largely restricted


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to, closed communities of scholarsG there was hence little pressure for theindividual networks to be compatible and, indeed, they largely were not. Inaddition, alternate technologies were being pursued in the commercial sector,including ?+; from ?erox, 72+et, and IB%As ;+&.EIt remained for the British1&+T $4E8 and C.;. +;F+T $4E> programs to explicitly announce theirintent to serve the entire higher education community, regardless of discipline.Indeed, a condition for a C.;. university to receive +;F funding for an Internetconnection was that ... the connection must be made available to &33 0ualifiedusers on campus.

In $4E>, 7ennis 1ennings came from Ireland to spend a year at +;F leading the+;F+T program. 6e worked with the community to help +;F make a criticaldecision - that T2*#I* would be mandatory for the +;F+T program. :hen ;teve:olff took over the +;F+T program in $4E5, he recognized the need for a wide

area networking infrastructure to support the general academic and researchcommunity, along with the need to develop a strategy for establishing suchinfrastructure on a basis ultimately independent of direct federal funding. *oliciesand strategies were adopted see below to achieve that end.

+;F also elected to support 7&)*&As existing Internet organizationalinfrastructure, hierarchically arranged under the then Internet &ctivities BoardI&B. The public declaration of this choice was the =oint authorship by the I&BAsInternet ngineering and &rchitecture Task Forces and by +;FAs +etworkTechnical &dvisory /roup of )F2 4E> )e0uirements for Internet /ateways ,

which formally ensured interoperability of 7&)*&As and +;FAs pieces of theInternet.

In addition to the selection of T2*#I* for the +;F+T program, Federal agenciesmade and implemented several other policy decisions which shaped the Internet oftoday.

Federal agencies shared the cost of common infrastructure, such as trans-

oceanic circuits. They also =ointly supported managed interconnection

points for interagency trafficG the Federal Internet xchanges FI?- andFI?-: built for this purpose served as models for the +etwork &ccess*oints and LI? facilities that are prominent features of todayAs Internetarchitecture.

To coordinate this sharing, the Federal +etworking 2ouncil4was formed.

The F+2 also cooperated with other international organizations, such as
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)&) in urope, through the 2oordinating 2ommittee on Intercontinental)esearch +etworking, 22I)+, to coordinate Internet support of the researchcommunity worldwide.

This sharing and cooperation between agencies on Internet-related issues

had a long history. &n unprecedented $4E$ agreement between Farber,acting for 2;+T and the +;F, and 7&)*&As


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critical issues of intellectual property rights, ethics, pricing, education,architecture and regulation for the Internet.

+;FAs privatization policy culminated in &pril, $44>, with the defunding of

the +;F+T Backbone. The funds thereby recovered were competitivelyredistributed to regional networks to buy national-scale Internet connectivityfrom the now numerous, private, long-haul networks.

The backbone had made the transition from a network built from routers out of theresearch community the Fuzzball routers from 7avid %ills to commerciale0uipment. In its E $#' year lifetime, the Backbone had grown from six nodes with>5 kbps links to '$ nodes with multiple 8> %bps links. It had seen the Internetgrow to over >D,DDD networks on all seven continents and outer space, withapproximately '4,DDD networks in the Cnited ;tates.

;uch was the weight of the +;F+T programAs ecumenism and funding N'DDmillion from $4E5 to $44> - and the 0uality of the protocols themselves - that by$44D when the &)*&+T itself was finally decommissioned$D, T2*#I* hadsupplanted or marginalized most other wide-area computer network protocolsworldwide, and I* was well on its way to becoming T6 bearer service for the/lobal Information Infrastructure.

The Role of Documentation

& key to the rapid growth of the Internet has been the free and open access to thebasic documents, especially the specifications of the protocols.

The beginnings of the &)*&+T and the Internet in the university researchcommunity promoted the academic tradition of open publication of ideas andresults. 6owever, the normal cycle of traditional academic publication was tooformal and too slow for the dynamic exchange of ideas essential to creatingnetworks.

In $454 a key step was taken by ;. 2rocker then at C23& in establishing the)e0uest for 2ommentsor )F2 series of notes. These memos were intended to bean informal fast distribution way to share ideas with other network researchers. &tfirst the )F2s were printed on paper and distributed via snail mail. &s the FileTransfer *rotocol FT* came into use, the )F2s were prepared as online files andaccessed via FT*. +ow, of course, the )F2s are easily accessed via the :orld:ide :eb at dozens of sites around the world. ;)I, in its role as +etwork
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Information 2enter, maintained the online directories. 1on *ostel acted as )F2ditor as well as managing the centralized administration of re0uired protocolnumber assignments, roles that he continued to play until his death, 9ctober $5,$44E.

The effect of the )F2s was to create a positive feedback loop, with ideas orproposals presented in one )F2 triggering another )F2 with additional ideas, andso on. :hen some consensus or a least a consistent set of ideas had cometogether a specification document would be prepared. ;uch a specification wouldthen be used as the base for implementations by the various research teams.

9ver time, the )F2s have become more focused on protocol standards theofficial specifications, though there are still informational )F2s that describealternate approaches, or provide background information on protocols and

engineering issues. The )F2s are now viewed as the documents of record in theInternet engineering and standards community.

The open access to the )F2s for free, if you have any kind of a connection to theInternet promotes the growth of the Internet because it allows the actualspecifications to be used for examples in college classes and by entrepreneursdeveloping new systems.

mail has been a significant factor in all areas of the Internet, and that is certainlytrue in the development of protocol specifications, technical standards, and Internet

engineering. The very early )F2s often presented a set of ideas developed by theresearchers at one location to the rest of the community. &fter email came into use,the authorship pattern changed - )F2s were presented by =oint authors withcommon view independent of their locations.

The use of specialized email mailing lists has been long used in the development ofprotocol specifications, and continues to be an important tool. The ITF now hasin excess of > working groups, each working on a different aspect of Internetengineering. ach of these working groups has a mailing list to discuss one ormore draft documents under development. :hen consensus is reached on a draftdocument it may be distributed as an )F2.

&s the current rapid expansion of the Internet is fueled by the realization of itscapability to promote information sharing, we should understand that the networkAsfirst role in information sharing was sharing the information about its own designand operation through the )F2 documents. This uni0ue method for evolving new


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capabilities in the network will continue to be critical to future evolution of theInternet.

ormation of the !road Community

The Internet is as much a collection of communities as a collection of technologies,and its success is largely attributable to both satisfying basic community needs aswell as utilizing the community in an effective way to push the infrastructureforward. This community spirit has a long history beginning with the early&)*&+T. The early &)*&+T researchers worked as a close-knit community toaccomplish the initial demonstrations of packet switching technology describedearlier. 3ikewise, the *acket ;atellite, *acket )adio and several other 7&)*&computer science research programs were multi-contractor collaborative activitiesthat heavily used whatever available mechanisms there were to coordinate their

efforts, starting with electronic mail and adding file sharing, remote access, andeventually :orld :ide :eb capabilities. ach of these programs formed a workinggroup, starting with the &)*&+T +etwork :orking /roup. Because of theuni0ue role that &)*&+T played as an infrastructure supporting the variousresearch programs, as the Internet started to evolve, the +etwork :orking /roupevolved into Internet :orking /roup.

In the late $4Ds, recognizing that the growth of the Internet was accompanied by agrowth in the size of the interested research community and therefore an increased

need for coordination mechanisms, Hint 2erf, then manager of the Internet*rogram at 7&)*&, formed several coordination bodies - an International2ooperation Board I2B, chaired by *eter


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It of course was only a coincidence that the chairs of the Task Forces were thesame people as the members of the old I22B, and 7ave 2lark continued to act aschair. &fter some changing membership on the I&B, *hill /ross became chair of arevitalized Internet ngineering Task Force ITF, at the time merely one of theI&B Task Forces. &s we saw above, by $4E> there was a tremendous growth in themore practical#engineering side of the Internet. This growth resulted in anexplosion in the attendance at the ITF meetings, and /ross was compelled tocreate substructure to the ITF in the form of working groups.

This growth was complemented by a ma=or expansion in the community. +o longerwas 7&)*& the only ma=or player in the funding of the Internet. In addition to

+;F+et and the various C; and international government-funded activities,interest in the commercial sector was beginning to grow. &lso in $4E>, both


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supportive relationship was formed between the I&B, ITF, and Internet ;ociety,with the Internet ;ociety taking on as a goal the provision of service and othermeasures which would facilitate the work of the ITF.

The recent development and widespread deployment of the :orld :ide :eb hasbrought with it a new community, as many of the people working on the :::have not thought of themselves as primarily network researchers and developers. &new coordination organization was formed, the :orld :ide :eb 2onsortium:(2. Initially led from %ITAs 3aboratory for 2omputer ;cience by Tim Berners-3ee the inventor of the ::: and &l Hezza, :(2 has taken on the responsibilityfor evolving the various protocols and standards associated with the :eb.

Thus, through the over two decades of Internet activity, we have seen a steadyevolution of organizational structures designed to support and facilitate an ever-

increasing community working collaboratively on Internet issues.

Commerciali"ation of the Technology

2ommercialization of the Internet involved not only the development ofcompetitive, private network services, but also the development of commercial

products implementing the Internet technology. In the early $4EDs, dozens ofvendors were incorporating T2*#I* into their products because they saw buyers forthat approach to networking. Cnfortunately they lacked both real information abouthow the technology was supposed to work and how the customers planned onusing this approach to networking. %any saw it as a nuisance add-on that had to beglued on to their own proprietary networking solutions" ;+&, 72+et, +etware,

+etBios. The 7o7 had mandated the use of T2*#I* in many of its purchases butgave little help to the vendors regarding how to build useful T2*#I* products.

In $4E>, recognizing this lack of information availability and appropriate training,7an 3ynch in cooperation with the I&B arranged to hold a three day workshop for&33 vendors to come learn about how T2*#I* worked and what it still could notdo well. The speakers came mostly from the 7&)*& research community who had

both developed these protocols and used them in day-to-day work. &bout '>Dvendor personnel came to listen to >D inventors and experimenters. The resultswere surprises on both sides" the vendors were amazed to find that the inventorswere so open about the way things worked and what still did not work and theinventors were pleased to listen to new problems they had not considered, but were

being discovered by the vendors in the field. Thus a two-way discussion wasformed that has lasted for over a decade.


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&fter two years of conferences, tutorials, design meetings and workshops, a specialevent was organized that invited those vendors whose products ran T2*#I* wellenough to come together in one room for three days to show off how well they allworked together and also ran over the Internet. In ;eptember of $4EE the firstInterop trade show was born. >D companies made the cut. >,DDD engineers from

potential customer organizations came to see if it all did work as was promised. Itdid. :hyO Because the vendors worked extremely hard to ensure that everyoneAs

products interoperated with all of the other products - even with those of theircompetitors. The Interop trade show has grown immensely since then and today itis held in locations around the world each year to an audience of over '>D,DDD

people who come to learn which products work with each other in a seamlessmanner, learn about the latest products, and discuss the latest technology.

In parallel with the commercialization efforts that were highlighted by the Interop

activities, the vendors began to attend the ITF meetings that were held ( or 8times a year to discuss new ideas for extensions of the T2*#I* protocol suite.;tarting with a few hundred attendees mostly from academia and paid for by thegovernment, these meetings now often exceed a thousand attendees, mostly fromthe vendor community and paid for by the attendees themselves. This self-selectedgroup evolves the T2*#I* suite in a mutually cooperative manner. The reason it isso useful is that it is composed of all stakeholders" researchers, end users andvendors.

+etwork management provides an example of the interplay between the research

and commercial communities. In the beginning of the Internet, the emphasis wason defining and implementing protocols that achieved interoperation.

&s the network grew larger, it became clear that the sometime ad hoc proceduresused to manage the network would not scale. %anual configuration of tables wasreplaced by distributed automated algorithms, and better tools were devised toisolate faults. In $4E it became clear that a protocol was needed that would permitthe elements of the network, such as the routers, to be remotely managed in auniform way. ;everal protocols for this purpose were proposed, including ;imple

+etwork %anagement *rotocol or ;+%* designed, as its name would suggest, forsimplicity, and derived from an earlier proposal called ;/%* , 6%; a morecomplex design from the research community and 2%I* from the 9;Icommunity. & series of meeting led to the decisions that 6%; would bewithdrawn as a candidate for standardization, in order to help resolve thecontention, but that work on both ;+%* and 2%I* would go forward, with theidea that the ;+%* could be a more near-term solution and 2%I* a longer-term


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approach. The market could choose the one it found more suitable. ;+%* is nowused almost universally for network-based management.

In the last few years, we have seen a new phase of commercialization. 9riginally,commercial efforts mainly comprised vendors providing the basic networking

products, and service providers offering the connectivity and basic Internetservices. The Internet has now become almost a commodity service, and much ofthe latest attention has been on the use of this global information infrastructure forsupport of other commercial services. This has been tremendously accelerated bythe widespread and rapid adoption of browsers and the :orld :ide :ebtechnology, allowing users easy access to information linked throughout the globe.*roducts are available to facilitate the provisioning of that information and manyof the latest developments in technology have been aimed at providing increasinglysophisticated information services on top of the basic Internet data

communications.

#istory of the uture

9n 9ctober '8, $44>, the F+2 unanimously passed a resolution defining the termInternet. This definition was developed in consultation with members of theinternet and intellectual property rights communities. );93CTI9+" The Federal

+etworking 2ouncil F+2 agrees that the following language reflects ourdefinition of the term Internet. Internet refers to the global information system

that -- i is logically linked together by a globally uni0ue address space based onthe Internet *rotocol I* or its subse0uent extensions#follow-onsG ii is able tosupport communications using the Transmission 2ontrol *rotocol#Internet *rotocolT2*#I* suite or its subse0uent extensions#follow-ons, and#or other I*-compatible

protocolsG and iii provides, uses or makes accessible, either publicly or privately,high level services layered on the communications and related infrastructuredescribed herein.

The Internet has changed much in the two decades since it came into existence. Itwas conceived in the era of time-sharing, but has survived into the era of personal

computers, client-server and peer-to-peer computing, and the network computer. Itwas designed before 3&+s existed, but has accommodated that new networktechnology, as well as the more recent &T% and frame switched services. It wasenvisioned as supporting a range of functions from file sharing and remote login toresource sharing and collaboration, and has spawned electronic mail and morerecently the :orld :ide :eb. But most important, it started as the creation of a


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small band of dedicated researchers, and has grown to be a commercial successwith billions of dollars of annual investment.

9ne should not conclude that the Internet has now finished changing. The Internet,although a network in name and geography, is a creature of the computer, not thetraditional network of the telephone or television industry. It will, indeed it must,continue to change and evolve at the speed of the computer industry if it is toremain relevant. It is now changing to provide new services such as real timetransport, in order to support, for example, audio and video streams.

The availability of pervasive networking i.e., the Internet along with powerfulaffordable computing and communications in portable form i.e., laptop computers,two-way pagers, *7&s, cellular phones, is making possible a new paradigm ofnomadic computing and communications. This evolution will bring us new

applications - Internet telephone and, slightly further out, Internet television. It isevolving to permit more sophisticated forms of pricing and cost recovery, a

perhaps painful re0uirement in this commercial world. It is changing toaccommodate yet another generation of underlying network technologies withdifferent characteristics and re0uirements, e.g. broadband residential access andsatellites. +ew modes of access and new forms of service will spawn newapplications, which in turn will drive further evolution of the net itself.

The most pressing 0uestion for the future of the Internet is not how the technologywill change, but how the process of change and evolution itself will be managed.

&s this paper describes, the architecture of the Internet has always been driven by acore group of designers, but the form of that group has changed as the number ofinterested parties has grown. :ith the success of the Internet has come a

proliferation of stakeholders - stakeholders now with an economic as well as anintellectual investment in the network.

:e now see, in the debates over control of the domain name space and the form ofthe next generation I* addresses, a struggle to find the next social structure thatwill guide the Internet in the future. The form of that structure will be harder tofind, given the large number of concerned stakeholders. &t the same time, theindustry struggles to find the economic rationale for the large investment neededfor the future growth, for example to upgrade residential access to a more suitabletechnology. If the Internet stumbles, it will not be because we lack for technology,vision, or motivation. It will be because we cannot set a direction and marchcollectively into the future.


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Timeline

ootnotes

$ *erhaps this is an exaggeration based on the lead authorAs residence in ;iliconHalley.' 9n a recent trip to a Tokyo bookstore, one of the authors counted $8 nglishlanguage magazines devoted to the Internet.( &n abbreviated version of this article appears in the >Dth anniversary issue of the2&2%, Feb. 4. The authors would like to express their appreciation to &ndy)osenbloom, 2&2% ;enior ditor, for both instigating the writing of this articleand his invaluable assistance in editing both this and the abbreviated version.8 The &dvanced )esearch *ro=ects &gency &)*& changed its name to 7efense&dvanced )esearch *ro=ects &gency 7&)*& in $4$, then back to &)*& in$44(, and back to 7&)*& in $445. :e refer throughout to 7&)*&, the currentname.> It was from the )&+7 study that the false rumor started claiming that the&)*&+T was somehow related to building a network resistant to nuclear war.This was never true of the &)*&+T, only the unrelated )&+7 study on securevoice considered nuclear war. 6owever, the later work on Internetting didemphasize robustness and survivability, including the capability to withstand lossesof large portions of the underlying networks.

5 Including amongst others Hint 2erf, ;teve 2rocker, and 1on *ostel. 1oining themlater were 7avid 2rocker who was to play an important role in documentation ofelectronic mail protocols, and )obert Braden, who developed the first +2* andthen T2* for IB% mainframes and also was to play a long term role in the I22Band I&B. This was subse0uently published as H. /. 2erf and ). . , pp.
http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/what-internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet#VGC74http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/what-internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet#VGC74http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/what-internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet#VGC74http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/what-internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet#VGC74


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5'-58$, %ay $48.E The desirability of email interchange, however, led to one of the first Internet

books" PQ!"" & 7irectory of lectronic %ail &ddressing and +etworks, by Freyand &dams, on email address translation and forwarding.4 9riginally named Federal )esearch Internet 2oordinating 2ommittee, F)I22.The F)I22 was originally formed to coordinate C.;. research network activities insupport of the international coordination provided by the 22I)+.$D The decommissioning of the &)*&+T was commemorated on its 'Dthanniversary by a C23& symposium in $4E4.

The World Wide We$%%%,W& is an information spacewhere documents and other web resourcesareidentified by C)Is, interlinked by hypertextlinks, and can be accessed via the

Internet.$JIt has become known simply as the Web. The :orld :ide :eb is the

primary tool billions use to interact on the internet, and it has changed peopleAs

lives immeasurably.'J(J8J:eb pagesare primarily textdocuments formatted and

annotated with 6ypertext %arkup 3anguage6T%3. In addition to formattedtext, web pages may contain images, video, and software components that are

rendered in the userAs web browseras coherent pages of multimediacontent.

mbedded hyperlinkspermit users to navigatebetween web pages. %ultiple web

pages with a common theme, a common domain name, or both, may be called a

website. :ebsite content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive

where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their

actions. :ebsites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or

largely for commercial purposes.

British computer scientist Tim Berners-3eeis the inventor of the :eb.>J&s a

2)+employee, Berners-3ee distributed a proposal on $' %arch $4E4 for what

would eventually become the :orld :ide :eb.5JJThe initial proposal intended a

more effective 2)+ communication system, but Berners-3ee also realized the
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_spacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_resourceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertexthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_pagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_texthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Markup_Languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlinkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_navigationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_namehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Websitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Leehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERNhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-AHT-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_spacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_resourceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertexthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_pagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_texthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Markup_Languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlinkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_navigationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_namehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Websitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Leehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERNhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-AHT-7


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concept could be implemented throughout the world.EJBerners-3ee and Belgian

computer scientist )obert 2ailliauproposed in $44D to use hypertext to link and

access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can

browse at will,EJand Berners-3ee finished the first website in 7ecember of that

year.4JThe first test was completed around 'D 7ecember $44D and Berners-3eereported about the pro=ect on the newsgroup alt.hypertexton &ugust $44$.

9n $' %arch $4E4, Tim Berners-3ee issued a proposal to the management at

2)+ that referenced +@CI), a database and software pro=ect he had built in

$4ED, and described a more elaborate information management system based on

links embedded in readable text" Imagine, then, the references in this document all

being associated with the network address of the thing to which they referred, so

that while reading this document you could skip to them with a click of the

mouse. ;uch a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the existing

meanings of the word hypertext, a term that he says was coined in the $4>Ds. There

is no reason, the proposal continues, why such hypertext links could not

encompass multimedia documents including graphics, speech and video, so that

Berners-3ee goes on to propose the term hypermedia.$$J

:ith help from )obert 2ailliau, he published a more formal proposal on $'

+ovember $44D to build a 6ypertext pro=ect called :orld:ide:eb one

word, also :( as a web of hypertext documents to be viewed by browsersusing a clientRserver architecture.EJThis proposal estimated that a read-only web

would be developed within three months and that it would take six months to

achieve the creation of new links and new material by readers, so thatJ authorship

becomes universal as well as the automatic notification of a reader when new

material of interest to him#her has become available. :hile the read-only goal was

met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the wiki

concept, :eb7&H, blogs, :eb '.Dand );;#&tom.$'J

The proposal was modeled after the ;/%3reader 7ynatextby lectronic Book

Technology, a spin-off from the Institute for )esearch in Information and

;cholarshipat Brown Cniversity. The 7ynatext system, licensed by 2)+, was a

key player in the extension of ;/%3 I;9 EE4"$4E5 to 6ypermedia within

6yTime, but it was considered too expensive and had an inappropriate licensing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-W90-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cailliauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-W90-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENQUIREhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertexthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypermediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cailliauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-W90-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebDAVhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSShttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_(standard)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SGMLhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynatexthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Research_in_Information_and_Scholarshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Research_in_Information_and_Scholarshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HyTimehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-W90-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cailliauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-W90-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENQUIREhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertexthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypermediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cailliauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-W90-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebDAVhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSShttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_(standard)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SGMLhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynatexthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Research_in_Information_and_Scholarshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Research_in_Information_and_Scholarshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HyTime


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policy for use in the general high energy physics community, namely a fee for each

document and each document alteration.

The CERN data centerin 2010 housing some WWW servers

&+e?T 2omputerwas used by Berners-3ee as the worldAs first web serverand

also to write the first web browser, :orld:ide:eb, in $44D. By 2hristmas $44D,

Berners-3ee had built all the tools necessary for a working :eb"$(Jthe first web

browserwhich was a web editor as wellG the first web serverG and the first web

pages,$8Jwhich described the pro=ect itself.

The first web page may be lost, but *aul 1onesof C+2-2hapel 6illin +orth

2arolina announced in %ay 'D$( that Berners-3ee gave him what he says is theoldest known web page during a $44$ visit to C+2. 1ones stored it on a magneto-

optical driveand on his +e?T computer.$>J

9n 5 &ugust $44$, Berners-3ee published a short summary of the :orld :ide

:eb pro=ect on the newsgroupalt.hypertext.$5JThis date also marked the debut of

the :eb as a publicly available service on the Internet, although new users only

accessed it after '( &ugust. For this reason this is considered the internautAs day.

;everal newsmedia have reported that the first photo on the :eb was published byBerners-3ee in $44', an image of the 2)+ house band 3es 6orribles 2ernettes

taken by ;ilvano de /ennaroG /ennaro has disclaimed this story, writing that

media were totally distorting our words for the sake of cheap sensationalism.$J

The first server outside urope was installed at the ;tanford 3inear &ccelerator

2enter;3&2 in *alo &lto, 2alifornia, to host the ;*I);-6*database.

&ccounts differ substantially as to the date of this event. The :orld :ide :eb

2onsortium says 7ecember $44',$EJwhereas ;3&2 itself claims $44$.$4J'DJThis is

supported by a :(2 document titledA Little History of the World Wide Web.'$J

The underlying concept of hypertext originated in previous pro=ects from the

$45Ds, such as the 6ypertext diting ;ystem6; at Brown Cniversity, Ted

+elsonAs *ro=ect ?anadu, and 7ouglas ngelbartAs o+-3ine ;ystem+3;. Both
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_centerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NeXT_Computerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_serverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorldWideWebhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorldWideWebhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorldWideWebhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Jones_(computer_technologist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNC-Chapel_Hillhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magneto-optical_drivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magneto-optical_drivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsgrouphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internauthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Horribles_Cernetteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPIREShttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Editing_Systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Nelsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Nelsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Xanaduhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Engelbarthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Engelbarthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLS_(computer_system)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_centerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NeXT_Computerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_serverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorldWideWebhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorldWideWebhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorldWideWebhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Jones_(computer_technologist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNC-Chapel_Hillhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magneto-optical_drivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magneto-optical_drivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsgrouphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internauthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Horribles_Cernetteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPIREShttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Editing_Systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Nelsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Nelsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Xanaduhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Engelbarthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLS_(computer_system)


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+elson and ngelbart were in turn inspired by Hannevar BushAs microfilm-based

memex, which was described in the $48> essay &s :e %ay Think.''J

Berners-3eeAs breakthrough was to marry hypertext to the Internet. In his book

Weaving The Web, he explains that he had repeatedly suggested that a marriagebetween the two technologies was possible to members of bothtechnical

communities, but when no one took up his invitation, he finally assumed the

pro=ect himself. In the process, he developed three essential technologies"

a system of globally unique identiers for resources on the Web andelsehere! the universal document identier "#$%&! later 'non asuniform resource locator"#R(& and uniform resource identier"#R%&)

the *ublishing language +y*erTe,t -ar'u* (anguage"+T-(&)

the +y*erte,t Transfer .rotocol"+TT.&/2

The :orld :ide :eb had a number of differences from other hypertext systems

available at the time. The :eb re0uired only unidirectional links rather than

bidirectional ones, making it possible for someone to link to another resource

without action by the owner of that resource. It also significantly reduced the

difficulty of implementing web servers and browsers in comparison to earlier

systems, but in turn presented the chronic problem of link rot. Cnlike predecessors

such as 6yper2ard, the :orld :ide :eb was non-proprietary, making it possible

to develop servers and clients independently and to add extensions without

licensing restrictions. 9n (D &pril $44(, 2)+ announced that the :orld :ide

:eb would be free to anyone, with no fees due.'8J2oming two months after the

announcement that the server implementation of the /opherprotocol was no

longer free to use, this produced a rapid shift away from /opher and towards the

:eb. &n early popular web browser was Hiola:::for Cnixand the ?

:indowing ;ystem.

Robert Cailliau! 3ean45ran6ois 7bramatic of %8-! andTim 8erners4(eeat the

10th anniversary of the World Wide Web Consortium/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannevar_Bushhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannevar_Bushhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfilmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As_We_May_Thinkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Conkling-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving_the_Web:_The_Original_Design_and_Ultimate_Destiny_of_the_World_Wide_Web_by_its_inventorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_resource_locatorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_resource_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Markup_Languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_rothttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HyperCardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-24https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopher_(protocol)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ViolaWWWhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unixhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Windowing_Systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Windowing_Systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cailliauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Leehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannevar_Bushhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfilmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As_We_May_Thinkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Conkling-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving_the_Web:_The_Original_Design_and_Ultimate_Destiny_of_the_World_Wide_Web_by_its_inventorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_resource_locatorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_resource_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Markup_Languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_rothttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HyperCardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-24https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopher_(protocol)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ViolaWWWhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unixhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Windowing_Systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Windowing_Systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cailliauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee


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;cholars generally agree that a turning point for the :orld :ide :eb began with

the introduction'>Jof the %osaicweb browser'5Jin $44(, a graphical browser

developed by a team at the+ational 2enter for ;upercomputing &pplicationsat the

Cniversity of Illinois at Crbana-2hampaign+2;&-CIC2, led by %arc

&ndreessen. Funding for %osaic came from the C.;.High-Performanceomp!ting and omm!nications "nitiativeand theHigh Performance omp!ting

and omm!nication Act of #$$#, one of several computing developments initiated

by C.;. ;enator &l /ore.'J*rior to the release of %osaic, graphics were not

commonly mixed with text in web pages and the webAs popularity was less than

older protocols in use over the Internet, such as /opherand :ide &rea Information

;ervers:&I;. %osaicAs graphical user interface allowed the :eb to become, by

far, the most popular Internet protocol.

The :orld :ide :eb 2onsortium:(2 was founded by Tim Berners-3ee after

he left the uropean 9rganization for +uclear )esearch 2)+ in 9ctober $448.

It was founded at the %assachusetts Institute of Technology3aboratory for

2omputer ;cience %IT#32; with support from the 7efense &dvanced )esearch

*ro=ects &gency7&)*&, which had pioneered the InternetG a year later, a second

site was founded at I+)I&a French national computer research lab with support

from the uropean 2ommission7/ Inf;oG and in $445, a third continental site

was created in 1apan at


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Tim Berners-3ee was knightedin 'DD8 by @ueen lizabeth IIfor services to the

global development of the Internet.($J('J

5unction

The World Wide Web functions as a layer on to* of the %nternet! hel*ing to

ma'e it more functional/ The advent of the -osaiceb broser hel*ed to

ma'e the eb much more usable/

The terms"nternetand World Wide Webare often used without much distinction.

6owever, the two things are not the same. The Internet is a global system of

interconnected computer networks. In contrast, the :orld :ide :eb is one of the

services transferred over these networks. It is a collection of text documents and

other resources, linked by hyperlinks and C)3s, usually accessed by web

browsers, from web servers.((J

Hiewing a web pageon the :orld :ide :eb normally begins either by typing the

C)3of the page into a web browser, or by following a hyperlink to that page or

resource. The web browser then initiates a series of background communication

messages to fetch and display the re0uested page. In the $44Ds, using a browser to

view web pagesSand to move from one web page to another through hyperlinksS

came to be known as Abrowsing,A Aweb surfing,A after channel surfing, or
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-32https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic_(web_browser)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_pagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_resource_locatorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_surfinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-32https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic_(web_browser)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_pagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_resource_locatorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_surfing


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Anavigating the :ebA. arly studies of this new behavior investigated user patterns

in using web browsers. 9ne study, for example, found five user patterns"

exploratory surfing, window surfing, evolved surfing, bounded navigation and

targeted navigation.(8J

The following example demonstrates the functioning of a web browser when

accessing a page at the C)3 http"##example.org#wiki#:orld:ide:eb. The

browser resolves the server name of the C)3 example.org into an Internet

*rotocol addressusing the globally distributed 7omain +ame ;ystem7+;. This

lookup returns an I* address such as %&'.&.##'.(. The browser then re0uests the

resource by sending an 6TT*re0uest across the Internet to the computer at that

address. It re0uests service from a specific T2* port number that is well known for

the 6TT* service, so that the receiving host can distinguish an 6TT* re0uest from

other network protocols it may be servicing. The 6TT* protocol normally uses

port number ED. The content of the 6TT* re0uest can be as simple as two lines of

text"

GET /wiki/World_Wide_WebHTTP/1.1Host: example.org

The computer receiving the 6TT* re0uest delivers it to web server software

listening for re0uests on port ED. If the web server can fulfill the re0uest it sends an

6TT* response back to the browser indicating success"

HTTP/1.0 200 OK

Content-Type: text/html; charset!T"-#

followed by the content of the re0uested page. The 6ypertext %arkup 3anguage

for a basic web page looks like UhtmlV UheadV UtitleVxample.org R The :orld

:ide :ebU#titleV U#headV UbodyV UpVThe :orld :ide :eb, abbreviated as

::: and commonly known ...U#pV U#bodyV U#htmlV

The web browserparsesthe 6T%3 and interprets the markup $t%tle&, $p&for

paragraph, and such that surrounds the words to format the text on the screen.%any web pages use 6T%3 to reference the C)3s of other resources such as

images, other embedded media, scriptsthat affect page behavior, and 2ascading

;tyle ;heetsthat affect page layout. The browser makes additional 6TT* re0uests

to the web server for these other Internet media types. &s it receives their content
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-34https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_addresshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_addresshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_Systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_TCP_and_UDP_port_numbershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client-side_scriptinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_Style_Sheetshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_Style_Sheetshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_media_typehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-34https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_addresshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_addresshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_Systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_TCP_and_UDP_port_numbershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client-side_scriptinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_Style_Sheetshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_Style_Sheetshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_media_type


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from the web server, the browser progressively rendersthe page onto the screen as

specified by its 6T%3 and these additional resources.

Linking

%ost web pages contain hyperlinks to other related pages and perhaps todownloadable files, source documents, definitions and other web resources. In the

underlying 6T%3, a hyperlink looks like Ua

hrefWhttp)**example.org*wiki*+ain,PageVxample.org a free encyclopediaU#aV

9ra*hic re*resentation of a minute fraction of the WWW! demonstrating

hy*erlin's

;uch a collection of useful, related resources, interconnected via hypertext links isdubbed a webof information. *ublication on the Internet created what Tim

Berners-3ee first called the WorldWideWebin its original 2amel2ase, which was

subse0uently discarded in +ovember $44D.EJ

The hyperlink structure of the ::: is described by the webgraph" the nodes of

the webgraph correspond to the web pages or C)3s the directed edges between

them to the hyperlinks.

9ver time, many web resources pointed to by hyperlinks disappear, relocate, or arereplaced with different content. This makes hyperlinks obsolete, a phenomenon

referred to in some circles as link rot, and the hyperlinks affected by it are often

called dead links. The ephemeral nature of the :eb has prompted many efforts to

archive web sites. The Internet &rchive, active since $445, is the best known of

such efforts.

Dynamic updates of web pages

-ain article: 7;a, "*rogramming&

1ava;criptis a scripting languagethat was initially developed in $44> by Brendan

ich, then of+etscape, for use within web pages.(>JThe standardised version is

2%&;cript.(>JTo make web pages more interactive, some web applications also

use 1ava;cript techni0ues such as &=axasynchronous1ava;cript and ?%3.

2lient-side scriptis delivered with the page that can make additional 6TT*
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layout_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlinkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CamelCasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-W90-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webgraphhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_linkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_(programming)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripting_programming_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brendan_Eichhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brendan_Eichhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscapehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Hamilton-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECMAScripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Hamilton-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_(programming)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_I/Ohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMLhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client-side_scriptinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layout_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlinkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CamelCasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-W90-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webgraphhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_linkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_(programming)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripting_programming_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brendan_Eichhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brendan_Eichhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscapehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Hamilton-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECMAScripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Hamilton-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajax_(programming)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_I/Ohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMLhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client-side_scripting


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re0uests to the server, either in response to user actions such as mouse movements

or clicks, or based on elapsed time. The serverAs responses are used to modify the

current page rather than creating a new page with each response, so the server

needs only to provide limited, incremental information. %ultiple &=ax re0uests can

be handled at the same time, and users can interact with the page while data isretrieved. :eb pages may also regularlypollthe server to check whether new

information is available.(5J

WWW prex

%any hostnames used for the :orld :ide :eb begin with wwwbecause of the

long-standing practice of naming Internet hosts according to the services they

provide. The hostnameof a web serveris often www, in the same way that it may

beftpfor an FT* server, and newsor nntpfor a C;+Tnews server. These host

names appear as 7omain +ame ;ystem 7+; or subdomainnames, as in

www.example.com. The use of wwwis not re0uired by any technical or policy

standard and many web sites do not use itG indeed, the first ever web server was

called nxoc.cern.ch.(J&ccording to *aolo *alazzi,(EJwho worked at 2)+

along with Tim Berners-3ee, the popular use of wwwas subdomain was accidentalG

the :orld :ide :eb pro=ect page was intended to be published at www.cern.ch

while info.cern.ch was intended to be the 2)+ home page, however the 7+;

records were never switched, and the practice of prepending wwwto an institutionAs

website domain name was subse0uently copied. %any established websites still

use the prefix, or they employ other subdomain names such as www%,sec!reor en

for special purposes. %any such web servers are set up so that both the main

domain name e.g., example.com and the wwwsubdomain e.g.,

www.example.com refer to the same siteG others re0uire one form or the other, or

they may map to different web sites.

The use of a subdomain name is useful for load balancingincoming web traffic by

creating a 2+&% recordthat points to a cluster of web servers. ;ince, currently,only a subdomain can be used in a 2+&%, the same result cannot be achieved by

using the bare domain root.citation neededJ

:hen a user submits an incomplete domain name to a web browser in its address

bar input field, some web browsers automatically try adding the prefix www to

the beginning of it and possibly .com, .org and .net at the end, depending on
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polling_(computer_science)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-36https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostnamehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_serverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FTP_serverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USENEThttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_serverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdomainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-37https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-38https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_balancing_(computing)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNAME_recordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polling_(computer_science)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-36https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostnamehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_serverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FTP_serverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USENEThttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_serverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdomainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-37https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-38https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_balancing_(computing)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNAME_recordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed


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what might be missing. For example, entering AmicrosoftA may be transformed to

http)**www.microsoft.com*and AopenofficeA to http)**www.openoffice.org. This

feature started appearing in early versions of %ozilla Firefox, when it still had the

working title AFirebirdA in early 'DD(, from an earlier practice in browsers such as

3ynx.(4JIt is reported that %icrosoft was granted a C; patent for the same idea in'DDE, but only for mobile devices.8DJ

In nglish, www is usually read asdo!ble-! do!ble-! do!ble-!.8$J;ome users

pronounce it d!b-d!b-d!b, particularly in +ew Xealand. ;tephen Fry, in his

*odgrammes series of podcasts, pronounces it w!h w!h w!h.citation neededJThe

nglish writer 7ouglas &damsonce 0uipped in The Independent on ;unday

$444" The :orld :ide :eb is the only thing I know of whose shortened form

takes three times longer to say than what itAs short for.8'JIn %andarin 2hinese,

World Wide Webis commonly translated via aphono-semantic matchingto w/n

w0i w1ng, which satisfies wwwand literally means myriad dimensional

net,8(Ja translation that reflects the design concept and proliferation of the :orld

:ide :eb. Tim Berners-3eeAs web-space states that World Wide Webis officially

spelled as three separate words, each capitalised, with no intervening hyphens.88J

Cse of the www prefix is declining as :eb '.Dweb applicationsseek to brand their

domain names and make them easily pronounceable.8>J&s the mobile webgrows

in popularity, services like /mail.com, %y;pace.com, Facebook.com andTwitter.com are most often mentioned without adding www. or, indeed, .com

to the domain.

Scheme speciers

The scheme specifiers http)**and https)**at the start of a web C)Irefer to

6ypertext Transfer *rotocolor 6TT* ;ecure, respectively. They specify the

communication protocol to use for the re0uest and response. The 6TT* protocol is

fundamental to the operation of the :orld :ide :eb, and the added encryption

layer in 6TT*; is essential when browsers send or retrieve confidential data, such

as passwords or banking information. :eb browsers usually automatically prepend

http"## to user-entered C)Is, if omitted.

Web security
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefoxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynx_(web_browser)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-39https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-40https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_of_%22www%22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_of_%22www%22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-41https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Adamshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-42https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phono-semantic_matchinghttps://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%87%E7%BB%B4%E7%BD%91https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%87%E7%BB%B4%E7%BD%91https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-44https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_applicationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-45https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_webhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Mailhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySpacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebookhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP_Securehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefoxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynx_(web_browser)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-39https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-40https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_of_%22www%22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-41https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Adamshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-42https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phono-semantic_matchinghttps://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%87%E7%BB%B4%E7%BD%91https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-44https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_applicationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-45https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_webhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Mailhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySpacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebookhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP_Secure


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For criminals, the web has become the preferred way to spread malware.

2ybercrimeon the web can include identity theft, fraud, espionageand intelligence

gathering.85J:eb-based vulnerabilitiesnow outnumber traditional computer

security concerns,8J8EJand as measured by /oogle, about one in ten web pages

may contain malicious code.84J%ost web-based attackstake place on legitimatewebsites, and most, as measured by ;ophos, are hosted in the Cnited ;tates, 2hina

and )ussia.>DJThe most common of all malware threatsis ;@3 in=ectionattacks

against websites.>$JThrough 6T%3 and C)Is, the :eb was vulnerable to attacks

like cross-site scripting?;; that came with the introduction of 1ava;cript>'Jand

were exacerbated to some degree by :eb '.Dand &=ax web designthat favors the

use of scripts.>(JToday by one estimate, DQ of all websites are open to ?;;

attacks on their users.>8Jphishingis another common threat to the :eb. ;&, the

;ecurity 7ivision of %2, today announced the findings of its 1anuary 'D$( Fraud)eport, estimating the global losses from phishing at N$.> Billion in 'D$'.>>JTwo

of the well-known phishing methods are 2overt )edirect and 9pen )edirect.

*roposed solutions vary to extremes. 3arge security vendors like %c&feealready

design governance and compliance suites to meet post-4#$$ regulations,>5Jand

some, like Fin=anhave recommended active real-time inspection of code and all

content regardless of its source.85J;ome have argued that for enterprise to see

security as a business opportunity rather than a cost center,>Jubi0uitous, always-

on digital rights management enforced in the infrastructure by a handful of

organizations must replace the hundreds of companies that today secure data and

networks.>EJ1onathan Xittrainhas said users sharing responsibility for computing

safety is far preferable to locking down the Internet.>4J

.rivacy

-ain article: %nternet *rivacy

very time a client re0uests a web page, the server can identify the re0uestAs I*

address and usually logs it. &lso, unless set not to do so, most web browsers record

re0uested web pages in a viewable historyfeature, and usually cachemuch of the

content locally. Cnless the server-browser communication uses 6TT*; encryption,

web re0uests and responses travel in plain text across the internet and can be

viewed, recorded, and cached by intermediate systems.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malwarehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybercrimehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_thefthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraudhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_gatheringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_gatheringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Ben-Itzhak-46https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-47https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-48https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Googlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-49https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_(computing)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Sophos-Q1-2008-50https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_(computer)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-51https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-site_scriptinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-FGHR-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_designhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-54https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-First_Post-55https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McAfeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-56https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finjanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Ben-Itzhak-46https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-57https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-58https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Zittrainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-59https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_privacyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_cachehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malwarehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybercrimehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_thefthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraudhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_gatheringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_gatheringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Ben-Itzhak-46https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-47https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-48https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Googlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-49https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_(computing)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Sophos-Q1-2008-50https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_(computer)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-51https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-site_scriptinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-FGHR-52https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_designhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-54https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-First_Post-55https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McAfeehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-56https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finjanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-Ben-Itzhak-46https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-57https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-58https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Zittrainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#cite_note-59https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_privacyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_cache


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:hen a web page asks for, and the user supplies,personally identifiable

informationSsuch as their real name, address, e-mail address, etc.Sweb-based

entities can associate current web traffic with that individual. If the website uses

6TT* cookies, username and password authentication, or other tracking

techni0ues, it can relate other web visits, before and after, to the identifiableinformation provided. In this way it is possible for a web-based organisation to

develop and build a profile of the individual people who use its site or sites. It may

be able to build a record for an individual that includes information about their

leisure activities, their shopping interests, their profession, and other aspects of

their demographic profile. These profiles are obviously of potential interest to

marketeers, advertisers and others. 7epending on the websiteAs terms and

conditionsand the local laws that apply information from these profiles may be

sold, shared, or passed to other organisations without the user being informed. Formany ordinary people, this means little more than some unexpected e-mails in their

in-box, or some uncannily relevant advertising on a future web page. For others, it

can mean that time spent indulging an unusual interest can result in a deluge of

further targeted marketing that may be unwelcome. 3aw enforcement, counter

terrorism and espionage agencies can also identify, target and track individuals

based on their interests or proclivities on the :eb.

;ocial networkingsites try to get users to use their real names, interests, and

locations. They believe this makes the social networking experience more realistic,

and therefore more engaging for all their users. 9n the other hand, uploaded

photographs or unguarded statements can be identified to an individual, who

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