Introduction to PR ResearchBased on information from S. Zhou & W.D. Sloan (Eds.). (2011). “Research Methods in Communication”
Dr. LaRae M. Donnellan, APR, CPRCSchool of Journalism & Graphic CommunicationFlorida A&M UniversitySpring 2012
What is “research”?• Casual definition?• “Real” research must be:• Rigorous and systematic
(http://alsn.mda.org/news/als-research-briefs-5)
Persuasive Appeals• Logos = Appeals based on logic or reason• Pathos = Appeals based on emotion• Ethos = Appeals based on a person’s 3 C’s: character, charisma,
control
(http://www.flickr.com/photos/42986762@N05/4594744084/)
Ways of Knowing• Knowing by authority• Seek information from “experts”• “Experts” sometimes disagree• Generalize expertise?
(http://lunaticadesnuda.blogspot.com/2008/03/gatorate-tiger-tiger-woods-own-gatorade.html)
Ways of Knowing• Knowing by personal experience• Through five senses• Direct knowledge• Subject to bias
(“The Round Robin: Politics and Government,” http://stumbleinn.net/forum/showthread.php?t=24851)
Ways of Knowing• Knowing by tenacity• Willing to accept something as true because it has seemed
“right” for a long time• Tradition, habits, superstition
(http://www.life.com/gallery/52091/image/76549097/where-superstitions-come-from#index/10)
Ways of Knowing• Knowing by intuition• Fast and quick• Hunches and gut feelings• First impressions
(http://celebs.icanhascheezburger.com/2010/12/29/funny-celebrity-pictures-intuition/)
Ways of Knowing• Knowing by the scientific method• Systematic and rigorous• Minimize influence of bias or prejudice• Replicable
(http://www.buzzle.com/articles/famous-african-american-scientists.html)
Scientific Method• Science is:• public• objective• empirical• systematic• cumulative
(http://www.dbskeptic.com/2008/03/25/faith-versus-the-scientific-method/)
Types of Knowledge• Propositional: Have processed information and are aware of
knowledge• Acquaintance: Have acquired through actual contact• How-to: Have procedural knowledge• “I know PR.”
(http://www.ksapr.com/pr-for-pr)
Types of Research• Exploratory vs. explanatory• Exploratory: What are social media?• Explanatory: Do social media affect people’s perceptions of
presidential candidates?
(http://www.marketinghomeproducts.com/2011/07/07/the-number-1-rule-for-social-media-strategies/)
Types of Research
• Inductive vs. deductive• Inductive: Observe, collect data, generalize• Deductive: Start with theory then predict
• The “circle of science”• Inductive & deductive• Replicated research• Cumulative findings
(http://www.floridagoldfruit.com/fresh-fruit/tangerines.html)
Types of Research
• Basic vs. applied• Basic: Focuses on building or refuting theories• Applied: Focuses on solving specific problems
• Issue: How do people learn?
(http://www.haringcenter.washington.edu/)
Types of Research
• Quantitative vs. qualitative• Quantitative: Assumes there is an objective, single reality; uses
numbers to count that reality• Qualitative: Assumes there are many realities; focuses on things
other than numbers
(http://www.stratcom.net/services.html)
How People Perceive Reality
• Positivism vs. constructivism• Positivist: Evidence gathered through senses; as an outsider,
classifies and quantifies data; constructs statistical models• Constructivist: People construct multiple realities based on
context; as an insider, lets multiple methodologies emerge
(http://uregina.ca/~hadjista/about.html)
Research Steps #1-#3
• Identify topic• Do literature review• Select research design • Experiment, survey, focus group, content analysis, benchmarking,
SWOT analysis, etc.
(http://deborahgabriel.com/2011/06/20/literature-review-completed-at-last/#.TwoievnxXVo
Hypotheses vs. Research Q’s
• Hypotheses• Dependent variable: What you measure• Independent variable: What you manipulate• H1: People who live in a clean environment and lead a healthful
lifestyle live longer than those who don’t• Research questions• What affects longevity?• Who lives the longest?• Does race/age matter?
• Theories• Explanation based on
observation, experi- mentation & reasoning, used to explain & predict natural phenomena. (http://latriplehelice.blogspot.com/2009/08/los-alimentos-organicos-son-
solo-un.html)
Research Steps #4-#6
• Collect data• Analyze data• Draw conclusions• Internal validity: Measure what you say you are• External validity: Results generalizable to larger setting/public
(http://www2.pciaonline.org/2007AfricaWorkshopProceedings/index.pdf)
Research Steps #7-#8
• Report results• Replicate findings• “One study does not prove anything.” (Zhou, p. 20)
• Reliability = The extent to which the instrument yields the same results on repeated trials
(http://foureyesfortwins.wordpress.com/2011/11/03/is-the-internet-reliable-nowadays/)
Communication Research History
• Early research more like reporting• Historical and descriptive
• Auguste Comte, French philosopher• Promoted positivism (emphasis on empirical
research through the senses)• Ralph Nafziger• Promoted quantitative research in the
1940s-1950s• Foundations got into the act• Supported quantitative research• Payne Fund: How movies affect
children
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Comte)Auguste Comte
Communication Research History
• 1920s-1930s• Were the media causing or at least exacerbating the problems of
organized crime, juvenile delinquency? – Empirical research used to see if this were true.
• J.B. Watson: Stimulus-response• W.I. Thomas & Gordon Allpert: Attitudes
• Are people predisposed to respond a certain way?
• Can ads influence attitudes toward products and increase sales?
• Attitude scales developed.
(http://ageinghealthily.wordpress.com/)
Communication Research History
• 1940s• Paul Lazarsfeld – Empirical studies of media effects• Robert Merton – Focus groups• Herta Herzog – Media “gratification” • Joseph Klapper – Media reinforce,
not cause/change• WW II• Carl Hovland – Propaganda• Moved research from just studying
differences in attitudes to studying how propaganda changes attitudes
(http://www.guidespot.com/guides/world_war_ii_posters)
Communication Research History
• Content analysis: • Early 20th century focus on content of newspapers, movies• Harold D. Lasswell – Mass media content (Hierarchy of Needs)
• 1950s-1960s• Focus on quantitative research in journalism/communication
programs at universities• Ph.D. became more important hiring criterion• Growth of professional associations
(http://communicationleadership.usc.edu/blog/leading_journalism_association_spotlights_cclp_research_on_funding_the_news.html)
Communication Research History
• 1970s-1990s• Re-emergence of qualitative research• Cultural studies
• Blending of quantitative and qualitative • But they reflect different worldviews
• Triangulation – Richer results
(http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/100047/chapters/Data-Collection@-Building-a-Valid-and-Reliable-Data-Collection-Plan.aspx)
Review• Define the three types of persuasive appeal.• Describe the five ways of knowing.• Define the difference between a hypothesis and a research
question.• Describe the eight steps of doing research.• Describe the difference between quantitative and
qualitative research. Give examples of each.• Briefly describe how communication
research has evolved over time.
(http://sakitaholley.com/2011/06/21/how-to-get-a-pr-job/)
