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Theories of Personality
Chapter 2
Theories of Personality
The Psychodynamic Theories The Modern Study of Personality Genetic Influences Environmental Influences Cultural Influences The Inner Experience
Psychodynamic Theories
Emphasis on unconscious intrapsychic dynamics
Belief in the importance of early childhood Belief that development occurs in fixed stages Focus on fantasies and symbolic meanings of
events Reliance on subjective rather than objective
methods
The Structure of Personality
Id: Operates according to the pleasure principle Primitive and
unconscious part of personality
Ego: Operates according to the reality principle Mediates between id
and superego Superego: Moral ideals
and conscience
Defense Mechanisms
Repression: Threatening idea is blocked from consciousness
Projection: Unacceptable feelings are attributed to someone else
Displacement: Directing emotions toward objects or people that aren’t the real target
Reaction Formation: A feeling that produces anxiety is transformed into its opposite.
Regression: A person reverts to a previous phase of psychological development.
Denial: A person refuses to admit that something is unpleasant.
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Oral Anal Phallic Latency period Genital
Other Psychodynamic Approaches
Jungian Theory: A psychodynamic theory that includes the concepts of the collective unconscious (the universal memories of the species) and archetypes (universal symbolic images in myths, art, and dreams).
Object Relations Theory: A psychodynamic approach that emphasizes the importance of the infant’s first two years of life and the baby’s formative relationships, especially with the mother.
Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories Psychodynamic theories violate the principle
of falsifiability Psychodynamic theories are criticized for
drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients.
Psychodynamic theories are criticized for basing theories upon the retrospective accounts and fallible memories of patients.
The Modern Study of Personality
Personality Factor Theories
Five Central Factors in Personality
Extroversion versus Introversion Neuroticism Agreeableness Conscientiousness Openness to Experience
The Genetic Contribution
Heredity and Temperament Heredity and Traits Evaluating Genetic Theories
Heredity and Temperament
Temperaments: Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways; they are present in infancy and are assumed to be innate.
Genes: The functional units of heredity; they are composed of DNA and specify the structure of proteins.
Heredity and Traits
Heritability: A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group.
Behavioral genetics: An interdisciplinary field of study concerned with the genetic basis of behavior and personality.
Twins
Identical (Monozygotic) Twins: Twins that develop when a fertilized egg divides into two parts that develop into separate embryos
Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins: Twins that develop when two separate eggs are fertilized by different sperm; they are no more alike genetically than any other pair of siblings.
Twin Studies
Studying identical twins separated near birth is one behavior genetic method
Gerald and Mark (right) met at age 31 after being separated at birth.
Both are volunteer firefighters Like to hunt, eat Chinese food, and
watch John Wayne movies Drink the same brand of beer,
with their hands held the same way (pinky curled)
Evaluating Genetic Theories
Reasons for Caution Not all traits are equally heritable or unaffected
by shared environment. Some studies may underestimate the impact
of the environment. Even traits that are highly heritable are not
rigidly fixed. Genetic predisposition does not imply
inevitability
Environmental Influences on Personality
The Behavioral SchoolThe Social-Cognitive Learning School
The Power of ParentsThe Power of Peers
The Behavioral School
Behaviorism: An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior.
Operant Conditioning: The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences.
Reinforcer: A stimulus or event that strengthens or increases the probability of the response it follows.
The Social-Cognitive Learning School
A theory that emphasizes how behavior is learned and maintained through the interaction between individuals and their environment, an interaction strongly influenced by such cognitive processes as observations, expectations, perceptions, and motivating beliefs.
The Cultural Contribution
Culture and Personality
Evaluating Cultural Theories
Culture and Personality
Culture: A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community or society, and a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that community
Individualism or Community?
Individualist Culture: The self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others.
Collectivist Culture: The self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes.
Cultures and Time
Monochronic Culture: Cultures in which time is organized sequentially; schedules and deadlines are valued over people.
Polychronic Culture: Cultures in which time is organized horizontally; people tend to do several things at once and value relationships over schedules.
The Inner Experience
Humanist Approaches
An approach that emphasizes personal growth and the achievement of human potential rather than the scientific understanding and assessment of behavior.
Abraham Maslow Previous Psychological Theories Avoided the Positive Focused on the Qualities of the Self-Actualized Person Hierarchy of Needs
Carl Rogers Unconditional Positive Regard Congruence
Rollo May Existentialism
Narrative Approach
The story that we each develop over time Core Beliefs