Table of content

No. Description Page no.

1. Acknowledgement 1

2. Introduction 2

3.

Content

1.0 Learning Disability

1.1 Concept of Learning Disability

1.2 Types of Learning Disability and Their Symptoms

1.2.1 Dyslexia

1.2.2 Dyspraxia

1.2.3 Autism

1.2.4 Asperger’s Syndrome (AS)

2.0 Intelligence quotient

2.1 Early history

2.2 General factor

2.3 Theory

2.3.1 Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory

2.3.2 Spearman’s G Factor

2.3.3 Gardener’s Multiples Intelligence

2.3.4 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

2.3.5 Other theories

3.0 Concept of Intelligence Quotient

3.1 Modern tests

3.2 Reliability and validity

3.3 Standardization of tests

3.4 Flynn effect

3.5 Genetics and environment

3.5.1 Heritability

3.5.2 Shared family environment

3.5.3 Non-shared family environment and environment

outside the family

3.5.4 Individual genes

3.5.5 Gene-environment interaction

3.6 Interventions

3.7 Music and IQ

3.8 IQ and brain anatomy

3.9 Health and IQ

3.10 Social outcomes

3.11 School performance

3.12 Job performance

3.13 Group differences

4.0 Types of Intelligence Tests

4.1 Wechsler Intelligence scale for children

4.2 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence

4.3 Wechsler Memory Scale

4.4 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

5.0 Analysis/Findings

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, we would like to thank as our lecturer of Understanding

Human Behavior for giving us a great chance to deal up with this project. Besides, she has

provided us lots of important knowledge about the style of making a good report and guidance

on the report that we have prepared. We are grateful to have her as our lecturer who is willing to

help us by giving us relevant guidance and once again, thank you.

Furthermore, we would like to thank our classmates for helping us lots in most of the

time by supporting us and helping us to search for all those information to complete our project.

Moreover, they have helped us to correct our mistakes and provide us some useful suggestion

when we are preparing our report.

Last but not least, this report was hope would be a successful report as the full

commitments which contributed by the group members. Thank you very much to our group

members for their co-operation for spending their precious time to do all the research and

prepare the report so that we can summit the report on time.

Thank you!

INTRODUCTION

Ira’s Year Three teacher gives her a letter to take to her parents. Because she is

experiencing learning difficulties in class, the teacher consulted with the school counselor. They

agreed that it would be beneficial to have her take an intelligence test. Why did the teacher

suggested for an intelligence test? What could the finding of Ira’s intelligent level do to help her?

What is intelligence test and how it is tested?

Taking intelligence test is a great starting point to help discover what difficulties the

student is experiencing. IQ test are normally administered by psychologist, and those

psychologist should have a good understanding of learning, social and emotional development.

Then the IQ test will provide a wealth information about student learning abilities, strength and

weaknesses, and how they may be impacting on his or her academic progress, social life and

emotional state. Besides that, the student full scale id score will indicate whether his or her

ability is average, or above or below average. IQ test will give immediate indication of whether

the student’s academic progress is matching his or her ability level.

At last, these IQ test will make the student understand why they are good at something

but not others. The student became aware of the underlying reasons for your particular learning

difficulties. Then the student will learn to capitalize on their strength. This test will motivate the

student to ensure that their future goals are realistic and achievable.

1.0 LEARNING DISABILITY

1.1 Concept of Learning Disability

First of all, learning disability is a classification including several areas of

functioning in which a person has difficulty learning in a typical manner, usually caused

by one unknown factor or many factors. Learning disability refers to significant learning

problems in an academic area.

When the term "learning disabilities" is used, it describes a group of disorders

characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech

skills. Learning disabilities are lifelong.

However, with appropriate cognitive/academic interventions and technology

assistance, many can overcome the effects of their disability. Individuals with learning

disabilities can face unique challenges that are often pervasive throughout the lifespan.

Depending on the type and severity of the disability, interventions and current

technologies may be used to help the individual learn strategies that will foster future

success.

Teachers, parents and schools can create plans together that tailor intervention and

accommodations to aid the individual in successfully becoming independent learners.

School psychologists and other qualified professionals quite often help design the

intervention and coordinate the execution of the intervention with teachers and parents.

Social support may improve the learning for students with learning disabilities.

1.2 Types of Learning Disability and Their Symptoms

1.2.1 Dyslexia

Dyslexia is difficulty in learning to read fluently and with accurate

comprehension. This includes difficulty with phonological awareness,

phonological decoding, processing speed, orthographic coding, auditory short-

term memory, language skills/verbal comprehension, and/or rapid naming.

There are three proposed cognitive subtypes of dyslexia, namely, auditory,

visual and attentional, although individual cases of dyslexia are better explained

by specific underlying neuropsychological deficits and co-occurring learning

disabilities (e.g. attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, math disability, etc.).

Reading disability, or dyslexia, is the most common learning disability. Although

it is considered to be a receptive language-based learning disability in the research

literature, dyslexia also affects one's expressive language skills. Dyslexia and IQ

are not interrelated as a result of cognition developing independently.

Some early symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia

include delays in speech, letter reversal or mirror writing, and being easily

distracted by background noise. This pattern of early distractibility is partially

explained by the co-occurrence of dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity

disorder. Although each disorder occurs in approximately 5% of children, 25-

40% of children with either dyslexia or ADHD meet criteria for the other

disorder.

At later ages symptoms can include a difficulty identifying or generating

rhyming words, or counting syllables in words (phonological awareness), a

difficulty segmenting words into individual sounds, or blending sounds to make

words, a difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems (see anomic aphasia)),

commonly very poor spelling, which has been called dysorthographia or

dysgraphia (orthographic coding), whole-word guesses, and tendencies to omit or

add letters or words when writing and reading are considered classic signs. Other

classic signs for teenagers and adults with dyslexia include trouble with

summarizing a story, memorizing, reading aloud, and learning a foreign language.

A common misconception about dyslexia is that dyslexic readers write words

backwards or move letters around when reading – this only occurs in a very small

population of dyslexic readers. Individuals with dyslexia are better identified by

reading accuracy, fluency, and writing skills that do not seem to match their level

of intelligence from prior observations.

1.2.2 Dyspraxia

Dyspraxia is a disorder that affects motor skill development. People with

dyspraxia have trouble planning and completing fine motor tasks. This can vary

from simple motor tasks such as waving goodbye to more complex tasks like

brushing teeth. It is estimated that dyspraxia affects at least two percent of the

general population, and 70% of those affected are male. A person with dyspraxia

can learn to function independently. Special learning methods and repeated

practice of basic tasks can help.Sometimes occupational, physical, or speech

therapy is also needed.

Dyspraxia is a lifelong disorder. Its severity and symptoms can vary from

person to person and, it can affect people differently at different stages of life.

Dyspraxia can affect many basic functions required for daily living. Dyspraxia

often exists along with learning disabilities such as dyslexia (e.g., trouble reading,

writing and spelling) or dyscalculia (e.g., trouble with mathematics), and other

conditions that impact learning, such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

(AD/HD).

Weaknesses in comprehension, information processing, and listening can

contribute to the troubles experienced by people with dyspraxia. They may also

have low self-esteem, depression, and other emotional and behavioral troubles. In

child, Dyspraxia is often thought of as causing physical difficulties, but it can

affect other areas of the child's life:

Balance and co-ordination affects ability to hold pens, pencils and

handwriting, and dressing, and eating skills using cutlery.

Following instructions, organization and short term memory

Speaking and listening, social skills and friendships.

Early signs of dyspraxia may be seen in babies who are slow to sit

up, crawl, walk and get the hang of potty and toilet training. Later

in life, children may seem awkward and accident prone and take

longer to learn to ride a bike.

They may be oversensitive to some noises, light, touch and other

triggers.

Speech may be immature for a child's age and hard to understand

early on.

As well as communication difficulties, a child with dyspraxia may

think in a very literal way and have trouble with imaginative play.

A child with dyspraxia may have other learning difficulties, such

as an autistic spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity

disorder ( ADHD) or dyslexia.

The symptoms of dyspraxia may fade as a child gets older, but around nine out of 10 children

with dyspraxia still have difficulties in their teens and adulthood.

1.2.3 Autism

Autism is a disorder of neural development characterized by

impaired social interaction and communication, and by restricted and

repetitive behavior. The diagnostic criteria require that symptoms become

apparent before a child is three years old.

Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering how

nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; how this occurs is not

well understood. Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics

of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by

rare mutations, or by rare combinations of common genetic variants.

The number of people diagnosed with autism has been increasing

dramatically since the 1980s, partly due to changes in diagnostic practice

and government-subsidized financial incentives for named diagnoses; the

question of whether actual prevalence has increased is unresolved.

An autistic culture has developed, with some individuals seeking a

cure and others believing autism should be accepted as a difference and

not treated as a disorder. Many people with autism have symptoms similar

to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

But these symptoms, especially problems with social relationships,

are more severe for people with autism. About 10% of people with autism

have some form of savant skills-special limited gifts such as memorizing

lists, calculating calendar dates, drawing, or musical ability.

Many people with autism have unusual sensory perceptions. For

example, they may describe a light touch as painful and deep pressure as

providing a calming feeling. Others may not feel pain at all. Some people

with autism have strong food likes and dislikes and unusual

preoccupations. Sleep problems occur in about 40% to 70% of people with

autism.

1.2.4 Asperger’s Syndrome (AS)

Asperger syndrome is one of the autism spectrum disorders, and is

classified as a developmental disorder that affects how the brain processes

information. People with Asperger syndrome have a wide range of

strengths, weaknesses, skills and difficulties.

Common characteristics include difficulty in forming friendships,

communication difficulties (such as a tendency to take things literally),

and an inability to understand social rules and body language.

Although Asperger syndrome cannot be cured, appropriate

intervention and experience can help individuals to develop skills,

compensatory strategies and help build up coping skills.

Social skills training, which teaches individuals how to behave in

different social situations, is often considered to be of great value to

people with Asperger syndrome.

More males than females are diagnosed with Asperger syndrome.

While every person who has the syndrome will experience different

symptoms and severity of symptoms, some of the more common

characteristics include:

Average or above-average intelligence

Difficulties with high- level language skills such as verbal

reasoning, problem solving, making inferences and predictions

Difficulties in empathising with others

Problems with understanding another person’s point of view

Difficulties engaging in social routines such as conversations

and‘small talk’

Problems with controlling feelings such as anger, depression and

anxiety

A preference for routines and schedules which can result in stress

or anxiety if a routine is disrupted

Specialised fields of interest or hobbies.

2.0 INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT

2.1 Early history

The first large-scale mental test may have been the imperial

examination system in China. According to psychologist Robert Sternberg, the

ancient Chinese game known in the West as the tangram was designed to evaluate

a person's intelligence, along with the game jiulianhuan or nine linked rings.

Sternberg states that it is considered "the earliest psychological test in the world,"

although one made for entertainment rather than analysis. Modern mental testing

began in France in the 19th century. It contributed to separating mental

retardation from mental illness and reducing the neglect, torture, and ridicule

heaped on both groups.

Englishman Francis Galton coined the terms psychometrics and eugenics,

and developed a method for measuring intelligence based on nonverbal sensory-

motor tests. It was initially popular, but was abandoned after the discovery that it

had no relationship to outcomes such as college grades.

French psychologist Alfred Binet, together with psychologists Victor

Henri and Théodore Simon, after about 15 years of development, published

the Binet-Simon test in 1905, which focused on verbal abilities. It was intended to

identify mental retardation in school children. The score on the Binet-Simon scale

would reveal the child's mental age. For example, a six-year-old child who passed

all the tasks usually passed by six-year-olds—but nothing beyond—would have a

mental age that exactly matched his chronological age, 6.0. (Fancher, 1985).

In Binet's view, there were limitations with the scale and he stressed what

he saw as the remarkable diversity of intelligence and the subsequent need to

study it using qualitative, as opposed to quantitative, measures (White, 2000).

American psychologist Henry H. Goddard published a translation of it in 1910.

The eugenics movement in the USA seized on it as a means to give them

credibility in diagnosing mental retardation, and thousands of American women,

most of them poor African Americans, were forcibly sterilized based on their

scores on IQ tests, often without their consent or knowledge. American

psychologist Lewis Terman at Stanford University revised the Binet-Simon scale,

which resulted in the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (1916). It became the

most popular test in the United States for decades.

2.3 Theory

2.3.1 Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory

Raymond Cattell (1941) proposed two types of cognitive abilities

in a revision of Spearman's concept of general intelligence. Fluid

intelligence (Gf) was hypothesized as the ability to solve novel problems

by using reasoning, andcrystallized intelligence (Gc) was hypothesized as

a knowledge-based ability that was very dependent on education and

experience. In addition, fluid intelligence was hypothesized to decline

with age, while crystallized intelligence was largely resistant. The theory

was almost forgotten, but was revived by his student John L. Horn (1966)

who later argued Gf and Gc were only two among several factors, and he

eventually identified 9 or 10 broad abilities. The theory continued to be

called Gf-Gc theory.

More recently (1999), a merging of the Gf-Gc theory of Cattell and

Horn with Carroll's Three-Stratum theory has led to the Cattell–Horn–

Carroll theory. It has greatly influenced many of the current broad IQ

tests. It is argued that this reflects much of what is known about

intelligence from research. A hierarchy of factors is used; g is at the top.

Under it are 10 broad abilities that in turn are subdivided into 70 narrow

abilities. The broad abilities are:

Fluid intelligence (Gf) includes the broad ability to reason, form

concepts, and solve problems using unfamiliar information or

novel procedures.

Crystallized intelligence (Gc) includes the breadth and depth of a

person's acquired knowledge, the ability to communicate one's

knowledge, and the ability to reason using previously learned

experiences or procedures.

Quantitative reasoning (Gq) is the ability to comprehend

quantitative concepts and relationships and to manipulate

numerical symbols.

Reading and writing ability (Grw) includes basic reading and

writing skills.

Short-term memory (Gsm) is the ability to apprehend and hold

information in immediate awareness, and then use it within a few

seconds.

Long-term storage and retrieval (Glr) is the ability to store

information and fluently retrieve it later in the process of thinking.

Visual processing (Gv) is the ability to perceive, analyze,

synthesize, and think with visual patterns, including the ability to

store and recall visual representations.

Auditory processing (Ga) is the ability to analyze, synthesize, and

discriminate auditory stimuli, including the ability to process and

discriminate speech sounds that may be presented under distorted

conditions.

Processing speed (Gs) is the ability to perform automatic cognitive

tasks, particularly when measured under pressure to maintain

focused attention.

Decision/reaction time/speed (Gt)reflects the immediacy with

which an individual can react to stimuli or a task (typically

measured in seconds or fractions of seconds; it is not to be

confused with Gs, which typically is measured in intervals of 2–3

minutes). See Mental chronometry.

Modern tests do not necessarily measure of all of these broad

abilities. Modern comprehensive IQ tests no longer give a single score.

Although they still give an overall score, they now also give scores for

many of these more restricted abilities, identifying particular strengths and

weaknesses of an individual.

2.3.2 Spearman’s G Factor

Charles Spearman (1904) saw intelligence as two different

abilities. The abilities to reason and solve problems were labeled g factor

for general intelligence, whereas task-specific abilities in certain areas

such as music, business, or art are labeled s factor for specific intelligence.

2.3.3 Gardener’s Multiples Intelligence

Although many people use the terms reason, logic, and knowledge

as if they are different aspects of intelligence, along with several other

abilities. There are nine types of intelligence

Types Of Intelligence Description

Verbal/linguistic Ability to use language

Musical Ability to compose music

Logical Ability to think logically and to solve mathematical

problems

Visual Ability to understand how objects are oriented in space

Table 1: Gardener’s Nine Intelligence

3.0 CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT

An intelligence quotient, or IQ, is a score derived from one of several

standardized tests designed to assess intelligence. The abbreviation "IQ" comes from the

German term Intelligenz-Quotient, originally coined by psychologist William Stern.

When modern IQ tests are devised, the mean (average) score within an age group is set to

100 and the standard deviation (SD) almost always to 15, although this was not always so

historically. Thus, the intention is that approximately 95% of the population scores within

two SDs of the mean, i.e. has an IQ between 70 and 130.

IQ scores have been shown to be associated with such factors as morbidity and

mortality, parental social status, and, to a substantial degree, biological parental IQ.

While the heritability of IQ has been investigated for nearly a century, there is still debate

about the significance of heritability estimates and the mechanisms of inheritance.

Movement Ability to control one’s body motions

Interpersonal Sensitivity to others and understanding motivation of

others

Intrapersonal Understanding of one’s emotion and how they guide

actions

Naturalist Ability to recognise the patterns found in nature

Existentialist Ability to see ‘big picture’

IQ scores are used as predictors of educational achievement, special needs, job

performance and income. They are also used to study IQ distributions in populations and

the correlations between IQ and other variables. The average IQ scores for many

populations have been rising at an average rate of three points per decade since the early

20th century, a phenomenon called the Flynn effect. It is disputed whether these changes

in scores reflect real changes in intellectual abilities.

There are many different kinds of IQ tests use a wide variety of methods. Some

tests are visual, some are verbal, some tests only use abstract-reasoning problems, and

some tests concentrate on arithmetic, spatial imagery, reading, vocabulary, memory or

general knowledge. The psychologist Charles Spearman in 1904 made the first formal

factor analysis of correlations between the tests. He found a single common factor

explained the positive correlations among tests. This is an argument still accepted in

principle by many psychometricians.

Spearman named it g for "general factor" and labelled the smaller, specific factors

or abilities for specific areas s. In any collection of IQ tests, by definition the test that best

measures g is the one that has the highest correlations with all the others. Most of these g-

loaded tests typically involve some form of abstract reasoning. Therefore, Spearman and

others have regarded g as the (perhaps genetically determined) real essence of

intelligence. This is still a common but not universally accepted view. Other factor

analyses of the data, with different results, are possible. Some psychometricians regard g

as a statistical artifact. One of the best measures of g is Raven's Progressive Matrices

which is a test of visual reasoning.

IQ can change to some degree over the course of childhood. However, in one

longitudinal study, the mean IQ scores of tests at ages 17 and 18 were correlated at r =.86

with the mean scores of tests at ages five, six and seven and at r=.96 with the mean scores

of tests at ages 11, 12 and 13.

IQ scores for children are relative to children of a similar age. That is, a child of a

certain age does not do as well on the tests as an older child or an adult with the same IQ.

But, relative to persons of a similar age, or other adults in the case of adults, they do

equally well if the IQ scores are the same. To convert a child's IQ score into an adult

score the following calculation should be made: . The

number 16 is used to indicate the age at which supposedly the IQ reaches its peak.

For decades practitioners' handbooks and textbooks on IQ testing have reported

IQ declines with age after the beginning of adulthood. However, later researchers pointed

out this phenomenon is related to the Flynn effect and is in part a cohort effect rather than

a true aging effect.

A variety of studies of IQ and aging have been conducted since the norming of

the first Wechsler Intelligence Scale drew attention to IQ differences in different age

groups of adults. Current consensus is that fluid intelligence generally declines with age

after early adulthood, while crystallized intelligence remains intact. Both cohort effects

(the birth year of the test-takers) and practice effects (test-takers taking the same form of

IQ test more than once) must be controlled to gain accurate data. It is unclear whether

any lifestyle intervention can preserve fluid intelligence into older ages.

The exact peak age of fluid intelligence or crystallized intelligence remains

elusive. Cross-sectional studies usually show that especially fluid intelligence peaks at a

relatively young age (often in the early adulthood) while longitudinal data mostly show

that intelligence is stable until the mid-adulthood or later. Subsequently, intelligence

seems to decline slowly.

3.1 Modern tests

Well-known modern IQ tests include Raven's Progressive

Matrices, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for

Children, Stanford-Binet, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities,

and Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children.

Approximately 95% of the population have scores within two standard

deviations (SD) of the mean. If one SD is 15 points, as is common in almost all

modern tests, then 95% of the population are within a range of 70 to 130, and

98% are below 131. Alternatively, two-thirds of the population have IQ scores

within one SD of the mean, i.e. within the range 85-115.

IQ scales are ordinally scaled. While one standard deviation is 15 points,

and two SDs are 30 points, and so on, this does not imply that mental ability is

linearly related to IQ, such that IQ 50 means half the cognitive ability of IQ 100.

In particular, IQ points are not percentage points. The correlation between IQ test

results and achievement test results is about 0.7.

3.2 Reliability and validity

Psychometricians generally regard IQ tests as having high statistical

reliability. A high reliability implies that—although test-takers may have varying

scores when taking the same test on differing occasions, and they may have

varying scores when taking different IQ tests at the same age—the scores

generally agree with one another and across time. A test-taker's score on any one

IQ test is surrounded by an error band that shows, to a specified degree of

confidence, what the test-taker's true score is likely to be. For modern tests,

the standard error of measurement is about three points, or in other words, the

odds are about two out of three that a person's true IQ is in range from three

points above to three points below the test IQ. Another description is there is a

95% chance the true IQ is in range from four to five points above to four to five

points below the test IQ, depending on the test in question. Clinical psychologists

generally regard them as having sufficient statistical validity for many clinical

purposes.

3.3 Standardization of tests

Standardization refers to the process of giving the test to alarge group of

people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed. One

aspect of standardization is in the establishment of consistent and standard

methods of test administration. Each test taker completes the test under the same

conditions as all other participants in the sample group. This process allows

psychometricians to establish norms, or standards, by which individual scores can

be compared.

Intelligence test scores typically follow what is known as a normal

distribution, a bell-shaped curve in which the majority of scores lie near or around

the average score. For example, the majority of scores (about 68%) on the WAIS-

III tend to lie between plus 15 or minus 15 points from the average score of 100.

As you look further toward the extreme ends of the distribution, scores tend to

become less common. Very few individuals (approximately 0.2%) receive a score

of more than 145 (indicating a very high IQ) or less than 55 (indicating a very low

IQ) on the test.

Figure 1: The normal distribution of IQ test

3.5 Genetics and environment

Environmental and genetic factors play a role in determining IQ. Their

relative importance has been the subject of much research and debate.

Heritability

Shared family environment

Non-shared family environment and environment outside the

family

Individual genes

Gene-environment interaction

3.6 Interventions

In general, educational interventions, as those described below, have

shown short-term effects on IQ, but long-term follow-up is often missing. A

placebo controlled double-blind experiment found that vegetarians who took

5 grams of creatine per day for six weeks showed a significant improvement on

two separate tests of fluid intelligence, Raven's Progressive Matrices, and the

backward digit span test from the WAIS. The treatment group was able to repeat

longer sequences of numbers from memory and had higher overall IQ scores than

the control group. The researchers concluded that "supplementation with creatine

significantly increased intelligence compared with placebo." A subsequent study

found that creatine supplements improved cognitive ability in the elderly.

Recent studies have shown that training in using one's working

memory may increase IQ. Among other questions, it remains to be seen whether

the results extend to other kinds of fluid intelligence tests than the matrix test used

in the study, and if so, whether, after training, fluid intelligence measures retain

their correlation with educational and occupational achievement or if the value of

fluid intelligence for predicting performance on other tasks changes. It is also

unclear whether the training is durable of extended periods of time.

3.7 Music and IQ

Musical training in childhood has been found to correlate with higher than

average IQ. In a 2004 study indicated that 6 year-old children who received

musical training (voice or piano lessons) had an average increase in IQ of 7.0

points while children who received alternative training (i.e. drama) or no training

had an average increase in IQ of only 4.3 points (which may be consequence of

the children entering grade school) as indicated by full scale IQ. Children were

tested using Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Third Edition, Kaufman

Test of Educational Achievement and Parent Rating Scale of the Behavioral

Assessment System for Children.

Listening to classical music was reported to increase IQ; specifically

spatial ability.

3.8 IQ and brain anatomy

Several neurophysiological factors have been correlated with intelligence

in humans, including the ratio of brain weight to body weight and the size, shape

and activity level of different parts of the brain. Specific features that may affect

IQ include the size and shape of the frontal lobes, the amount of blood and

chemical activity in the frontal lobes, the total amount of gray matter in the brain,

the overall thickness of the cortex and the glucose metabolic rate.

3.9 Health and IQ

Health is important in understanding differences in IQ test scores and

other measures of cognitive ability. Several factors can lead to significant

cognitive impairment, particularly if they occur during pregnancy and childhood

when the brain is growing and the blood–brain barrier is less effective. Such

impairment may sometimes be permanent, sometimes be partially or wholly

compensated for by later growth.

Developed nations have implemented several health policies regarding

nutrients and toxins known to influence cognitive function. These include laws

requiring fortification of certain food products and laws establishing safe levels of

pollutants (e.g. lead, mercury, and organochlorides). Improvements in nutrition,

and in public policy in general, have been implicated in worldwide IQ increases.

Cognitive epidemiology is a field of research that examines the

associations between intelligence test scores and health. Researchers in the field

argue that intelligence measured at an early age is an important predictor of later

health and mortality differences.

3.10 Social outcomes

Intelligence is a better predictor of educational and work success than any

other single score.

Some measures of educational SAT aptitude are essentially IQ tests; For

instance Frey and Detterman (2004) reported a correlation of 0.82

between g (general intelligence factor) and SAT scores another has found

correlation of 0.81 between g and GCSE scores.

Correlations between IQ scores (general cognitive ability) and

achievement test scores are reported to be 0.81 by Deary and colleagues, with the

explained variance ranging "from 58.6% in Mathematics and 48% in English to

18.1% in Art and Design".

3.11 School performance

The American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns

and Unknowns" states that wherever it has been studied, children with high scores

on tests of intelligence tend to learn more of what is taught in school than their

lower-scoring peers. The correlation between IQ scores and grades is about .50.

This means that the explained variance is 25%. Achieving good grades depends

on many factors other than IQ, such as "persistence, interest in school, and

willingness to study".

It has been found IQ correlation with school performance depends on the

IQ measurement used. For undergraduate students, the Verbal IQ as measured by

WAIS-R has been found to correlate significantly (0.53) with the GPA of the last

60 hours. In contrast, Performance IQ correlation with the same GPA was only

0.22 in the same study.

3.12 Job performance

According to Schmidt and Hunter, "for hiring employees without previous

experience in the job the most valid predictor of future performance is general

mental ability." The validity of IQ as a predictor of job performance is above zero

for all work studied to date, but varies with the type of job and across different

studies, ranging from 0.2 to 0.6. The correlations were higher when the

unreliability of measurement methods was controlled for. While IQ is more

strongly correlated with reasoning and less so with motor function, IQ-test scores

predict performance ratings in all occupations. That said, for highly qualified

activities (research, management) low IQ scores are more likely to be a barrier to

adequate performance, whereas for minimally-skilled activities, athletic strength

(manual strength, speed, stamina, and coordination) are more likely to influence

performance. It is largely through the quicker acquisition of job-relevant

knowledge that higher IQ mediates job performance.

3.13 Group differences

Among the most controversial issues related to the study of intelligence is

the observation that intelligence measures such as IQ scores vary between ethnic

and racial groups and sexes. While there is little scholarly debate about the

existence of some of these differences, their causes remain highly controversial

both within academia and in the public sphere.

i. Sex

ii. Race

iii. Public policy

4.0 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS

4.1 Wechsler Intelligence scale for children

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), developed by David

Wechsler, is an individually administered intelligence test for children between the ages

of 6 and 16 inclusive that can be completed without reading or writing. The WISC takes

65–80 minutes to administer and generates an IQ score which represents a child’s general

cognitive ability.

4.2 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence

The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) is an

intelligence test designed for children ages 2 years 6 months to 7 years 3 months

developed by David Wechsler in 1967. It is a descendent of the earlier Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children tests. Since its

original publication the WPPSI has been revised twice in 1989 and 2002 followed by the

UK version in 2003. The current version, WPPSI–III, published by Harcourt Assessment,

is a revision of the WPPSI-R (Wechsler, 1989). It provides subtest and composite scores

that represent intellectual functioning in verbal and performance cognitive domains, as

well as providing a composite score that represents a child’s general intellectual ability.

4.3 Wechsler Memory Scale

The Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS) is a neuropsychological test designed to

measure different memory functions in a person. It can be used with people from age 16

through 90. The current version is the fourth edition (WMS-IV) which was published in

2009 and which was designed to be used with the WAIS-IV. WMS-IV is made up of

seven subtests: Spatial Addition, Symbol Span, Design Memory, General Cognitive

Screener, Logical Memory, Verbal Paired Associates, and Visual Reproduction. A

person's performance is reported as five Index Scores: Auditory Memory, Visual

Memory, Visual Working Memory, Immediate Memory, and Delayed Memory.

4.4 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is a test designed to measure

intelligence in adults and older adolescents.[1] It is currently in its fourth edition (WAIS-

IV). The original WAIS (Form I) was published in February 1955 by David Wechsler, as

a revision of the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale that had been released in 1939.

IQ Survey Test

Verbal

1. Rearrange the following letters to make a word and choose the category in which it fits.

RAPETEKA

A. city

B. fruit

C. bird

D. vegetable

Correct answer: bird (parakeet)

2. Which one of the sets of letters below can be arranged into a five letter English word?

A. a t r u n

B. p o d e b

C. t e c a r

D. m o h a t

E. e t l r n

Correct answer: t e c a r (cater)

3. Which is the missing letter?

E C O

B A B

G B N

F B ?

Correct answer: L

Explanation: Convert each letter to its numerical equivalent in the alphabet e.g. the letter

"C" is assigned the number "3". Afterwards, for each row, multiply the numerical

equivalents of the first two columns in order to calculate the letter in the third column.

Mathematical ability

1. Which number should come next in this series?

25, 24, 22, 19, 15

Correct answer: 10

Explanation: The pattern decreases progressively: -1, -2, -3, -4, -5

2. Which number should come next in this series?

10, 17, 26, 37, ?

A. 46

B. 52

C. 50

D. 56

Correct answer: C. 50

Explanation: Beginning with 3, each number in the series is a square of the succeeding

no. plus 1.

3^2 +1 = 10

4^2 +1 = 17

5^2 +1 = 26

6^2 +1 = 37

7^2 +1 = 50 (missing no.)

3. Which number should replace the question mark "?"

17 8 5 5

13 7 5 4

6 12 6 3

10 6 4 ?

A. 4

B. 5

C. 6

D. 7

Correct answer: A. 4

Explanation: For each row the sum of the first two columns is equal to the multiple of the

last two columns

Visualization

1. Pick the piece that's missing from the diagram below

A B C D

Correct answer: A

2. Choose the odd one out.

A B C D E

Correct answer: C

Explanation: In all of the above spirals there are 3½ turns except the figure in option C

which sports 4½ turns, counted from origin to the tail.

3. Which of the following figures is the odd one out?

A B C D E

Correct answer: D

Explanation: Positioning oneself on the spout of the above pitchers, one would notice that

the pattern of circles travels from left to right except in the pitcher shown

in Option D, where the pattern travels from right to left.

Classification

1. Which number does not belong?

4 32 144

17 28 122

18 64 188

322 14 202

Correct answer: 17

Explanation: 17 is the only odd number.

2. Pick out the odd diagram?

Correct answer:

Explanation: It is the only diagram that has pointed edges. Others have curved surfaces.

3. Which number does not belong to the family of numbers listed below?

10 8 16

4 38 444

19 28 222

18 66 180

322 14 306

Correct answer: 19

Explanation: 19 is the only odd number.

Logical reasoning

1. Which number should come next in the series

1, 3, 6, 10, 15,

A. 8

B. 11

C. 24

D. 21

E. 27

Correct answer: 21

2. At a conference, 12 members shook hands with each other before & after the meeting.

How many total number of handshakes occurred?

A. 100

B. 132

C. 145

D. 144

E. 121

Correct answer: 132

Explanation: The first person shook hands with 11 remaining people, the second person

also shook hands with 11 people, but we count 10, as the hand shake with the first person

has already been counted. Then add 9 for the third person, 8 for the fourth one &

proceeding in this fashion we get: 11 + 10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 66.

Hence 66 handshakes took place before & 66 after the meeting, for a total of 132.

3. Forest is to tree as tree is to?

A. plant

B. leaf

C. branch

D. mangrove

Correct answer: B. leaf

Explanation: As forest houses several trees, a tree has many leaves. Branches are a close

choice but it is incorrect as all tress do not have branches.

Pattern recognition

1. Find the picture that follows logically from the diagrams to the right.

Correct answer: C

2. Which of the figures can be used to continue the series given below?

A B C D

Correct answer: C

Explanation: The base figure rotates at an angle of 450 in the anti-clockwise direction.

Hence choice C is the perfect match.

3. Which of the figures can be used to continue the series given below?

A B C D E

Correct answer: D

Explanation: In the given series, a figure is followed by the combination of itself and its

vertical inversion. Thus D. is the right choice.

Spatial reasoning

1. Which of the figures will you consider fit to continue the series below?

A B C

Correct answer: A

2. Which diagram results from folding the diagram on the left?

Correct answer: A

3. If you begin to fold along the dotted line, which of the following figures would follow the

figure given below?

A. B. C. D.

Correct answer: C

Explanation: It is deducible by imagining, folding the given figure along the dotted line.

5.0 Results and Analysis

From the survey, we find that majority of the students involved could do logical

reasoning, spatial reasoning, classification, visualization and mathematical ability

questions with ease. They score more in these areas compared to verbal and pattern

recognition questions. The number of students involved in this experiment is 40.

Number of question correct

Types of

questions

3/3

2/3

1/3

0/3

Total

number of

students

Logical reasoning 17 14 8 1

40

Spatial reasoning 20 16 4 0

Classification 16 9 12 3

Visualization 24 10 4 2

Mathematical ability 11 21 7 1

Verbal 9 11 5 15

Pattern recognition 5 9 12 14

Total number of questions in each paper 21

17

(43%)

14

(35%)

8

(20%)

1

(2%)Analysis base on the logical

reasoning questions

1

2/3

1/3

0/3

20

(50%)

40%

4

(10%)

Analysis base on the spatial

reasoning questions

1

2/3

1/3

0/ 3

16

(40%)

9 (22%)

12

(30%)

3 (8%)

Analysis base on the classification

questions

1 2/3 1/30/3 24

(60%)

10

(25%)

4 (10%)2 (5%)

Analysis base on the visualization

questions

1

2/3

1/3

0/3

From this chart, we can see that 43% of the

students answer all the questions correctly

while 35% of the students answer two out

of three questions correctly. 20% of them

got one out of three corrects, while only

2% or five students fail to obtain any

scores for this section.

The pie chart shows that half of the

respondents scored full marks for this

section. 40% of the respondents scored two

out of three while 10% scored one out of

three.

Based on the figure above, 40% of students

scored full marks while 22% scored two

out of three. However, out of the remaining

38%, 30% students scored one out of three

and eight percent of the students scored

null.

The chart shows that 60% of the students

scored three out of three, 25% of the students

scored two out of three for this section. Next,

four students or 10% of the students scored

one out of three. At last, 5% of the students

did not obtain any marks.

11

(27.50%)

21 (53%)

7 (18%)

1 (2.50%)

Analysis base on the

mathematical ability questions

1

2/3

1/3

0/3

9 (22%)

11

(28%)

5 (12%)

15

(38%)

Analysis base on the verbal

questions

1

2/3

1/3

0/3

Among the students involved in this survey,

27.5% manage to get all correct, while 53%

get two out of three correct. Furthermore,

seven out of forty students or 18% of the

students scored one out of three correct. 2.5%

of the students scored no points.

According to the chart above, fifteen students or

38% of the students scored nothing. However,

there is 12% of the students scored one out of

three while 28% of the students scored two out of

three correct. Lastly, 22% of the students scored

full marks.

12%

23%

30%

35%

Analysis base on the pattern

recognition questions

1

2/3

5 students or 12% of the students scored full

marks on this section while 9 students or 23%

of the students scored two out of three

questions correct. Next, 30% of the students

scored one out three questions correct and

35% of the students scored nothing.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Intelligence testing is used to assess the all-around effectiveness of an individual's

mental processes, especially understanding, reasoning, and the ability to recall information. Tests

exist that are appropriate for both children and adults. The use of standardized tests to produce a

numerical value for these abilities is a very popular tool among educators. Correctly

administered, some intelligence tests can also detect learning impairments. The Wechsler

Intelligence Scales are the most widely used standardized intelligence tests. Other tests are

available that attempt to quantify areas such as creativity, personality, and ability or aptitude to

perform specific tasks.

Learning disability can be detected by conducting intelligent test and this can help to

know what kind of approach can be used to teach the students. For an example, a teacher can

spend more time on students with learning disabilities and use the correct way to explain matters

to them. At the same time, teachers can modulate the teaching style when teaching students with

normal intelligent quotients (IQ). This will help the weaker student to gain confidence and at the

same time, benefit them. Another conclusion that can be drawn from the report is, that IQ level

of a person actually gives a big effect in that person’s live. This is because it affects school

performance, job performance and etc. The IQ of a person is also not inherited but if introduced

to a suitable environment, IQ of that person may improve.

From the survey conducted, the conclusions that can be drawn are that most students

could answer the logical reasoning, spatial reasoning, classification, visualization and

mathematical ability questions. But the students find did hard to score in verbal and pattern

recognition section.

As for IQ testing, our tests all seem to be accurate, but that’s just our testing.

Bibiography

The Psychological Corporation. (2001). Wechsler Individual Achievement Test – Second edition.

San Antonio, TX: Author.

Cohen, M. J. (1997). Children’s Memory Scale. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological

Corporation.

Harrison, P. L., & Oakland, T. (2003). Adaptive Behavior Assessment System – Second Edition.

San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

Wechsler, D. (1989). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – Revised. San

Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

Wechsler, D. (1967). Manual for the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. San

Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

Carroll, J.B. (1997). The three-stratum theory of cognitive abilities. In D.P. Flanagan, J.L.

Genshaft, & P.L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and

issues (pp. 122–130). New York : The Guilford Press.

Gregory, R.J. (2007). Testing special populations: Infant and preschool assessment.

Psychological Testing. Pearson Education, Inc.

Reference

Appendix I

Binet's intelligence scale

Binet's intelligence scale was divided into categories based on IQ score.

Binet Scale of Human Intelligence

IQ Score Original Name Modern Term

Over 145 Genius

130 - 144 Superior

120 - 129 Bright or Smart

110 - 119 High Average

90-109 Average or Normal

80 - 89 Low Average

70 - 79 Borderline Impaired Delayed

55 - 69 Mildly Impaired

40 - 54 Moderately Impaired Severe

Below 20 Mental Retardation Profound