Introduction to Personality PsychologyIntroduction to Personality PsychologyResearch Methods Research Methods

Issues in Personality Assessment Issues in Personality Assessment

Theories of PersonalityTheories of PersonalityDr. Stephen WeissDr. Stephen Weiss

January 24, 2003January 24, 2003Class #1Class #1

PersonalityPersonality

Chapter 1:Chapter 1: What is personality What is personality

psychology?psychology?

  

What do we mean???What do we mean???

So, when we say “she has a great So, when we say “she has a great personality” or “he’s a jerk”…what personality” or “he’s a jerk”…what do we really mean? do we really mean?

A generic definitionA generic definition

"Personality may be defined as the "Personality may be defined as the underlying causes within the person underlying causes within the person of individual behavior and of individual behavior and experience"experience"

Assumptions and Assumptions and Implications of this Implications of this

Definition…Definition… Personality is a construct that can be Personality is a construct that can be

used to explain and predict human used to explain and predict human behavior behavior

Requires no specific inherent Requires no specific inherent assumptions about the nature or assumptions about the nature or origins of personality origins of personality

Assumptions and Assumptions and Implications of this Implications of this

Definition… Definition…

There is little in such a definition that There is little in such a definition that would be challenged by proponents would be challenged by proponents of opposing theories of personality of opposing theories of personality

The definition is not sufficiently The definition is not sufficiently specific to make predictions that are specific to make predictions that are empirically testable in the sense that empirically testable in the sense that they can be compared with available they can be compared with available research data about human behavior research data about human behavior

Gordon Allport Gordon Allport (1897-1967)(1897-1967)

““The father of personality The father of personality psychology”psychology” Allport (1961)Allport (1961)

Personality is defined as "the dynamic Personality is defined as "the dynamic organization within the individual of organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior determine his characteristic behavior and thought"and thought"

Assumptions and Assumptions and Implications of this Implications of this

DefinitionDefinition: : Personality is Personality is dynamicdynamic Personality is Personality is biologically basedbiologically based Personality is Personality is persistent across persistent across

situationssituations

Much controversy…Much controversy…

Each of these elements suggest a relatively Each of these elements suggest a relatively specific theoretical view of about the nature and specific theoretical view of about the nature and origins of personality which are not universally origins of personality which are not universally accepted accepted

Each of the elements has, at one time or another, Each of the elements has, at one time or another, been challenged by other theoristsbeen challenged by other theorists

Each of the elements is at least potentially Each of the elements is at least potentially testable in the sense that they make certain testable in the sense that they make certain predictions that can be compared with known predictions that can be compared with known empirical data about human behaviorempirical data about human behavior

WHICH IS BETTER: WHICH IS BETTER: SPECIFIC OR GENERIC?SPECIFIC OR GENERIC?

It depends …It depends …

What's the purpose of the definition or theory: What's the purpose of the definition or theory: how are you going to use the definition? how are you going to use the definition?

What is the "level of analysis": what questions What is the "level of analysis": what questions are you asking and at what level of detail? What are you asking and at what level of detail? What are you trying to predict or explain and at what are you trying to predict or explain and at what level of detail? level of detail?

Is the primary intent to Is the primary intent to explain and predictexplain and predict human behavior (experimental or theoretical human behavior (experimental or theoretical psychology)? Or to psychology)? Or to change or modifychange or modify human human behavior (applied or clinical psychology)? behavior (applied or clinical psychology)?

We’ll be looking at several We’ll be looking at several different perspectives of different perspectives of

personality…personality… Dispositional PerspectiveDispositional Perspective

Stable qualities even in different settingsStable qualities even in different settings Biological PerspectiveBiological Perspective

Personality is inheritedPersonality is inherited Psychoanalytic PerspectivePsychoanalytic Perspective

Our friend Dr. FreudOur friend Dr. Freud Neoanalytic PerspectiveNeoanalytic Perspective

Ego development, etc.Ego development, etc.

We’ll be looking at several We’ll be looking at several different perspectives of different perspectives of

personality…personality…

Learning PerspectiveLearning Perspective Behavior changes because of Behavior changes because of

experienceexperience Phenomenological PerspectivePhenomenological Perspective

Inner uniqueness plus choiceInner uniqueness plus choice Cognitive Self-Regulation Cognitive Self-Regulation

PerspectivePerspective We are like machinesWe are like machines

Perspectives of Perspectives of PersonalityPersonality

These perspectives each give us These perspectives each give us differing angles concerning how to differing angles concerning how to view personalityview personality

Most pertain to a certain aspect of Most pertain to a certain aspect of personality – while others are grand personality – while others are grand theories that claim to give us the theories that claim to give us the total model of personality (Freud total model of personality (Freud intended his theory to be such)intended his theory to be such)

Real-world applications…Real-world applications…

We’ll be spending the entire semester We’ll be spending the entire semester delving into personality psychology…we’ll delving into personality psychology…we’ll look at it mainly as the experimental look at it mainly as the experimental psychologists that we arepsychologists that we are

We’ll try to make sense of all this and then We’ll try to make sense of all this and then we’ll “give” our information to the we’ll “give” our information to the organizational psychologists and clinical organizational psychologists and clinical psychologists who can use it in the real psychologists who can use it in the real worldworld

Personality Psychology:Personality Psychology:Fundamental issues Fundamental issues

Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences Intrapersonal FunctioningIntrapersonal Functioning

Fundamental IssuesFundamental Issues

Individual differencesIndividual differences – no two – no two people are the samepeople are the same ““Why are some children more afraid of Why are some children more afraid of

strangers than others” strangers than others” ““Why do some people attribute success Why do some people attribute success

to their abilities and failure to bad luck, to their abilities and failure to bad luck, and others attribute successes to luck and others attribute successes to luck

and failures to their lack of abilities?”and failures to their lack of abilities?”

Fundamental IssuesFundamental Issues

Intrapersonal functioningIntrapersonal functioning What Allport called “dynamic What Allport called “dynamic

organization” – same processes are organization” – same processes are being engaged but different inner being engaged but different inner motives are constantly at work motives are constantly at work depending on the situation – the reason depending on the situation – the reason why sometimes we go out and party and why sometimes we go out and party and sometimes we stay in to read sometimes we stay in to read

Scientific MethodScientific Method

Continuous cycle between theory Continuous cycle between theory and research – constant and research – constant modificationsmodifications

Parsimony – keep theories simple – Parsimony – keep theories simple – excess baggage is confusing (never-excess baggage is confusing (never-mind boring)mind boring)

Methods in the Study of Methods in the Study of PersonalityPersonality

Theories of PersonalityTheories of Personality

Chapter 2Chapter 2

Henry Murray Henry Murray (1893-1988)(1893-1988)

At this time most of his American At this time most of his American experimental psychologist contemporaries experimental psychologist contemporaries were studying rat behaviorwere studying rat behavior

Murray studied individuals at a variety of Murray studied individuals at a variety of levelslevels

Murray’s PersonologyMurray’s Personology

Refers to his unique interdisciplinary Refers to his unique interdisciplinary approach to the study of the approach to the study of the individualindividual

Employs a wide range of clinical, Employs a wide range of clinical, psychoanalytic, and experimental psychoanalytic, and experimental methodsmethods

Attempted to understand the whole Attempted to understand the whole personperson

Idiographic approach to Idiographic approach to personology…personology…

Centers on the individual, using Centers on the individual, using techniques appropriate to techniques appropriate to understanding the understanding the uniquenessuniqueness of of each personeach person Diaries, autobiographies, letters, etc.– Diaries, autobiographies, letters, etc.–

case studiescase studies Murray focused mainly on this Murray focused mainly on this

idiographic approachidiographic approach

Nomethic approach to Nomethic approach to personology…personology…

Study of large groups of individuals Study of large groups of individuals in order to infer general variables or in order to infer general variables or universal principlesuniversal principles

Others focused on this approachOthers focused on this approach

Murray’s approachMurray’s approach

Contributed to the multidisciplinary Contributed to the multidisciplinary approach to understanding approach to understanding personality but does his case study personality but does his case study approach have any flaws?approach have any flaws?

Case StudiesCase Studies

FeaturesFeatures: : Intensive examination of the behavior and Intensive examination of the behavior and

mental processes associated with a specific mental processes associated with a specific person or situationperson or situation

Strengths:Strengths: Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new, Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new,

complex, or rare phenomenoncomplex, or rare phenomenon PitfallsPitfalls: :

May not provide representative picture of May not provide representative picture of phenomenaphenomena

Research ParticipantsResearch Participants

90% of researchers work at college 90% of researchers work at college universities universities

Most participants (subjects) come in Most participants (subjects) come in research studies are college students research studies are college students mostly from Intro to psych coursesmostly from Intro to psych courses

Often a requirement in most Often a requirement in most universitiesuniversities

Sears (1986)Sears (1986)

Looked at the major journals in social Looked at the major journals in social psych from 1980-1985 and found this:psych from 1980-1985 and found this:

74% are college undergrads74% are college undergrads 51% from psych classes51% from psych classes 8% are other students (probably grad 8% are other students (probably grad

students)…so that means more than 8 students)…so that means more than 8 out of every 10 subjects are studentsout of every 10 subjects are students

Problems with this???Problems with this???

So, we have the majority being 17-19 So, we have the majority being 17-19 year-olds and overloaded with white, year-olds and overloaded with white, middle-class as wellmiddle-class as well

Are they representative of the Are they representative of the general population?general population?

Sears (1986) says no!Sears (1986) says no!

The participants in the many research studies The participants in the many research studies are all college students, and college students are all college students, and college students do differ from other people in some respectsdo differ from other people in some respects

Therefore, an important question is whether Therefore, an important question is whether these findings generalize to other groups of these findings generalize to other groups of peoplepeople

Orne (1962)Orne (1962)

Orne (1962) looked at this issue and Orne (1962) looked at this issue and raised some serious questions about raised some serious questions about psychological studies in general…psychological studies in general…

(1) Do people behave differently just (1) Do people behave differently just because it’s a psychological study?because it’s a psychological study?

(2) Must be careful of “experimenter (2) Must be careful of “experimenter bias” which can occur when the bias” which can occur when the experimenter knows the conditions experimenter knows the conditions participants are inparticipants are in

Variables:Variables:

Dependent and IndependentDependent and Independent DV = Variable (behavior) you are measuring DV = Variable (behavior) you are measuring

AngerAnger IV = variable or variables being manipulated IV = variable or variables being manipulated

AgeAge GenderGender Educational levelEducational level Socioeconomic levelSocioeconomic level

ExperimentsExperiments

Features:Features: Manipulation of an Manipulation of an independent variableindependent variable and and

measurement of its effects on a measurement of its effects on a dependent dependent variablevariable

Strengths:Strengths: Can establish a cause-effect relationship between Can establish a cause-effect relationship between

independent and independent and dependent variablesdependent variables

Pitfalls:Pitfalls: Confounding variables may prevent valid Confounding variables may prevent valid

conclusionsconclusions

CorrelationsCorrelations

FeaturesFeatures Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly

one variable is related to anotherone variable is related to another StrengthsStrengths

Allows researcher to better formulate their Allows researcher to better formulate their hypothesis – gives ideas that we can explore hypothesis – gives ideas that we can explore furtherfurther

Weaknesses Weaknesses Data can sometimes fool us (we’ll get to this in a Data can sometimes fool us (we’ll get to this in a

second)second)

CorrelationsCorrelations

Positive CorrelationsPositive Correlations Two variables either increase or Two variables either increase or

decrease together decrease together

Hypothetical Example:Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the number of pregnancies During 1988, the number of pregnancies

increased at the same rate as did the increased at the same rate as did the number of rainy days number of rainy days

CorrelationsCorrelations

Negative CorrelationsNegative Correlations The variables move in opposite directions The variables move in opposite directions

Hypothetical Example:Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the number of pregnancies During 1988, the number of pregnancies

increased at the same rate as the number of increased at the same rate as the number of rainy days decreasedrainy days decreased

Correlations do not mean cause and Correlations do not mean cause and effecteffect

Correlation not CausationCorrelation not Causation Correlation not CausationCorrelation not Causation

Research issues…Research issues…

Research generates more questions Research generates more questions than answers…than answers… Frustrating…yes at timesFrustrating…yes at times Challenging…almost alwaysChallenging…almost always Fun…if you’re crazy like meFun…if you’re crazy like me

Humility vs. Arrogance Humility vs. Arrogance Use humility pleaseUse humility please We don’t “prove” anythingWe don’t “prove” anything We can infer that an effect is realWe can infer that an effect is real

Research issues…Research issues…

Statistical SignificanceStatistical Significance If it can be shown that an effect is highly If it can be shown that an effect is highly

unlikely to have occurred by chance or random unlikely to have occurred by chance or random factors – the researcher infers that the effect is factors – the researcher infers that the effect is realreal

Use words like: Use words like: appearsappears evidence supportsevidence supports

or if you have gathered extremely convincing or if you have gathered extremely convincing evidence you might use:evidence you might use:

strongly indicatesstrongly indicates

Issues in Personality Issues in Personality AssessmentAssessment

Theories of PersonalityTheories of Personality

Chapter 3Chapter 3

A tough job? Why?A tough job? Why?

Assessment Assessment The measuring of personalityThe measuring of personality

Methods for obtaining Methods for obtaining data…data…

Observations Observations Observer ratingsObserver ratings (overt-behavioral (overt-behavioral

assessments)assessments)Used mostly with childrenUsed mostly with children

Self-reportsSelf-reportsThe individual records their behaviorsThe individual records their behaviors

Inventory Inventory Tests such as the MMPI which access several Tests such as the MMPI which access several

dimensions of personality – easy-going, highly dimensions of personality – easy-going, highly motivated, type A or B, etc.motivated, type A or B, etc.

Making sure things are Making sure things are consistent…consistent…

ReliabilityReliability Degree of consistency or repeatabilityDegree of consistency or repeatability

Internal ReliabilityInternal Reliability Inter-rater ReliabilityInter-rater Reliability Test-Retest ReliabilityTest-Retest Reliability

Making sure things are Making sure things are meaningful…meaningful…

Validity Validity Are we measuring what we intend to Are we measuring what we intend to

measure?measure? Construct ValidityConstruct Validity Criterion ValidityCriterion Validity Convergent ValidityConvergent Validity Discriminate ValidityDiscriminate Validity Face ValidityFace Validity

Making sure things are Making sure things are meaningful…meaningful…

Operational DefinitionsOperational Definitions A definition that explains how you will A definition that explains how you will

measure a construct measure a construct Clearly stated descriptions of physical Clearly stated descriptions of physical

eventsevents Takes all guess-work out of the equationTakes all guess-work out of the equation

Problems that get in the way of assuring Problems that get in the way of assuring validityvalidity

When we get a response set of When we get a response set of acquiescence acquiescence This is the tendency to say yes to This is the tendency to say yes to

everythingeverything Remedy?Remedy?

Response set aimed at achieving social Response set aimed at achieving social desirability -- people want to see desirability -- people want to see themselves as good, important, etc.themselves as good, important, etc. Remedy?Remedy?

How do they decide what to How do they decide what to measure?measure?

Empirical approachEmpirical approach Relies more on data to decide on the items Relies more on data to decide on the items

making up the assessment devicemaking up the assessment device IInductive approachnductive approach

Data decides which qualities are worth measuringData decides which qualities are worth measuring CCriterion keyingriterion keying – find out which items are – find out which items are

being answered differently by different groupsbeing answered differently by different groups For example: do normals answer the items For example: do normals answer the items

differently than patients, etc.differently than patients, etc.