IUS Valachium

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BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA XXII/1

IUS VALACHICUM I

Pozań – Bcharest 2015

ZAKON VLAHOM ( IUS VALACHICUM

) IN THE CHARTERS

ISSUED TO SERBIAN MEDIEVAL MONASTERIES

AND KANUNS REGARDING VLACHS

IN THE EARLY OTTOMAN TAX REGISTERS ( DEFTERS)1

Miloš luković

АBSTRACT: The trashmat type of livestock breedig (mostly sheep, sometimes goats) i the Balkas hasOld Balka roots. It was most freqet i the Balkas i the Middle Ages. This type of livestock breedig was

prsed by the locals – Vlachs (eve before the arrival of the Slavs), as their oly professioal activity. Over

time, it became very poplar, beig also adopted by the poplatio of Slavic origi. I the Serbia medieval state,as well as i other Balka Christia states, there were o reglatios that wold iformly reglate the positioof the Vlachs. Reglatios regardig the positio of the Vlachs ca sally be fod i the fodatio or doa-tio charters of the moasteries. I the few charters from the rst half of 14th cetry rles regardig the Vlachswere groped der the commo ame Zakon Vlahom. Apart from this, commo law applied to them as well. Icoqerig the Christia lads i the Balkas i the 14th ad 15th cetries, the Ottoma state iitially held cer -tai lads ad regios i a vassal stats, ad the sajaks were formed followig their deite sbjgatio ad theliqidatio of the vassal stats, withi the sbjgated lads or regios. After the formatio of a particlar saјak atax list was immediately established, ad that is how Ottoma Tax Registers (defter s) were created. I each defterof the particlar saјak i the early Ottoma period (secod half of the 15 th ad the begiig of the 16th cet-ry) there existed a reglatio kow as kanun, reglatig the dties of the Vlachs. They cotaied rles ad legaltraditios of commo law, that had existed earlier i the territories of the sbjgated Balka Christia states.

Milo Lkovi, PhD, seior research, Istitte for Balka Stdies of Serbia Academy of Scieces ad Arts,Kez Mihailova 35/4, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: [email protected]

Кeywords: trashmace, katun, Middle Ages, Vlachs, Zakon Vlahom, medieval charters to moasteries,defter s.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/bp.2015.22.3

1. InTRODuCTIOn

The medieval Serbia state (12th –15th cetries) was created i the west of theBalkas ad gradally expaded towards the east ad sotheast – towards Thessaloikiad Costatiople.

From the secod half of the 12th cetry til the secod half of the 14th cetry,the Serbia state was rled by the nemaji dyasty. The law admiistered i it was

1 This paper was writte as part of the realizatio of project no. 177022, The Traditional Cultureof the Serbs Between the East and West (2011–2015), which is aced by the Miistry of Edcatio,Sciece ad Techological Developmet of the Repblic of Serbia.


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30 MILOš LuKOVIć

i particlar fedal law, which was typical of the Middle Ages.2 I 1217 the rler ofSerbia bore the title of kig, ad i 1346 kig Stefa Da was crowed “emperor of

the Serbs ad Romas (Greeks)”.However, shortly after the death of emperor Da i 1355, his large realm bega

to disitegrate ito several fedal parts which were icreasigly idepedet of hisso ad heir, emperor uro the Fifth (poplarly kow as uro the Weak). With thedeath of uro the Fifth i 1371 the empire ceased to exist eve omially. The ide-

pedet areas rled by the fedal lords who bore differet titles cotied to exist, bti the early 1370’s a ew power emerged i that part of the Balkas: the Ottomas. I

2 As poited ot by medievalist Srđa šarki, see šarki 1995, 7.

1. Serbia 12th –15th cetry (šehi ad šehi 2007)


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31 ZAKON VLAHOM ( IUS VALACHICUM )

the followig hdred ad thirty years the Ottoma Empire gradally sbjgated allof what had bee the medieval Serbia state.3

As medieval Serbia expaded, Vlachs as livestock breeders became icreasig-ly freqetly metioed i writte sorces. As early as 1921, the Romaia historiaSilvi Dragomir compiled 39 medieval Serbia docmets where the Vlachs gre,more or less promietly, as livestock breeders.4 What may be idetied i these doc-mets as a sigicat featre of the Vlach livestock breedig activity? It is, aboveall, a distictive type of livestock breedig ad the orgaizatio the Vlachs based oit. I other words, there are two otios that shold be elcidated here: transhumance ad katun. Withot them, the legal aspects of the stats of Vlachs as livestock breed-ers ca hardly be derstood.

2. TRAnSHuMAnCE AnD KATUN IN THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE BALKANS

I order to clarify ad dee the cocept of katun, which occrs i medievalsorces, we mst briey refer to a special type of livestock breedig i the Balkas. Itwas the most freqet i the Balkas i the Middle Ages, de to the geographic char -acteristics of the Balka Peisla.5

This type of livestock breedig was prsed by the local poplatio – Vlachs(eve before the arrival of the Slavs) as their oly occpatio.6 Over time, it became

very poplar, beig also adopted by other poplatios of Slavic origi. It still exists to-day, althogh i a redced ad modied form.7 The basic characteristic of this type of

3 For a overview of this gradal sbjgatio of Serbia medieval states, see esp. ćirkovi 1995,245–258.

4 For frther details see Dragomir 1921/1921, 279 –299. This paper was reviewed ad ths presetedto a Ygoslavia adiece by the Croatia ad Ygoslav romaist ad etymologist Petar Skok, see Skok1928, 305–308.

5 The bodaries ad territories of the Balka Peisla were deed by geographer ad athropol-ogist Jova Cviji (1865–1927). The Peisla beig srroded by water o three sides: the Adriatic Seato the west, the Mediterraea Sea ad the Marmara Sea to the soth ad the Black Sea to the east, Cviji

deed its orther bodary – the River Dabe ad the River Sava – with more precisio. However,he disagreed with what was at the time a widely accepted opiio that the orth-wester bodary of thePeisla shold be traced “alog the valley of the River Kpa, ad the i a straight lie accross theDiarides p to Rijeka o the Adriatic coast“ becase he cosidered it to be “articial“. Istead, Cviji cla-imed that “it wold be more atral if the orther border of the Peisla were to be exteded from thecoece of the River Kpa pstream alog the valley of the Sava ad the Ljbljaa basi, all the wayp to the coectig poit of the Diarides with the Alps“, so that “its wester frotier is clearly determi-ed by the River Soča“. For more details see Cviji 1966, 6, 37–87.

6 Apart from Vlachs (Vlah / Vlasi), medieval Serbia sorces sometimes metio Albaias ( Ar-banasin / Arbanasi) as livestock breeders. For more details see šarki 1995, 40–41.

7 For a more detailed discssio o the seasoal movemet of livestock breeders, see: Cviji 1966,215–221, Marc 1976, 67–70, Dăre 1976, 189–212, Matkovski 1996, 7–16, Brodel 2001, 83–100,Lkovi 2012, 150 –156, 173–178.


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32 MILOš LuKOVIć

livestock breedig is the seasoal movemet of shepherds with their livestock (mailysheep, sometimes goats) betwee smmer pastres i motais ( planine/letišta) adwiter pastres i warm coastal lowlads ad valleys ( zimišta/zimovišta).

Balka historias, geographers ad ethologists sed to dee this seasoalmovemet of livestock breeders i the Balkas as nomadism. However, the mod-er Romaia legal historia Livi Marc, for example, clearly poits to the differ -ece betwee tre omadism ad the seasoal movemet of livestock breeders i theBalkas.8 He emphasizes the fact that the Balka livestock breeders, drig their sea-soal movemets, had established smmer ad witer resideces, ad travelled be-twee them sig well-trodde rotes. This still applies today, althogh the seaso-

8 Livi Marc discssed this isse extesively at the iteratioal coferece o cotemporary legi-slatio policies ad cstomary law pertaiig to the seasoal movemets of livestock breeders i soth-easter Erope, i Belgrade, 1975. See Marc 1976, 67–81.

2. The Balka Peisla (Cviji 1966)


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al movemets have bee drastically redced ad trasformed. O the other had, themovemets of real omads ad their livestock (for example, i the steppes of CetralAsia) do ot have a already established destiatio or a specic directio. This iswhy Marc ses the term transhumance, ad rejects the term nomadism as beig i-adeqate for the seasoal movemet of livestock breeders i the Balkas. His arg-mets have bee accepted by Serbia historias ad ethologists, sch as BohmilHrabak, nikola Pavkovi, Sloboda namovi etc.9 Ackowledgig the argmetscited, I opt for the terms transhumance / transhumant movement of livestock breed-ers / transhumant type of livestock breeding to label varios types of seasoal move-met of livestock breeders i the Balkas, which have lasted for cetries, ad stillexist i a redced form.

The trashmat type of livestock breedig always reqires adeqate orgaiza-tio, with the clearly deed roles of all participats. The forms of orgaizatio havechaged over the cetries.10 I a medieval social system, oly a stable orgaizatiocold esre a effective realizatio of the regime of seasoal movemet of livestock

breeders ad fllmet of all obligatios they had towards their fedal lords. Medievalhistorical sorces idicate that the katun costitted sch a orgaizatio of trash-mat livestock breeders. However, the medieval katun has log bee a blrry co-cept for researchers (athropologists, historias ad others), ad was cofsed with

9 Medievalist Bogmil Hrabak (1927–2010) had o varios occasios advocated the se of the term

transhumance istead of the traditioal ad “icorrect“ oe nomadism, emphasisig the existece of ml-tiple types of trashmace; for a more detailed discssio, see Hrabak 2003, 37–43. Ethologist nikolaPavkovi ad his yoger colleage Sloboda namovi cosider the history of the trashmat aimalhsbadry to be isfcielty stdied, which leads to the poor derstadig of the origis of certai i -stittios of the “cla orgaizatio“. For a more detailed discssio see Pavkovi 2014, 145–146.

10 Livi Marc has discssed varios traditioal forms of livestock breedig i the Balkas i the se-cod half of the 19th cetry, ad coclded that “cetries of performig oe activity – i this case, ai-mal hsbadry – depedat o historic circmstaces, evetally led to a special form of legal ad socialorgaizatio: from a cla – i cases of costat exteded trashmace – to a sedetery society, orgai-zed o a territorial basis – i the case of sheep farmig i the motais. The social ad ecoomic aspectsof life were highly marked by the corporative orgaizatio. The role of the head of the commity wasstrictly deed i varios forms of trashmace, ad the family exhibited patriarchal properties, to a gre-ater or a lesser extet“. See Marc 1976, 81–86.

Map 3. Trashmace rotes (athor Milo Lkovi).


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34 MILOš LuKOVIć

4. Trashmace i the cetral areas of the Balkas (Zdraveva ad Todorovski 1997)

5. Trashmace i the wester areas of the Balkas (Markovi 1971)


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the moder meaig of the term. Today, the word katun i the Serbia ad Blgarialagages has the meaig of “a place i the motais where livestock (mostlysheep) is grazed ad milked i the smmer”; i Romaia, cătun meas “a smallgrop of homesteads, smaller tha a village”; i Albaia, katund meas a “village”;i Moder Greek, κατοΰνα (katuna) meas “a tet, a camp”; i the Romai lagage,katuna meas “a tet”.11

After mch waderig i the 19th cetry ad the rst half of the 20th, research-ers came to derstad, i the secod half of the 20th cetry, mostly thaks to me-dievalists ad Ottomaists,12 that the medieval katun was the corporate organizationof social ad ecoomic life of trashmat livestock breeders. It was the basic itof livestock breeders’ commity, made p of several doze hoseholds (kletištes)which were tied by kiship, sometimes with relatives i the female lie (ephews,i-laws).13 After a certai period, it cold divide ad develop ito ew orgaizatios

of the same type (this is referred to as division of the katun).14 A katun was led by aelder (elected by their self-goverig athority), ad each katun had bee called afterits elder (for example: the “katun of Vkac Radičevi”) before the trashmat pop-latio became sedetary.15 I the wester areas of the Balkas, the leader of the ka-tun was most ofte called katunar . uder the iece of Byzatie fedalism i theSerbia medieval state, i the areas that were closer to the Byzatie Empire, drig

11 O cotemporary meaig of the term katun ad its etymology, see: Bari 1957, 230–231, Skok1972, 64–65, Ajeti 1973, 203–215, Loma 2012, 102–103.

12 For a exhastive overview of Serbia medieval stdies, see ćirkovi ad Mihaljči, eds. 1999.For a overview of the developmet of Ottoma stdies i Ygoslav ad post-Ygoslav periods, seeSmaji 2010.

13 For more recet ad more reed stdies of the medieval katun see Sympozim o the Medievalkatun (Simpozijum o srednjovjekovnom katunu) held i Sarajevo i 1961, with the idea that “katun, admedieval Vlachs i geeral, is a qestio of the tmost importace for Balka stdies. The soltio to a se-ries of other problems relies solely o the soltio of this particlar problem“. Medievalists, orietalistsad ethologists shed light o the major aspects of the katun i the Middle Ages: its geographical charac-teristics, its strctre ad orgaizatio, its stats i the sorces from Dbrovik, etc. The papers ad pro-ceedigs from this Sympozim are still cosidered to be the classical literatre o the medieval katun.Ethologist Mileko Filipovi (1902–1969) stated i his paper that katun i the Middle Ages referred to“a grop of several families or hoseholds gathered arod oe elder, der whose athority they fllled

their dties to the fedal lords ad performed varios activities pertaiig to the livestock breeders’ eco-omy“. He emphasized that “ today’s katuns are ot the same as the medieval katuns“. Based o the char -ters issed to the Serbia medieval moasteries drig the nemaji era, Filipovi cocldes that a katun had betwee 5 ad 80 hoseholds, ad that it was ot a commity based exclsively o kiship, sice iticlded both patrilateral ad matrilateral ki. See Filipovi 1963, 47–81.

14 O the basis of medieval ad Ottoma sorces, the medievalist Bogmil Hrabak aalyzed katunsad their elders o the territory of Herzegovia i the period from the 13th to the 15th cetry. For frtherdetails, ad especially o the divisio of a katun, see Hrabak 1997, 144–156.

15 At the Sympozim o the Medieval katun i Sarajevo i 1961, medievalist Desaka Kovačevi preseted a extesive amot of data excerpted from the archives of Dbrovik o the medieval katun ad the Vlachs. She afforded special attetio to the way the katuns were referred to i these docmets:i the begiig they were desigated by the ames of their elders, ad later by the territory they had set-tled i, withot the elder’s ame, e.g.: “Vlachi i Biella i Drobgaci“. See Kovačevi 1963, 128–132.


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the 14th cetry, there was a tedecy for the kig or the lord to appoit katunar s, whowere called primićur s (Greek πριμιϰήριος , Lati primicerius


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poplatio (of Slavic ad other origi), who, i time, also accepted the trashmat

type of livestock breedig, which became their mai occpatio. I fact, i this waythe geeral process of mtal cltral, ethic ad ligistic permeatio betwee theorigial livestock breeders ad farmers folded gradally, which was also reectedi their spirital cltre.17

Trashmat livestock breedig i the Balkas i the Middle Ages greatly de-veloped at a time whe state borders were permeable, bt also later, drig the ex-

pasio of the Ottoma Empire, ad came to a stadstill i the period whe the bor -ders became stricter.18 The medieval Vlachs, as livestock breeders, were also horse

17 This complex ad log process was described by may researchers o the medieval Vlachs.Cf. Filipovi 1963, 50–58, Đrđev 1963, 153 –161, Lkovi 2012, 162–167, Lkovi 2013a, 412–413,Lkovi 2013b, 27–28.

18 This fact was repeatedly poited ot by the ethologist ad historia Aleksadar Matkovski(1922–1992), who stdied “omadic ad semi-omadic aimal hsbadry i Macedoia from the 14th tothe 19th cetries.“ See Matkovski 1996, 7–12. I also wat to emphasize the fact that the spa ad ite-sity of seasoal movemets of the livestock breeders i the Balkas was depedat ot oly o atralcoditios bt also o crret social ad political circmstaces, sch as the chages of state borders dr -ig the Middle Ages ad the period of Ottoma rle. I afforded special attetio to the sitatio after theBalka wars 1912–1913 ad the establishmet of ew borders i the Balkas, which led to a drastic haltof the seasoal movemets (e.g. from the motais alog the border betwee Macedoia ad Albaia to-wards the Aegea coast), or, at least, to their redctio to rotes which remaied withi the ewly devel-oped state borders. See Lkovi 2013, 46–54).

6. Katun orgaizatio (Lkovi 2013b)


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breeders. They sed horses for their activities, bt also for the log-distace caravatrasport of goods (primarily salt), ths flllig their obligatios towards their fe-dal lords.

3. ZAKON VLAHOM IN THE CHARTERS ISSUEDTO SERBIAN MEDIEVAL MONASTERIES

Althogh trashmace ad katun are ofte referred to i medieval Balka sorc-es, there were o reglatios i medieval Balka states (icldig Serbia) whichwold reglate the stats of Vlachs as livestock breeders i a iform maer. I themedieval Serbia state, reglatios relatig to Vlachs sally occr i the doatiocharters by which the rler gave a grat of lad to a moastery or, occasioally, i pro-visios of the agreemets coclded betwee the Serbia state ad the Repblic ofRagsa (Dbrovik), which was a sigicat tradig power i the Balka Peisla.19 It shold be emphasized, as a geeral remark, that amog the srvivig docmets,royal charters (a total of 165) costitte the most meros ad the most importat le-gal sorce for the history of medieval Serbia.20

Bt, whe issig charters to moasteries, the Serbia rlers had o itetio toreglate the rights ad obligatios of the depedet poplatio o, what we wold calltoday, a atioal scale, icldig the Vlachs as livestock breeders. I fact, there wereo prereqisites for sch a thig: there was either a ied scal system or a cetral

lad register. The moastic charters specify the obligatios of the depedet persoso the moastic lad, icldig the Vlachs as livestock breeders, i the form of brieforms (rles) called zakon (which may be traslated as “lex” or “law”). Althogh theorms relatig to the Vlachs were spposed to meet the particlar eeds of a partic-lar moastery or a chrch, their cotet is basically the same i may charters, adtheir prototypes were the charters of the moastery of Stdeica (late 12th cetry)

19 I his semial work from 1879 Die Wlachen und Maurowlachen in den Denkmälern von Ragusa(Vlachs ad Marovlachs i Ragsa docmets) yog Kostati Jireček (1854–1918) showed that theDbrovik archives were a ivalable, yet at the time still explored, sorce for the stdy of medieval

Vlachs. I preparig his article he also drew o historic sorces that had previosly bee pblished by fa-mos researches at the time, sch as Pavel šafařík, Alexadr Hâjde, Đra Daiči, Fraz Miklosich,Medo Pci, Iva Črči, Frajo Rački, šime Ljbi, Vatroslav Jagi ad others. Jireček’s work was gro-dbreakig i may ways. Althogh the Ragsa sorces referred oly to the Vlachs i the Ragsa hi-terlad (“i the Adriatic area“), Jireček delimitatio of the most importat areas of research was applicableto the stdy of medieval Vlachs i geeral. These areas are: 1) regioal habitats ad types of Vlach settle-mets; 2) “omadic“ way of life of the Vlachs; 3) Vlachs as carava traders; 4) Marovlachs i Ragsaad Veitia docmets; 5) Vlachs of the trasdabia Valachia. Moreover, the very cotets ad orgai-zatio of his paper hited at the sbseqet areas of iterest for ftre researchers of the medieval Vlachs:oe wold focs o the trashmat lifestyle of the Vlachs, aother o their role as carava traders; oewold be cetered o their social stats ad their role i a broader political cotext, aother o the processof their assimilatio, etc. For the Serbia traslatio of this paper, see Jireček 1959, 191–204.

20 As poited ot by the medievalist neboja šarki, see šarki 1995, 9.


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ad Mileeva (mid-13th cetry). Moreover, i three moastic charters datig fromthe rst half of the 14th cetry the orms relatig to the Vlachs are groped deroe headig: Zakon Vlahom (“The Law o Vlachs”).21 These three charters were is-sed to the moasteries of:

1) Bajska: the Bajska or St Stephe Charter issed by kig Milti i1313–16;

2) Hiladar: kig Da doatig to the moastery of Hiladar the chrch of St nicholas ear Vraje with the whole estate i 1343–45;

3) Prizre: Holy Archagels’ Charter issed by Emperor Da i 1348–53.22

From varios moastery charters it is evidet that the majority of the Vlachs hadidetical obligatios ad that oly some of these obligatios were specic to certaimoasteries. They depeded, amog other thigs, o the category ad acial stats

of the Vlachs, who were divided ito two basic categories: soldiers ad chelators. Theso-called chelators were more meros bt they were also a poorer social class tha the soldiers. The Vlachs belogig to the soldier category also had military dties:they served as cavalryme i their lord’s military campaigs. However, regardlessof these category differeces, both soldiers ad chelators garded the caravas tras-

portig salt ad other goods o behalf of the moasteries. The most importat des ofthe Vlachs were paid i kid i two ways: by givig big tenth (tithe) or small tenth,а tribte system developed der Byzatie iece. The big tenth meat giviga teth of all domestic aimals (also called living tenth) reared by a hosehold, plstwo sheep every sprig, as well as a special woolle cloth. By givig the big tenth,a hosehold was exempted from payig ay other des to the moarch. Vlachs, who

paid the small tenth, or the lesser tribte, were groped ito kаtuns, composed of ftyhoseholds, represetig scal its. Istead of givig a “livig tribte”, each hose-hold of sch a it gave a sheep ad a lamb, as well as a barre sheep; they were also

brdeed by varios chores like shepherdig dties (tedig the moastery’s ock ofsheep), wool processig, mafactrig wool prodcts, etc. The existece of the tethas a form of payig the basic tribte by the poplatio facilitated the itrodctio ofthe same tribte (ušur /öşur ) i the Ottoma Empire later o.23

However, i medieval Serbia (like i other Balka states), may isses cocer-

ig the herders’ life were prescribed by commo law, eve after the more detailed cod-icatio of the law had take place i the 14th cetry. Stefa Da’s realm icor - porated large portios of former Byzatie territories (“Greek lads”) i the Balkas,ad he, ow a emperor – idetied with the iversal Orthodox Christia empire –had every itetio to eact laws which wold be eforced i the whole of his empire,a empire which was heterogeeos i legal, cltral ad ethic terms. The reslt of

21 For orms i moastic charters cotaiig Zakon Vlahom, see esp.: Blagojevi 1979, 144–157,Blagojevi 2009, 21–33.

22 See map 1 for the locatio of these moastaries.23 O the relatio betwee desetak ad ušur , see Miljkovi ad Krsti 2009, 316.


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his state-bildig ambitios was a law code kow as Da’s Code (eacted i 1349ad spplemeted i 1353). However, this Codex cotais miimm reglatios re-gardig livestock breeders, so their life was mostly orgaized accordig to commolaw. So article 82 of this Codex briey reglates “shold Vlachs or Albaias residei a certai village, o others who wold come immediately after them wold be al-lowed to reside there; those who wold forceflly disregard this wold be ed ac-cordigly“. This reglatio of the Da’s Code eqivocally testies that the tra-shmat movemet of the Vlach ad Albaia livestock breeders existed i the largeSerbia Empire.24

Аll of the tax liabilities of the Vlachs were sigicatly smaller tha those ofSerbia peasats (called meropahs or sebar s) at the time. This is why Serbia peas-ats teded to become herders. This is evidet from some moastery charters (moas-teries of Bajska ad Visoki Dečai), which prohibited peasats from “marryig ito

Vlachs” (takig a Vlach spose), becase by becomig a Vlach, oe wold becomefree from the fedal system ad also from payig tribtes.25

4. KANUN S REGARDING VLACHS IN THE EARLY OTTOMAN TAXREGISTERS ( DEFTERS)

Whe the Ottomas had already forced their way ito the Balkas (from the late14th cetry), a ew kid of tax, the so-called “ Vlach dcat”, was itrodced, which

largely replaced the teth i the desely poplated Vlach areas. The appearace of thistype of tax was associated with the itrodctio of kharaj – a tribte that Christiastates or fedal lords, as Ottoma vassals, had to pay to the Ottoma Empire.26 Theaal tribte (which amoted to tes of thosads of dcats) was split amog the

poplatio of a vassal territory, so that each Vlach hosehold paid a tax of oe dcat.I a certai way, this stimlated the srvival of large herdig families.27

24 For a more detailed discssio, see šarki 1995, 39–42.25 For a more detailed discssio, see šarki 1995, 39–42.26 I 1890 Jireček’s fried ad cotemporary Stoja novakovi (1842–1915), Serbia legal histo -

ria, philologist ad statesma, pblished his book Selo, which was held i high esteem ad abdatlysed by Jireček i his Geschichte der Serben. I–II (Gotha 1911–1918), which has mltiple Serbia tra-slatios. For Jireček’s review of Selo see Jireček 1984, 271. novakovi discsses at legth the settlemetsad stats of a depedet poplatio i the “old“ (medieval) Serbia state, otably of farmers (meropahs)ad livestock breeders (Vlahs ad Arbanasins). I his opiio, Serbia athorities edeavored to restraithe “eteral movemet“ of livestock breeders ad bid them to the lad. He iterpreted oe article of thecharter issed to the moastery of Dečai accordigly: “A Serbia caot marry a Vlach; if he does, hiswife becomes a meropah“ as: “A farmer caot marry a daghter of a omad, ad if he does – he caotleave the lad ad follow his wife as a livestock breeder, bt his wife mst settle with him i the farmer’svillage“. Therefore, he claimed, the iterpretatio of this article i the view of ethic segregatio (“as if itwere abot Serbia or Romaia atioality“), as may researchers did, icldig Fraz Miklosich, doesot seem to be teable. For more details, see novakovi 1965, 40, 189.

27 For a more detailed discssio, see Hrabak 1997, 155–156.


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Sice the creatio of the Ottoma Empire, the basic military ad admiistrativeit was the sanjak or liva headed by the sanjak-bey. I coqerig the Christialads i the Balkas i the 14th ad 15th cetry, the Ottoma state iitially held cer -tai lads ad regios i a vassal stats, ad the sajaks were formed followig theirdeitive sbjgatio ad termiatio of the vassal stats. The smaller territorial itwithi the sajak was the nahiye. A nahiye sally coicided with the bodaries of

the previos Christia it – župa. Ths drig the 14th

ad 15th

cetries the fol-lowig sajaks were created: the so-called Pasha-sajak (which iclded large por -tios of the easter ad cetral Balkas, with its seat i Edire), ad the sajaks ofSoa, Maastır (Bitola), Köstedil (Kystedil), Vidi, Vıçıtırı (Včitr), Prizre,Alacahisar (Krevac), Smederevo, Dkagji, Bosia, Hersek (Herzegovia), Zvorikad İşkodra (Shkodër), ad later others followed. The sajaks formed part of largerterritorial its called eyalets or beylerbeyliks, headed by a beylerbey (the beylerbeycold also hold the Ottoma title of pasha, ad i that case the elayet was also calleda pashalik ). By the time of the Ottoma coqest of Hgary there was oly oeOttoma eyelet i the Balkas – the Rmelia Eyelet (til the begiig of the 15 th

7. The Pashalik of Bosia ad sajaks (šabaovi 1982)


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42 MILOš LuKOVIć

cetry its seat was i Edire, ad later i Soa), ad later the eyelets of Bdi (Bda),Temeşvar (Timişoara), Eger (Eğri), Bosia, Kaizsa (Kaije), Varat ad uyvar.28

I order to irreftably coqer a area, or termiate its vassal stats, the Ottomaswold tr it ito a sajak. They wold immediately categorize the poplatio i thesajak accordig to their icome, so they cold determie their tax obligatios i ac-cordace with the Sharia (Islamic law). This led to the creatio of the Ottomas taxregisters – defter s.29 Some of these defter s were cmlative (extesive tax records),ad some were idividal (also referred to as detailed books, sice they idividal -ly listed the ame of each taxpayer), meaig they differed i the level of detail. Thedefter s for the Eropea sajaks from the 15th ad 16th cetries are geerally kowad partly pblished. These early defter s iclde brief terms of a reglatory atre –kanun (kanûn). The reglatios relatig to the Vlachs are called kanûn-i eak . Later,defters ofte appeared as codied collectios (kanûn-name) of royal decrees (ka-

nuns), which is related to the evoltio of legislative practice i the Ottoma Empire.Historias have log asserted that these kanuns cotaied legal soltios ad practic-es applied to the Vlachs i the territories previosly coqered by the Ottomas.30 AllVlach tax obligatios were always coverted ito silver cois (akcha /akçe) accordigto a xed rate. If we compare idividal sajak defter s of the period, we ca see thatthe Vlach obligatios were very similar. The Vlachs fllled their obligatios i twoways: throgh hoseholds, ad throgh katuns, composed of p to 50 hoseholds.

Ths, accordig to the defter for the Sajak of Herzegovia for 1475–1477 (whereVlachs lived i great mbers), o Sait George’s Day every Vlach hosehold paid:oe dcat ( luri), oe sheep with a lamb (or 12 silver cois) ad oe ram (or 15 silvercois). Also, every katun (called jemat i defters – a Trkish ame for this social it)gave a total of 50 dcats, ad also collectively two rams (or 60 silver cois) ad oetet (cherga) made from goat ski (or 100 silver cois). Ad i times of war, every tehoseholds i a katun had to sed oe armed horsema (cavalryme) to take part ithe military campaig. Oly after they had met all these obligatios, were the Vlachsexempted from ay other des.31

The Vlachs from the eighborig sajaks (Sajaks of Bosia ad Zvorik, adeve from the geographically more remote Sajak of Smederevo) had similar obli-gatios to those of Herzegovia. The defter for the Sajak of Smederevo for 1476–

1477 registers a large mber of Vlachs hoseholds, ad may of these came from

28 As poited ot by the medievalist Ema Miljkovi-Bojai i her book o the sajak of Smederevofrom 1476 to 1560: Miljkovi-Bojai 2004, 230.

29 For a overview of Ottoma defter s for cetral ad wester areas of the Balkas pblished p to2008, see the book of Tatjaa Kati o the defter of the sajak of Prizre from 1571: Kati 2010, 5–8.The defter of the sajak of Herzegovia from 1585 was edited by Ahmed Aliči ad pblished i 2014,see Aliči 2014.

30 As poited ot by several Ottomaists: Begovi 1951/1952, 67–84, Ialdžik 1953, 23–55, Đrđevet alt, eds. 1957, 7–18, Miljkovi ad Krsti 2009, 301.

31 The defter of the sajak of Herzegovia 1475–1477 was edited by Ottomaist Ahmed Aliči. OVlach legal obligatios see esp. Aliči 1985, V, IX, 26.


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Herzegovia shortly before the defter was compiled. ulike Herzegovia, i the areaof Smederevo there are o high motais, so this sajak had o geographical codi-tios for trashmace; eve so, here too a katun was composed of fty hoseholds.32 Hoseholds paid their tribte at Christmas, while o Sait George’s Day they gaveа sheep with a lamb (or 20 silver cois). I Sajak of Smederevo, kat as a wholehad somewhat differet obligatios compared to that of Herzegovia. Here, everyve hoseholds had to sed oe armed horsema to war, a practice adopted from theformer fedal state (Serbian Despotate).

Kanuns from the Ottoma defters tell s that the Vlachs collectively adopted theOttoma system, retaiig their previos social orgaizatio ad self-govermet.33 It was actally the realizatio of Ottoma politics, with the itetio of stregthe-ig Ottoma fedalism ( sipahi/timar system) ad military presece.34 Bt i the rsthalf of the 16th cetry, whe the Trks crossed the River Sava ad River Dabe ad

coqered a greater part of Hgary, former sajaks (Smederevo, Vidi, Krevac,Zvorik, Bosia) lost their borderlad positio. Ths the stats that Vlachs previos-ly ejoyed (adet-i eakiyye) was abolished i these areas, bt was reitrodced i thesajaks of Vidi ad Bosia i 1550.35

32 Ottomaist Daka Bojai afforded special attetio to Ottoma kanuns for the areas ofSmederevo, Krevac ad Vidi i the 15th ad 16th cetries. See Bojai 1974, 13, 27–35. O Vlach le-gal obligatios i the sajak of Smederevo i the 15th ad 16th cetry, see Miljkovi-Bojai 2004, 239–

240. 33 At the sympozim o the Medieval katun i Sarajevo i 1961 Braislav Đrđev gave a detailedaccot of the process he called the territorialization of the katuns, emphasizig that it “took cetries“,ad that ”it was ot a iform process bt oe that was completed throgh a series of local processes“. He

poited ot that ”the essece of the process lies i the partial or total reorietatio of livestock breedersto farmig“. He hypothesized that those katuns which were der the jrisdictio of the Serbia medie-val moasteries wet throgh this process more qickly tha those who fell der the category of ”impe -rial Vlachs“ (which remai a bit mysterios, althogh we ca assme that they were ot as tightly bodto a particlar territory, i.e. that their seasoal rotes betwee smmer ad witer pastres were log-er). Đrđev reiterated his earlier claim that the ”material from the Trkish defter s from the secod half ofthe 15th ad the rst half of the 16 th cetries provided ew evidece ad explaatios for that process“.However, Đrđev poited ot that the mass Vlach coloizatio of lowlad regios (closer to the River

Sava ad River Dabe) der the cotrol of the Ottoma athorities i the late 15 th ad early 16th cet-ries broght abot a chage i the Vlach social atoomy. Sice these ew geographical regios provid-ed o coditios for the trashmat movemet of livestock breeders, the Vlachs tred to farmig ad

became sedatery. Ths the katuns became territorialized , that is, the Vlach self-goverace became tiedto a certai territory, which laid the fodatio for the establishmet of a ew form of territorial self-gov-erace – knežina. A similar process took place i the Diarides, where, sice there were coditios fortrashmace, it gave rise to aother form of territorial atoomy – pleme (cla). For more details seeĐrđev 1963, 142–169. Medievalist Mila Vasi elcidated the establishmet of knežinas i his stdy oVlachs i the sajak of Zvorik i the 16th cetry; see Vasi 1959, 247–278. For more details o the ori-gis of istittios of self-goverace i knežinas ad plemes, see: Lkovi 2013b, 20–29, Lkovi 2014,131 –138.

34 šabaovi 1964, 144.35 See: Matkovski 1996, 61–63, Miljkovi-Bojai 2004, 239–240, Miljkovi 2010, 66–67.


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